View source for Hebron

{{Short description|City in the West Bank, Palestine}}
{{Redirect|Al-Khalil|other uses|Al-Khalil (disambiguation)|and|Hebron (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{coord|31|31|43|N|35|05|49|E|region:PS|display=title}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Hebron
| translit_lang1     = Arabic
| translit_lang1_type = [[Arabic script|Arabic]]
| translit_lang1_info = {{lang|ar|الخليل}}
| translit_lang1_type1 = [[Latin script|Latin]]
| translit_lang1_info1 = {{transliteration|ar|Al-Khalīl}} (official)<br />{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Al-Ḫalīl}} (unofficial)
| translit_lang2     = Hebrew
| translit_lang2_type = [[Hebrew script|Hebrew]]
| translit_lang2_info = {{lang|he|חברון}}
| translit_lang2_type1 = Latin
| translit_lang2_info1 = {{transliteration|he|Ḥeḇrōn}} ([[ISO 259-3]])
| type               = [[Metropolis]]
| image_skyline      = {{photomontage
| size = 250
| photo1a = BTS Hebron Tour 280215 24.jpg
| photo2a = Hebron-(Abraham)-Mosche.JPG
| photo2b = Old City of Hebron.jpg
| photo3a = Tomb of Ruth and Jesse Hevron 02.jpg
| photo3b = جدارية عيون سارة في مدينة الخليل.jpg
| photo4a =  Hebron CBD night 8.jpg
}}
| imagesize          = 280
| image_caption      = View of Hebron with the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]], [[Palestine Polytechnic University]], [[Old City of Hebron]], [[Tomb of Jesse and Ruth]], [[Sheikh Ali al-Bakka Mosque]] and Downtown Hebron
| image_blank_emblem = Seal of Hebron.tif
| blank_emblem_type  = Municipal Seal of Hebron
| pushpin_map        = Palestine
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Hebron within [[Palestine]]
| image_map          = 
| map_caption        = 
| mapframe           = yes
| mapframe-zoom      = 12
| coordinates        = 
| grid_name          = [[Palestine grid|Palestine&nbsp;grid]]
| grid_position      = 159/103
| subdivision_type   = State
| subdivision_name   = [[State of Palestine]] (civil governance) [[Israel]] (H2 area military control)
| subdivision_type1  = [[Governorates of the Palestinian National Authority|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1  = [[Hebron Governorate|Hebron]]
| nickname           = City of the Patriarchs
| established_title  = Founded
| established_date   = 
| government_footnotes = <!-- for references: use <ref> tags -->
| government_type    = [[List of cities in Palestinian Authority areas|City / Municipality type A]] (from 1997)
| leader_title       = Head of Municipality
| leader_name        = [[Tayseer Abu Sneineh]]<ref name="ElectedMayor">{{cite news |title=Palestinian terrorist in killing of 6 Jews elected Hebron mayor |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/palestinian-terrorist-in-killing-of-6-jews-elected-hebron-mayor/ |access-date=May 17, 2017 |newspaper=The Times of Israel |date=May 14, 2017}}</ref>
| unit_pref          = dunam
| area_footnotes     = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vprofile.arij.org/hebron/pdfs/Hebron%20City%20profile.pdf|title=Hebron City Profile – ARIJ}}</ref>
| area_total_km2     = 74.102
| area_total_dunam   = 
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m        = 
| elevation_min_m    = 
| elevation_max_m    = 
| population_footnotes = <ref name="PrelimCensus2017">{{cite report |date=February 2018 |title=Preliminary Results of the Population, Housing and Establishments Census, 2017 |url=https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Downloads/book2364-1.pdf |department=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] (PCBS) |publisher=[[State of Palestine]] |pages=64–82 |access-date=October 24, 2023}}</ref>
| population_total   = 201063
| population_as_of   = 2017
| population_metro_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.menacatalyst.org/media-center/65.html | title=Women Led Enterprise: Strategies to Revive Hebron's Economy }}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hebron Urban Area: Joint Urban Planning and Development |url=https://molg.pna.ps/uploads/files/Hebron%20Urban%20Area%20Factsheet_sj_2cd2433c7a70461fb7ecf3c2ef2058a9.pdf}}</ref>
| population_note    = 
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_metro   = 700,000
| website            = [http://www.hebron-city.ps/ www.hebron-city.ps]
| module             = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
  |Official_name = [[Old City of Hebron|Hebron/Al-Khalil Old Town]]
  |child = yes
  |ID = 1565
  |Year = 2017
  |Danger = 2017–
  |Criteria = Cultural: ii, iv, vi
  |Area = 20.6 ha
  |Buffer_zone = 152.2 ha
  }}
}}
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'''Hebron''' ({{langx|ar|الخليل|al-Khalīl}}, {{pronunciation|ArHebron.ogg}}){{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|iː|b|r|ə|n|,_|ˈ|h|ɛ|b|r|ə|n|,_|ˈ|h|iː|b|r|ɒ|n|,_|ˈ|h|ɛ|b|r|ɒ|n}} {{respell|HEE|brən|,_|HEB|rən|,_|HEE|bron|,_|HEB|ron}}; also known as {{langx|ar|خَلِيل الرَّحْمَن|Khalīl al-Raḥmān|label=none}};<ref>''Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index'' by Josef W. Meri; p. 318; "Hebron(Khalil al-Rahman"</ref> {{langx|he|חֶבְרוֹן|Ḥeḇrōn}} ({{pronunciation|He-Hebron.ogg}}).}} is a city in the southern [[West Bank]], Palestine, and the capital of the [[Hebron Governorate]], which is the largest in the West Bank. It is located {{convert|30|km|sp=us}} south of [[Jerusalem]]. The population inside in the city limits is 201,063, while the adjacent metropolitan area within the governorate is home to over 700,000 people. Hebron spans across an area of {{Convert|74.1|km2|sqmi|sp=us}}. It is the [[List of cities in Palestine|third largest city in the country]] after [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and [[East Jerusalem]]. The city is often considered one of the [[Four Holy Cities]] in [[Judaism]], as well as in [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].

It is one of the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest continuously inhabited cities]] in the Levant. According to the [[Bible]], [[Abraham]] settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as burial place for his wife [[Sarah]]. Biblical tradition holds that the patriarchs Abraham, [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]], along with their wives Sarah, [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebecca]], and [[Leah]], were buried in the cave. The city is also recognized in the Bible as the place where [[David]] was anointed [[Kings of Israel and Judah|king of]] [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]]. Following the [[Babylonian captivity]], the [[Edom]]ites settled in Hebron. During the first century BCE, [[Herod the Great]] built the wall that still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs, which later became a [[Church (building)|church]], and then [[Ibrahimi Mosque|a mosque]]. With the exception of a [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|brief Crusader control]], successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 7th century CE until the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|dissolution]] following [[World War I]], when the city became part of [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandatory Palestine]].

The [[1929 Hebron massacre]] of nearly 70 Jews and the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Arab uprising of 1936–39]] led the British government to evacuate the Jewish community from Hebron. The [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]] saw the entire West Bank, including Hebron, [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|occupied and annexed]] by [[Jordan]], and since the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], the city has been under [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli control]]. Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was restored in the city. Since the 1997 [[Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron|Hebron Protocol]], most of Hebron has been governed by the [[Palestinian National Authority]]. The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] and the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank]]. The 1997 protocol divided the city into two sectors—H1 Hebron, governed by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2 Hebron, occupied by Israeli authorities. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian Authority and Israel via the [[Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories|COGAT]]. The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron.

The largest city in the southern West Bank, Hebron is a chief commercial and industrial center in the region. It is a busy hub of trade, generating roughly a third of the area's [[gross domestic product|GDP]], largely due to the sale of [[limestone]] from quarries in its area. Hebron has a local reputation for its grapes, figs, ceramics, plastics, [[Palestinian pottery|pottery]] workshops, metalworking and [[Hebron glass|glassblowing]] industry. The city is home to numerous shopping malls. The [[Old City of Hebron]] features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old [[bazaar]]s. It is recognized as a [[World Heritage Site]] by the [[UNESCO]]. Hebron is also known as a regional educational and medical hub.

==Etymology==
The name ''Hebron'' appears to trace back to two [[northwest Semitic languages]], which coalesce in the form ''[[wikt:ח־ב־ר|ḥbr]]'',{{efn|Y.L. Arbeitman, ''The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23'', (1981) pp. 889-1026, argues that an [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European root]] *''ar-'', with the same meaning as the semitic root ''ḥbr'', namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier name ''Kiryat-'''Ar'''ba''.{{sfn|Niesiolowski-Spano|2016|p=124}}}} having reflexes in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Amorite]], with a basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from 'colleague' to 'friend'. In the proper name ''Hebron'', the original sense may have been 'alliance'.<ref>{{harvnb|Cazelles|1981|p=195}} compares Amorite ''ḫibru[[Mimation|(m)]]''. Two roots are in play, ''ḥbr/ḫbr''. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.</ref>

Early Muslim sources refer to the city as ''Ḥabra'' ({{lang|ar|حبرة}}) or ''Ḥabrūn'' ({{lang|ar|حبرون}}).<ref name="GR" /> ''al-Khalīl'' emerged as the Arabic name for the city in the 13th century,<ref name="GR">{{Cite journal |last=Talmon-Heller |first=Daniella |date=2007 |title=Graves, Relics and Sanctuariese: The Evolution of Syrian Sacred Topography (Eleventh-Thirteenth Centuries) |url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=2020748 |journal=[[ARAM Periodical]] |volume=19 |pages=606}}</ref> derived from the [[Quran|Qur'anic]] epithet for [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], ''Khalīl al-Raḥmān'' ('Friend of [[names of God in Islam|the Merciful]] [ie. [[God in Islam|God]]]').<ref>Qur'an 4:125/Surah 4 Aya (verse) 125, ''[[Qur'an]]''</ref><ref>Khalidi, Walid. ''Before Their Diaspora : A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876-1948''. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1991, 61.</ref> Thus, the epithet is a [[calque]] the original Hebrew [[toponym]] ''Ḥeḇrōn'', understood as ''ḥaḇēr'' ('friend').<ref name="Sharon 2007 104">{{harvnb|Sharon|2007|p=104}}</ref>

== History ==
{{see also|Timeline of Hebron}}

===Bronze and Iron Age===
Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early [[Bronze Age]], covering some 24–30 [[dunam]]s centered around [[Tel Rumeida]]. The city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age.<ref>{{harvnb|Negev|Gibson|2001|pp=225–5<!--?range of pages-->}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Na'aman|2005|p=180}}</ref> This older Hebron was originally a [[Canaan]]ite royal city.<ref>{{harvnb|Towner|2001|pp=144–45}}: "[T]he city was a Canaanite royal center long before it became Israelite".</ref> [[Abraham|Abrahamic legend]] associates the city with the [[Biblical Hittites|Hittites]].{{Clarify|reason=The Hittite identity of Efron doesn't mean that the whole city is associated with the Hittites.|date=July 2023}} It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital of [[Šuwardata|Shuwardata]] of [[Gath (city)|Gath]], an [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] contemporary of Jerusalem's regent, [[Abdi-Heba|Abdi-Ḫeba]],<ref>{{harvnb|Albright|2000|p=110}}</ref> although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age.<ref>{{harvnb|Na'aman|2005|pp=77–78}}</ref>

===Ancient Israel===
[[File:Hebron136.JPG|thumb|Excavations at [[Tel Rumeida]]]]
The [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic traditions]] associated with Hebron are nomadic. This may also reflect a [[Kenite]] element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1903|p=200}}.</ref> and ''Heber'' is the name for a Kenite clan.<ref>{{harvnb|Kraeling|1925|p=179}}.</ref> In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centers under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of [[Anak]] (''b<sup>e</sup>nê/y<sup>e</sup>lîdê hāʿănaq'').<ref>{{harvnb|Na'aman|2005|p=361}} These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,</ref> or may reflect some Kenite and [[Kenizzite]] migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close to [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]. This suggests that behind the [[Anakim]] legend lies some early Hurrian population.<ref>{{cite book|author=Joseph Blenkinsopp|author-link=Joseph Blenkinsopp|title=Gibeon and Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxg9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA114|year=1972|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08368-3|page=18}}</ref> In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the [[Nephilim]].<ref>[[Joshua]] 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13. {{harvnb|Na'aman|2005|p=177}} doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".</ref> The [[Book of Genesis]] mentions that it was formerly called [[Kiryat Arba|Kiryath-arba]], or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters,<ref>{{harvnb|Mulder|2004|p=165}}</ref> four hills,<ref>{{harvnb|Alter|1996|p=108}}.</ref> or a confederated settlement of four families.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1995|p=126}}.</ref>

The story of Abraham's purchase of the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] from the [[Biblical Hittites|Hittites]] constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelstein|Silberman|2001|p=45}}.</ref> in that it signified the first "real estate" of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua.<ref>{{harvnb|Lied|2008|pp=154–62, 162}}</ref> In settling here, Abraham is described as making his first [[wiktionary:covenant|covenant]], an alliance with two local [[Amorite]] clans who became his ''ba'alei brit'' or ''masters of the covenant''.<ref>{{harvnb|Elazar|1998|p=128}}: ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]].ch. 23)</ref>

The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual center was located at [[Mamre|Elonei Mamre]].<ref>{{harvnb|Magen|2007|p=185}}.</ref> Hebrew Bible narrative also describes the city.

[[File:Samson Fenster aus Alpirsbach.jpg|thumb|[[Samson]] removes gates of Gaza (left) and brings them to Mount Hebron (right). Strassburg (1160–1170), [[Landesmuseum Württemberg|Württemberg State Museum]] in Stuttgart|220px]]
It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either [[Joshua]], who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants, "destroying everything that drew breath, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded",<ref>{{harvnb|Glick|1994|p=46}}, citing {{bibleverse|Joshua|10:36–42}} and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.</ref> or the [[Tribe of Judah]] as a whole, or specifically [[Caleb]] the Judahite.<ref>{{harvnb|Gottwald|1999|p=153}}: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (in {{bibleverse|Joshua|10:36–37}}, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; in {{bibleverse|Judges|1:10}} to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.</ref> The town itself, with some contiguous pasture land, is then said to have been granted to the [[Levites]] of the clan of [[Kohathites|Kohath]], while the fields of the city, as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb ({{bibleverse|Joshua 21:3–12; 1 Chronicles 6:54–56|multi=yes}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Bratcher|Newman|1983|p=262}}.</ref> who expels the three giants, [[Sheshai]], [[Ahiman]], and [[Talmai]], who ruled the city. Later, the biblical narrative has [[King David]] called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years ({{bibleverse|2 Samuel|2:1–3}}).<ref name="FritzDavies19962">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etRoNida3RgC|title=The Origins of the Ancient Israelite States|author=Schafer-Lichtenberger|date=September 1, 1996|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|others=Philip R. Davies|isbn=978-0-567-60296-1|editor=Volkmar Fritz|chapter=Sociological views}}</ref> It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|king of Israel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gottwald|1999|p=173}}, citing {{bibleverse|2 Samuel, 5:3|multi=yes}}.</ref> It was in Hebron again that [[Absalom]] has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David ({{bibleverse|2 Samuel|15:7–10}}). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional [[Cities of Refuge]].<ref>{{harvnb|Japhet|1993|p=148}}. See {{bibleverse|Joshua 20, 1–7|multi=yes}}.</ref>

As is shown by the discovery at [[Lachish]], the second most important city in the [[Kingdom of Judah]] after Jerusalem,<ref>{{harvnb|Hasson|2016}}</ref> of seals with the inscription [[LMLK seal|''lmlk Hebron'']] (to the king Hebron),<ref name="Sharon 2007 104"/> Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic center, given its strategic position on the crossroads between the [[Dead Sea]] to the east, Jerusalem to the north, the Negev and Egypt to the south, and the [[Shfela|Shepelah]] and the [[Israeli coastal plain|coastal plain]] to the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Jericke|2003|p=17}}</ref> Lying along [[Way of the Patriarchs|trading routes]], it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Jericke|2003|pp=26ff., 31}}.</ref>

After the destruction of the [[First Temple]], most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled, and according to the conventional view,<ref>{{harvnb|Carter|1999|pp=96–99}} Carter challenges this view on the grounds that it has no archeological support.</ref> some researchers found traces of [[Edom]]ite presence after the 5th–4th centuries BCE, as the area became [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid province]],<ref>{{harvnb|Lemaire|2006|p=419}}</ref> and, in the wake of [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest, Hebron was throughout the [[Hellenistic period]] under the influence of Idumea (as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during the [[Yehud medinata|Persian]], [[History of ancient Israel and Judah#Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Judea (Roman province)#Judea as Roman province(s)|Roman]] periods), as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with the Edomite God [[Qaus|Qōs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jericke|2003|p=19}}.</ref> Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the [[Babylonian exile]] ({{bibleverse|Nehemiah|11:25}}). During the [[Maccabean revolt]], Hebron was burnt and plundered by [[Judas Maccabeus|Judah Maccabee]] who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Josephus|1860|p=334}} [[Josephus Flavius]], ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Bk. 12, ch.8, para.6.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Duke|2010|pp=93–94}} is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'</ref> The city appears to have long resisted [[Hasmoneans|Hasmonean dominance]], however, and indeed as late as the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] was still considered [[Idumean]].<ref>{{harvnb|Duke|2010|p=94}}</ref>

===Roman rule===
[[File:Cave of the Patriarchs, Hebron 2007.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Cave of the Patriarchs]]]]The present day city of Hebron was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times.<ref>{{harvnb|Jericke|2003|p=17}}:'Spätestens in römischer Zeit ist die Ansiedlung im Tal beim heutigen Stadtzentrum zu finden'.</ref> [[Herod the Great]], king of Judea, built the wall that still surrounds the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]]. During the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], Hebron was captured and plundered by [[Simon Bar Giora]], a leader of the [[Zealots]], without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste by [[Vespasian]]'s officer [[Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Josephus|1860|p=701}} Josephus, ''[[The Jewish War]]'', Bk 4, ch. 9, p. 9.</ref> [[Josephus]] wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town". After the suppression of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's [[Mamre|Terebinth]] slave-market.<ref>{{harvnb|Schürer|Millar|Vermes|1973|p=553 n.178}} citing [[Jerome]], ''in Zachariam'' 11:5; ''in Hieremiam'' 6:18; ''Chronicon paschale.''</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hezser|2002|p=96}}.</ref>

The city was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in [[Palaestina Prima]] province at the [[Diocese of the East]]. The Byzantine emperor [[Justinian I]] erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE, which was later destroyed by the [[Sassanid]] general [[Shahrbaraz]] in 614 when [[Khosrau II]]'s armies besieged and took Jerusalem.<ref>{{harvnb|Norwich|1999|p=285}}<!-- check Peng ed  p. 285 (1988)--></ref> Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule.<ref name="Scharfstein 124">{{harvnb|Scharfstein|1994|p=124}}.</ref> The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians, in deference to the Jewish population, who were numerous in the [[Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628|Sassanid army]].<ref name="Salaville 1910 185">{{harvnb|Salaville|1910|p=185}}</ref>

===Muslim conquest and Islamic caliphate===
Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Islamic invasion in the 7th century]], possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|pp=56–57}} cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.</ref> When the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.<ref name="Scharfstein 124"/> It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=195}}</ref> After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph [[Umar|Omar ibn al-Khattab]] permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.<ref>{{harvnb|Hiro|1999|p=166}}.</ref>

Catholic bishop [[Arculf]], who visited the Holy Land during the [[Umayyad Chaliphate|Umayyad period]], described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.<ref>Frenkel, 2011, p. 28–29</ref> Trade greatly expanded, in particular with [[Bedouin]]s in the [[Negev]] (''al-Naqab'') and the population to the east of the [[Dead Sea]] (''Baḥr Lūṭ''). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]) founded the [[Venetian glass]] industry in the 9th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Forbes|1965|p=155}}, citing Anton Kisa et al., ''Das Glas im Altertum'', 1908.</ref>

Hebron was almost absent from Muslim literature before the 10th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|pp=205}}</ref> In 985, [[al-Muqaddasi]] described Hebron (Habra) as the village of Abraham al-Khalil, with a strong fortress and a stone dome over Abraham's sepulchre.<ref name=":6">{{harvnb|Al-Muqaddasi|2001|pp=156–57}}. For an older translation see {{harvnb|Le Strange|1890|pp=[[commons:File:Strange.309.jpg|309]]–[[commons:File:Strange.310.jpg|10]]}}</ref> The mosque contained the tombs of Isaac, Jacob, and their wives.<ref name=":6" /> Surrounding the area were villages with vineyards producing exceptional grapes and apples.<ref name=":6" /> Hebron had a public guest house offering lentils and olive oil to both the poor and the rich.<ref name=":6" /> The guest house was established through the bequest of Prophet Muhammad's companions, including Tamim-al Dari, and received generous donations.<ref name=":6" /> It was highly regarded as an excellent house of hospitality and charity in the realm of al-Islam.<ref name=":6" /> The custom, known as the 'Table of Abraham' (''simāt al-khalil''), was similar to the one established by the [[Fatimid]]s.<ref name=":7">{{harvnb|Le Strange|1890|p=[[commons:File:Strange.315.jpg|315]]}}</ref> In 1047, [[Nasir Khusraw|Nasir-i-Khusraw]] described Hebron in his [[Safarnama]] as having many villages providing revenues for pious purposes.<ref name=":8">{{harvnb|Singer|2002|p=148}}.</ref><ref name=":7" /> He mentioned a spring flowing from under a stone, with water channeled to a covered tank outside the town.<ref name=":7" /> The Sanctuary stood on the town's southern border, enclosed by four walls.<ref name=":8" /> Barley was the primary crop, with abundant olives.<ref name=":8" /> Visitors were provided with bread, olives, lentils cooked in olive oil, and raisins.<ref name=":8" /> Hebron had numerous mills operated by oxen and mules, along with working girls baking bread.<ref name=":8" /> The hospitality extended to about three-pound loaves of bread and meals for every arriving person, including up to 500 pilgrims on certain days.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" />

The tradition survives to this day in the form of the [[Al-Takiya Al-Ibrahimiya|Takiat Ibrahim]] soup kitchen, which has been active in providing food for thousands over Ramadan, which coincided with food shortages during the 2024 [[Gaza war]].{{sfn|Zbeedat|2024}} [[Cairo Geniza|Geniza]] documents from this period mention  "the graves of the patriarchs" and attest to the presence of an organized Jewish community in Hebron. The Jews maintained a synagogue near the tomb and earned their livelihood accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk period]], the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, known as the "''haver'' of the graves of the patriarchs."<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|p=206}}</ref>

===Crusader and Ayyubid period===
{{see also|Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
The [[Caliphate]] lasted in the area until 1099, when the Christian [[Crusade]]r [[Godfrey de Bouillon]] took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham".<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=78}}:"'The Castle of St. Abraham' was the generic Crusader name for Hebron."</ref> It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]<ref>Avraham Lewensohn. ''Israel tourguide'', 1979. p. 222.</ref> and given, in turn,<ref>{{harvnb|Murray|2000|p=107}}</ref> as the fief of Saint Abraham, to [[Geldemar Carpenel|Geldemar Carpinel]], the bishop Gerard of Avesnes,<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965a|p=307}} Runciman also (pp. 307–08) notes that Gerard of Avesnes was a knight from [[County of Hainaut|Hainault]] held hostage at [[Arsuf]], north of [[Jaffa]], who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.</ref> Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As a [[Franks|Frankish]] garrison of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], its defense was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965b|p=4}}</ref> The Crusaders converted the [[mosque]] and the [[synagogue]] into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem]], who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign of [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]], according to [[Ali ibn abi bakr al-Harawi|Ali of Herat]] (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given in [[Ali ibn al-Athir|Ibn at Athir]]'s Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been [[Disturbance (archaeology)|disturbed]], and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver."<ref>{{harvnb|Le Strange|1890|pp=[[commons:File:Strange.317.jpg|317]]–[[commons:File:Strange.318.jpg|18]]}}</ref> The [[Damascus|Damascene]] nobleman and historian [[Ibn al-Qalanisi]] in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery of [[relics]] purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.<ref>{{harvnb|Kohler|1896|pp=447ff.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965b|p=319}}.</ref> Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 [[Maimonides]] visited Hebron and wrote,<blockquote>On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (October 17), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.<ref>{{harvnb|Kraemer|2001|p=422}}.</ref></blockquote>

A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to [[Philip of Milly]] in 1161 and joined with the [[Oultrejordain|Seigneurie of Transjordan]]. A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram.<ref>{{harvnb|Boas|1999|p=52}}.</ref> In 1167, the [[Hebron (titular see)|episcopal see of Hebron]] was created along with that of [[Kerak]] and [[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebastia]] (the tomb of [[John the Baptist]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Richard|1999|p=112}}.</ref> In 1170, [[Benjamin of Tudela]] visited Hebron, referred to as in its Frankish name ''St. Abram de Bron''.<ref name=":9">{{harvnb|Benjamin|1907|p=25}}.</ref> He mentioned the great church called St. Abram, which was once a Jewish place of worship during the time of Muslim rule.<ref name=":9" /> The Gentiles had erected six tombs there, claimed to be those of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah.<ref name=":9" /> The custodians collected money from pilgrims by presenting these tombs as the tombs of the Patriarchs.<ref name=":9" /> However, if a Jew offered a special reward, they would open an iron gate leading to a series of empty caves, until reaching the third cave where the actual sepulchers of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs were said to be located.<ref name=":9" />

The Kurdish Muslim [[Saladin]] retook Hebron in 1187 – again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition, in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to the city and build a synagogue there.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|p=207}}. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.</ref> The name of the city was changed back to ''Al-Khalil''. A [[Kurd]]ish quarter still existed in the town during the early period of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharon|2003|p=297}}.</ref> [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] retook the city soon after. [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Richard of Cornwall]], brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between [[Knights Templar|Templars]] and [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]], whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the Egyptian [[Sultan]] [[As-Salih Ayyub]], managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1965c|p=219}}</ref>

In 1244, the [[Khwarazmian dynasty#Mercenaries|Khwarazmians]] destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.<ref name="Salaville 1910 185"/>

===Mamluk period===
In 1260, after [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] [[Sultan]] [[Baibars]] defeated the Mongol army, the [[minaret]]s were built onto the sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary,<ref>{{harvnb|Micheau|2006|p=402}}</ref> and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns.<ref>{{harvnb|Murphy-O'Connor|1998|p=274}}.</ref> The mill at [[Artas, Bethlehem|Artas]] was built in 1307, and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharon|1997|pp=117–18}}.</ref> Between 1318 and 1320, the [[Na'ib]] of [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of [[al-Jawali Mosque|Jawli Mosque]] to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.<ref>Dandis, Wala. [https://www.scribd.com/doc/71913073/History-of-Hebron History of Hebron]. November 7, 2011. Retrieved on 2012-03-02.</ref>

Hebron was visited by important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them [[Nachmanides]] (1270) and [[Ishtori Haparchi|Ishtori HaParchi]] (1322) who noted the [[Old Jewish cemetery, Hebron|old Jewish cemetery]] there. [[Sunni]] [[imam]] [[Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya]] (1292–1350) was penalized by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognize Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site, a view also held by his teacher [[Ibn Taymiyyah]].<ref>{{harvnb|Meri|2004|pp=362–63}}.</ref> The Jewish-Italian traveler, [[Meshullam of Volterra]] (1481) found not more than twenty Jewish families living in Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Kosover|1966|p=5}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|David|2010|p=24}}.</ref> and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with a veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamdan|2000|p=102}}.</ref> Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), by [[Felix Fabri]] (1483) and by [[Mejr ed-Din]]<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|pp=440–42, n.1}}.</ref> It was in this period, also, that the [[Mamluk]] Sultan [[Qaitbay|Qa'it Bay]] revived the old custom of the Hebron "table of Abraham", and exported it as a model for his own ''[[madrasa]]'' in [[Medina]].<ref>{{harvnb|Singer|2002|p=148}}</ref> This became an immense charitable establishment near the [[Haram]], distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travelers of all faiths.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=458}}.</ref> The Italian rabbi [[Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura]] wrote around 1490:<blockquote>I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.<ref>{{harvnb|Berger|2012|p=246.}}.</ref></blockquote>

===Early Ottoman period===
[[File:The town of Hebron. Coloured lithograph by Louis Haghe after Wellcome V0049466.jpg|thumb|right|Hebron in 1839, after a drawing by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]], in ''[[The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia]]'']]

The expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]] along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan [[Selim I]] coincided with the establishment of [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition]] commissions by the [[Catholic Monarchs]] in Spain in 1478, which ended centuries of the Iberian ''convivencia'' (coexistence). The ensuing [[Alhambra Decree|expulsions of the Jews]] drove many [[Sephardi Jews]] into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with  notable Sephardi [[Kabbalah|kabbalists]] settling in Hebron.{{sfn|Green|2007|pp=xv–xix}} Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.<ref name="Büssow 2011 195">{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=195}}.</ref>

The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century.<ref>{{harvnb|David|2010|p=24}}. ''Tahrir'' registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests the ''tahrir'' records of the Jewish population may be understated.</ref> In 1540, renowned [[kabbalist]] [[Malkiel Ashkenazi]] bought a courtyard from the small [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] community, in which he established the Sephardic [[Abraham Avinu Synagogue]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|p=397}}</ref> In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the ''Hesed Le'Abraham [[yeshiva]]'' in Hebron, which attracted many students.<ref>{{harvnb|Perera|1996|p=104}}.</ref> In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717 to 1729,<ref>{{harvnb|Barnay|1992|pp=89–90}} gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000 [[Kuruş]].</ref> and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community after a false allegation that the son of a local [[sheikh]] was murdered  and thrown into a cesspit.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} [[Meshulach|Emissaries]] from the community were frequently sent overseas to [[Halukka|solicit funds]].<ref>{{harvnb|Marcus|1996|p=85}}. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews, which amounted in excess of £100.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Van Luit|2009|p=42}}. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807, the community did succeed in purchasing a 5-[[dunam]] (5,000 m<sup>2</sup>) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.</ref> During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated patriarchs' tombs were restored to a semblance of  dignity.<ref>{{harvnb|Conder|1830|p=198}}.</ref> [[Ali Bey el Abbassi|Ali Bey]], in Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access.  In 1807 he reported that the sepulchres were covered with carpets of green silk embroidered in gold and those of the wives were covered in red silk.The sultans of Constantinople furnished these carpets, which were renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, on the sepulchre of Abraham.<ref>{{harvnb|Conder|1830|p=198}}. The source was a manuscript, ''The Travels of Ali Bey'', vol. ii, pp. 232–33.</ref> Hebron also became known  for its glass production, based on Bedouin trade networks that brought up minerals from the Dead Sea. The industry is mentioned in travel literature in 19th century written by [[Western culture|Western]] travelers to Palestine. [[Ulrich Jasper Seetzen]] noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|p=161}}.</ref> based on 26 [[kiln]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=198}}</ref> In 1833, a report on the town  in the weekly paper of the London-based [[Religious Tract Society]] wrote that Hebron had numerous well-provisioned shops and  produced glass lamps which were exported to [[Egypt]].<ref>{{harvnb|WV|1833|p=436}}.</ref> Early 19th-century travelers also noted Hebron's flourishing agriculture. It was a major exporter of ''dibse'', grape sugar,<ref>{{harvnb|Shaw|1808|p=144}}</ref> from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1868|p=39}}.</ref>
[[File:Frith, Francis (1822-1898) - Views in the Holy Land - n. 428 - Hebron. Northern Half of the City - recto.jpg|thumb|Northern Hebron in the mid-19th century (1850s)]]

An [[1834 Arab revolt in Palestine|Arab peasants' revolt]] broke out in April 1834 when [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population.<ref>{{harvnb|Krämer|2011|p=68}}</ref> Hebron, headed by its [[nāẓir|nazir]] Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising. The town was invested and, when its defenses fell on August 4, it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army.<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|pp=6–11, esp. p. 8}}</ref><ref name="Robinson 88">{{harvnb|Robinson|Smith|1856|p=88}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|p=403}}.</ref> An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during the general pillage of the town [[1834 Hebron massacre|at least five were killed]].<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|pp=398–99}}.</ref>
When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|pp=398–400}}</ref> In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (''serasker''), [[Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha]], waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumored that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,<ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1878|pp=287ff}}.</ref> the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of [[Bayt Jibrin]]), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=234–35}}.</ref>

According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, [[Abraham Gershon of Kitov|rabbi Abraham Gershon]] of [[Kuty|Kitov]] wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a ''brit milah'' (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'."{{sfn|Cohen|2015|p=15}}

===Late Ottoman period===
[[File:Hebron glass finished products - Joff Williams.jpg|thumb|upright|A display of [[Hebron glass]]]]

By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,<ref>{{harvnb|Schwarz|1850|p=401}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1847|pp=355–381, 372}}:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p. 377).</ref> the [[Chabad|Lubavitch Hasidic]] movement having established a community in 1823.<ref>{{harvnb|Sicker|1999|p=6}}.</ref> The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha led to a decline in the local glass industry. His plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, making firewood for the kilns  scarce. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass. The rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan reduced traffic to Hebron, and the [[Suez canal|Suez Canal]] (1869) precipitated a drop in caravan trade. The consequence was a steady deterioration of the local economy.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|pp=198–99}}.</ref> At the time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter (''Harat al-Kadim'') near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south, the Quarter of the Silk Merchant (''Harat al-Kazaz''), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter (''Harat ash Sheikh'') to the north-west; and further north, the Dense Quarter (''Harat al-Harbah'').<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1847|p=379}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1881|p=195}} mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (''Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh'');the Quarter of the Sanctuary (''Haret el Haram''), to the south-east.</ref>[[File:Jewish ghetto in hebron, 1921.jpg|thumb|Jews in Hebron, 1921|left|284x284px]]In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman ''[[pasha]]'' ("governor") of the ''[[sanjak]]'' ("district") of Jerusalem, [[Kıbrıslı Mehmed Kamil Pasha|Kamil Pasha]], attempted to put down a  rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855, a scene witnessed by representatives of the English, French and other Western consulates. After crushing all opposition, Kamil appointed Salama Amr, brother and rival of Abd al Rachman, as ''[[nāẓir|nazir]]'' of the Hebron region. Relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=236–37}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1878|pp=305–308}}.</ref> In 1866, Hungarian Jews of the [[Karlin (Hasidic Dynasty)|Karlin Hasidic court]] settled in Hebron.<ref name="Shragai 2008">{{harvnb|Shragai|2008}}.</ref> According to [[Nadav Shragai]], Arab-Jewish relations were good, and Alter Rivlin, who spoke Arabic and Syrian-Aramaic, was appointed Jewish representative to the city council.<ref name="Shragai 2008" /> During a  severe drought in 1869–1871,  food in Hebron sold for ten times the normal amount.<ref>Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel. [https://books.google.com/books?id=e7xrAAAAMAAJ ''History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles'', Volume 2]. American Jewish Archives. 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."</ref> From 1874, the Hebron district  was administered directly from [[Istanbul]] as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem.<ref>{{harvnb|Khalidi|1998|p=218}}.</ref> By 1874, when [[C. R. Conder|C.R. Conder]] visited  Hebron under the auspices of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]], the Jewish community numbered  600 in an overall population of 17,000.<ref name="ConderCR1879">{{harvnb|Conder|1879|p=[https://archive.org/stream/tentworkinpalest02conduoft#page/79/mode/1up 79]}}</ref> The Jews lived in the Quarter of the Corner Gate.<ref name="ConderCR1879" /> In the late 19th century the production of [[Hebron glass]] declined due to competition from imported European glassware, although it continued to be popular among those who could not afford luxury goods  and was sold by Jewish merchants.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=161–62}} quoting David Delpuget ''Les Juifs d'Alexandrie, de Jaffa et de Jérusalem en 1865'', Bordeaux, 1866, p. 26.</ref> Glass ornaments from Hebron were exhibited at the [[Weltausstellung 1873 Wien|World Fair of 1873 in Vienna]].

A report from the [[Consulate General of France, Jerusalem|consul]] of the [[Consulate General of France, Jerusalem|French Consulate in Jerusalem]] in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.<ref>{{harvnb|Schölch|1993|pp=161–62}}.</ref> While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, the economy of Hebron was more diverse, including agriculture and livestock herding, along with glassware manufacturing and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.<ref name="Taraki Giacaman">{{harvnb| Tarākī|2006|pp=12–14}}</ref> Even so, Hebron had an image of being  unproductive and  an "asylum for the poor and the spiritual".<ref name="Taraki Giacaman2">{{harvnb|Tarākī|2006|pp=12–14}}: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition of ''shorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim'', a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by the ''awqaf'', and that of the Sufi ''zawaya'' gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual. (Ju'beh 2003).</ref> While the wealthy merchants of Nablus built fine mansions, housing in Hebron consisted of semi-peasant dwellings.<ref name="Taraki Giacaman" />

Hebron was described as 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=41}}</ref> and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|p=145}}.</ref> with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.<ref>{{harvnb|Laurens|1999|p=508}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Renan|1864|p=93}} remarked of the town that it was "one of the bulwarks of Semitic ideas, in their most austere form".</ref> It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, although  the Jewish and Christian communities seem to have been an integral part of  the local economy.<ref name="Büssow 2011 195"/> As income from commerce declined and tax revenues diminished significantly, the Ottoman government left Hebron to manage its own affairs for the most part, making it "one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine."<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=199}}.</ref> The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx of [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=92}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Campos|2007|pp=55–56}}</ref>

===British Mandate period===
[[File:British loyalty meeting in Hebron, 3 July 1940.jpg|thumb|British loyalty meeting in Hebron, July 1940]]

The British [[Occupied Enemy Territory Administration|occupied]] Hebron on December 8, 1917; governance transited to a [[Mandatory Palestine|mandate]] in 1920. Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments (''[[waqf]]s''), with about 60% of all the land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamīm al-Dārī waqf.<ref>{{harvnb|Kupferschmidt|1987|pp=110–11}}.</ref> During the 1920s, Abd al-Ḥayy al-Khaṭīb was appointed Mufti of Hebron. Before his appointment, he had been a staunch opponent of [[Haj Amin al-Husseini|Haj Amin]], supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=64}}.</ref> Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Kupferschmidt|1987|p=82}}: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."</ref> During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 percent of the political leadership.<ref name="Tarākī 2006 12–14">{{harvnb| Tarākī|2006|pp=12–14}}.</ref> The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the [[Palestine Arab Congress|fifth Palestinian Congress]], after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|2008|pp=19–20}}.</ref> Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an [[1927 Jericho earthquake|earthquake struck Palestine]] on July 11, 1927.<ref>Ilan Ben Zion (April 27, 2015). [http://www.timesofisrael.com/eyeing-nepal-experts-warn-israel-is-unprepared-for-its-own-big-one/ "Eyeing Nepal, experts warn Israel is unprepared for its own Big One"]. ''[[The Times of Israel]]''.</ref>

The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the [[Supreme Muslim Council]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kupferschmidt|1987|p=237}}</ref>

At this time following attempts by the [[Lithuania]]n government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the Lithuanian [[Hebron Yeshiva]] (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between Rabbi [[Nosson Tzvi Finkel (Slabodka)|Nosson Tzvi Finkel]], [[Yechezkel Sarna]] and [[Moshe Mordechai Epstein]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wein|1993|pp=138–39}},</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bauman|1994|p=22}}</ref> and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Krämer|2011|p=232}}.</ref> The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2001|p=318}}.</ref> During the [[1929 Hebron massacre]], Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children<ref>{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=92}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NyopAQAAMAAJ Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35] Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: "After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writer [[Albert Londres]] asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "In a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them." [[Raghib al-Nashashibi|Nashashibi]] answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days."</ref> and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbors, who hid them.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2001|pp=325–26}}: ''The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.''</ref> Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/64363/the-tangled-truth|title=The Tangled Truth |date=May 7, 2008|magazine=The New Republic}}</ref> Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of the [[1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine|Palestinian Arab revolt]] (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|UN partition vote]], the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Campos|2007|pp=56–57}}</ref> Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.<ref name="Levinsohn2011">Chaim Levinsohn (February 18, 2011). [https://www.haaretz.com/israel-supreme-court-rules-hebron-jews-can-t-reclaim-lands-lost-after-1948-1.344090 "Israel Supreme Court Rules Hebron Jews Can't Reclaim Lands Lost After 1948"]. ''[[Haaretz]]''.</ref>

===Jordanian occupation===
[[File:Hebron- 1960's.jpg|thumb|Hebron in the 1960s under Jordanian rule]]
At the beginning of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]], Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed.<ref>Benny Morris. [https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1860649890 ''The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews'']. 2003. pp. 186–87.</ref> By late 1948, part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and [[John Bagot Glubb|Glubb Pasha]] sent 350 [[Arab Legion]]naires and an armored car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|Armistice]] was signed, the city thus fell under [[Rule of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|Jordanian military control]]. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.<ref>Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."</ref><ref>Armstrong, Karen, ''Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths'', 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."</ref>

In December 1948, the [[Jericho Conference]], held by Jordan, was convened to decide the future of the West Bank. Hebron notables, headed by mayor [[Muhammad Ali Ja'abari|Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari]], voted in favor of becoming part of [[Jordan]] and to recognize [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.<ref>{{harvnb|Robins|2004|pp=71–72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Michael Dumper|author2=Bruce E. Stanley|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA165|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-919-5|page=165}}</ref>

Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=J5U3AAAAIAAJ ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''], Sir H. A. R. Gibb 1980. p. 337.</ref> Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.<ref name="Efrat 1984 192">{{harvnb|Efrat|1984|p=192}}</ref> During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.<ref>{{harvnb|Auerbach|2009|p=79}}: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."</ref>

===Israeli period===
[[File:Dan Hadani collection (990044355400205171).jpg|thumb|Israeli soldiers enforcing the curfew, 1969]]
After the [[Six-Day War]] in June 1967, Israel [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|occupied]] Hebron along with the rest of the [[West Bank]], establishing a [[Israeli Military Governorate|military government]] to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a [[land for peace]] deal, [[Yigal Allon]] proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|pp=80–83}}.</ref> According to the [[Allon Plan]], the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|pp=138–39}}</ref> [[David Ben-Gurion]] also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.<ref>{{harvnb|Sternhell|1999|p=333}}</ref> Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,<ref>{{harvnb|Sternhell|1999|p=337}}: "In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final."</ref> settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|p=151}}: "David's kingdom was a model for the [[Apocalyptic literature|messianic kingdom]]. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption."</ref> For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.<ref>{{harvnb|Segev|2008|p=698}}: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted on [[national memory]] along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."</ref>[[File:Hebron105.JPG|thumb|Constructed in 1893, this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli settlement.]]Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout.<ref name="jpt">{{cite news |author=Tovah Lazaroff |title=Hebron Jews' offspring divided over city's fate |date=May 17, 2006 |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?apage=1&cid=1145961357122&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816165944/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?apage=1&cid=1145961357122&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |archive-date=August 16, 2011}}</ref> Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.<ref name="agf">''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]''. "[https://www.angelfire.com/il/FourMothers/Yona.html Hebron descendants decry actions of current settlers They are kin of the Jews ousted in 1929]", March 3, 1997.</ref> In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace.<ref name="agf" /> On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees<ref name=shragai>{{Cite news
|last = Shragai
|first = Nadav
|title = 80 years on, massacre victims' kin reclaims Hebron house
|work = Haaretz
|access-date = February 7, 2008
|date = December 26, 2007
|url = https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/938599.html
|archive-date = February 16, 2008
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080216165034/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/938599.html
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.<ref name="jpt" /> [[Beit HaShalom]], established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/907606.html |title=Gov't bans Hebron settlers from winterizing controversial house |first1=Nadav |last1=Shargai |date=September 26, 2007 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=November 12, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803093117/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/907606.html |archive-date=August 3, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Katz |first1=Yaakov |last2=Lazaroff |first2=Tovah |title=Hebron settlers try to buy more homes |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1176152784857&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull |access-date=November 12, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111022800/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1176152784857&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1037864.html |title=Settlers threaten 'Amona'-style riots over Hebron eviction |date=November 17, 2008 |first1=Nadav |last1=Shragai |first2=Tomer |last2=Zarchin |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=November 12, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522030308/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1037864.html |archive-date=May 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1039263.html |title=Hebron settler mob caught on video clashing with IDF troops |first1=Amos |last1=Harel |date=November 20, 2008 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=November 12, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420034311/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1039263.html |archive-date=April 20, 2010}}</ref> All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.<ref>[http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1227702434796&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull "High alert in West Bank following Beit Hashalom evacuation"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929100824/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1227702434796&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull |date=September 29, 2011}} ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]''. December 4, 2008.</ref>

[[File:Israeli soldiers on Palestine street.jpg|thumb|right|Israeli soldiers patrol an open-air market.]]
Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.<ref>{{cite news |author=Charles Reynell |title=Economist |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxVXAAAAYAAJ |volume=242 |year=1972}}<!-- this ref originally inserted by [[User:Baybars-hamimi|Baybars-hamimi]] in edit 522855329 in revision of 17:43, 13 November 2012 (UTC); unfortunately it's difficult to determine the true article title, and this Wikipedian ceased editing activity shortly thereafter. --></ref> He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.<ref>{{harvnb|Mattar|2005|p=255}}</ref> Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.<ref>{{harvnb|Bouckaert|2001|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rubenberg|2003|pp=162–63)}}</ref> The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',<ref>{{harvnb|Kellerman|1993|p=89}}</ref> and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubenberg|2003|p=187}}.</ref> Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behavior of Hebronite settlers.<ref>{{harvnb| Bovard|2004|p=265}}, citing Charles A. Radin (July 31, 2002). "A Top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot in Hebron". ''[[The Boston Globe]]''; Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis (July 31, 2002). "Minister's Aide Calls Hebron Riots a 'Pogrom'". ''[[Haaretz]]''. p. 409, notes 55, 56.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|The Scotsman|2002}}.</ref>

[[File:2018 OCHA OpT map Hebron.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|2018 [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|United Nations]] map of the area, showing the [[Israeli occupation of the West Bank|Israeli occupation]] arrangements.]]Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja'bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelhayom.com/site/newsletter_article.php?id=1713 |title=Jewish presence in Hebron is an indisputable historical fact |newspaper=Israel Hayom |date=November 4, 2011 |access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> [[1980 Hebron attack|A violent episode]] occurred May 2, 1980, when an [[Al Fatah]] squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at the [[Tomb of the Patriarchs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cohen|1985|p=105}}</ref> The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join the [[Jewish Underground]].<ref>{{harvnb|Feige|2009|p=158}}</ref>

In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Jewish [[Kach and Kahane Chai|Kach]] movement, a designated terrorist organization,<ref>{{harvnb|Cordesman|2006|p=135}}.</ref> whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behavior in other settlements. On July 26, 1983, Israeli settlers [[Attack on students at the Islamic College in Hebron|attacked]] the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.<ref>''Without Prejudice: The Eaford International Review of Racial Discrimination.'' International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – 1987. p. 81.</ref> The 1994 [[Shamgar Commission]] of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence".<ref>{{cite news |author=Margot Dudkevitch |date=October 6, 2000 |title=IDF: Palestinians offer $2,000 for 'martyrs' |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/62288539.html?dids=62288539:62288539&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+6%2C+2000&author=MARGOT+DUDKEVITCH&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=03.A&desc=IDF%3A+Palestinians+offer+%242%2C000+for+%27martyrs%27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803082106/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/62288539.html?dids=62288539:62288539&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Oct+6%2C+2000&author=MARGOT+DUDKEVITCH&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=03.A&desc=IDF%3A+Palestinians+offer+%242%2C000+for+%27martyrs%27 |archive-date=August 3, 2009 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref>

====Oslo Accords====
{{Main|Israeli–Palestinian conflict in Hebron}}
[[File:HebronNet.jpg|thumb|A net in the streets of the old city to protect Palestinians from the garbage thrown by Israeli settlers on the upper floors, June 2010<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ward |first=Hazel |date=May 23, 2011 |title=West Bank B&B in Hebron's Old City fully booked |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/travel/news/west-bank-bb-in-hebrons-old-city-fully-booked/story-e6frg8ro-1226061421155 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912191054/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/travel/news/west-bank-bb-in-hebrons-old-city-fully-booked/story-e6frg8ro-1226061421155 |archive-date=September 12, 2012 |access-date=November 18, 2022 |website=[[The Australian]]}}</ref>]]
[[File:Al Khalil Hebron (135152845).jpeg|thumb|An Israeli checkpoint in Hebron in 2015]]
Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the [[Palestinian Authority]].<ref name="Kimmerling 2003 443" /> IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police the Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with.<ref>''Haaretz'', June 22, 2020, [https://www.972mag.com/hebron-israeli-soldiers-protect-settlers/ In Hebron, Protecting Palestinians is Not an Israeli Soldier's Job]</ref><ref>''Haaretz'', February 3, 2020, [https://www.972mag.com/jared-kushner-soldiers-occupation/ Jared Kushner Does Not See the Brutal Occupation I Helped Carry Out: As a Former Soldier, I Enforced Two Separate Legal Systems for Israelis and Palestinians--The Trump Plan Wants to Make This Reality Permanent].</ref> Since The [[Oslo Agreement]], violent episodes have been recurrent in the city. The [[Cave of the Patriarchs massacre]] took place on February 25, 1994, when [[Baruch Goldstein]], an Israeli physician and resident of [[Kiryat Arba]], opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]], killing 29, and wounding 125 before the survivors overcame and killed him.<ref>Nabeel Abraham,  [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0002775.html What About The Victims?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192614/http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0002775.html|date=March 4, 2016}}, ''Lies of Our Times'', May 1994, pp 3–6.</ref> Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews, even if they were shooting Arabs.<ref>{{harvnb|Bovard|2004|p=265}}. Meir Tayar, commander of the Hebron Border Police at the time testified that, 'Instructions are to take cover, wait until the clip is empty or the gun jams and then overpower him. Even if I had been there (in the mosque), I could not have done anything-there were special orders.'</ref> This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing [[Kach and Kahane Chai|Kach]] party was banned as a result.<ref>{{harvnb|Commission of Inquiry|1994}}.</ref> The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street.<ref>{{harvnb|Freedland|2012|p=23}}.</ref> The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites.<ref>{{harvnb|Levy|2012}}</ref> Following the 1995 [[Oslo Agreement]] and subsequent 1997 [[Hebron Agreement]], Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian Authority]], with the exception of Hebron,<ref name="Alimi 2013 178">{{harvnb|Alimi|2013|p=178}}</ref> which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the [[Old City of Hebron]] – remained under the military control of Israel.<ref name="Kimmerling 2003 443">{{harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=443}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/c7d7b824004ff5c585256ae700543ebc?OpenDocument |title=Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron |date=January 17, 1997 |publisher=United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024142822/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/c7d7b824004ff5c585256ae700543ebc?opendocument |archive-date=October 24, 2007}}</ref> Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. {{As of|2009}}, a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gurkow |first=Lazer |url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/624279/jewish/A-Visit-to-Hebron.htm |title=Chabad.org |publisher=Chabad |access-date=November 12, 2009}}</ref> The IDF ([[Israel Defense Forces]]) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.<ref name="hebron-wp" /> The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.<ref name="BBC_GC4">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1682640.stm |title=The Geneva Convention |publisher=BBC News |date=December 10, 2009 |access-date=September 27, 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Hebron073.JPG|thumb|[[Racial segregation]] in the city with a road block with Hebrew inscription "מוות לערבים" meaning "''[[Death to Arabs]]''"|left]]Over the period of the [[First Intifada]] and [[Second Intifada]], the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and [[second Intifada]] (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada,<ref name="mfa.gov.il2">{{cite web |date=September 24, 2000 |title=Fatal Terrorist Attacks in Israel Since the DOP (Sep. 1993) |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+before+2000/Fatal+Terrorist+Attacks+in+Israel+Since+the+DOP+-S.htm |access-date=April 13, 2007 |publisher=[[Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]}}</ref> and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighborhoods. On November 15, 2002, 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel [[Dror Weinberg]] and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in [[2002 Hebron ambush|an ambush]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harel|2002}}.</ref> Two [[Temporary International Presence in Hebron]] observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200203/s514316.htm Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron: Israeli TV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021161007/http://abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200203/s514316.htm|date=October 21, 2007}}, ABC News online, March 27, 2002.</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=March 26, 2002 |title=Two Norwegian observers killed near Hebron |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1388887/Two-Norwegian-observers-killed-near-Hebron.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1388887/Two-Norwegian-observers-killed-near-Hebron.html |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |access-date=November 12, 2009 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223944/http://www.tiph.org/en/News/?module=Articles;action=Article.publicShow;ID=1579 Two TIPH members killed near Hebron]}}, Temporary International Presence in the City of Hebron website, March 27, 2002.</ref> On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby [[Murder of Shalhevet Pass|Shalhevet Pass]]. The sniper was caught in 2002.{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Diego Gambetta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=211orfsU0UYC |title=Making Sense of Suicide Missions |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-929797-9 |page=113}}</ref> In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a [[Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing|bus bombing]] in Jerusalem.<ref>Chris McGreal (August 20, 2003). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/aug/20/israel1 "Palestinian suicide bomber kills 20 and shatters peace process"]. ''[[The Guardian]]''.</ref><ref>Ed O'Loughlin (August 21, 2003). [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/20/1061368359339.html "Ceasefire illusion just blown away"]. ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]''. Hamas claimed it marked the anniversary of [[Denis Michael Rohan]]'s attempt to burn the Al-Aqsa mosque. Islamic Jihad claimed it was in revenge for the killing of a leader, Ahmed Sidr, in Hebron.</ref> In 2007, the Palestinian population in H2 declined due to Israeli security measures such as extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.btselem.org/english/press_releases/20071231.asp |title=B'Tselem – Press Releases – 31 Dec. 2007: B'Tselem: 131 Palestinians who did not participate in the hostilities killed by Israel's security forces in 2007 |publisher=B'tselem |date=December 31, 2007 |access-date=November 12, 2009}}</ref> the closure of Palestinian businesses and settler harassment.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli NGO issues damning report on situation in Hebron |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/a17e4c9ace4785bac1256d87004bca62 |agency=Agence France-Presse |website=ReliefWeb |date=August 19, 2003 |access-date=March 30, 2007 |archive-date=October 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021152734/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/a17e4c9ace4785bac1256d87004bca62 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/Download/200308_Hebron_Area_H2_Eng.pdf |title=Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians |date=August 2003 |publisher=[[B'Tselem]]}} "In total, 169 families lived on the three streets in September 2000, when the intifada began. Since then, seventy-three families—forty-three percent—have left their homes."</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/YAOI-6UN95C?OpenDocument |title=Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community |date=October 10, 2006 |agency=United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East |website=ReliefWeb |quote=Settler violence has forced out over half the Palestinian population in some neighborhoods in the downtown area of Hebron. This once bustling community is now eerily deserted, and presents a harrowing existence for those few Palestinians who dare to remain or who are too deep in poverty to move elsewhere. |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20061017225650/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/YAOI-6UN95C?OpenDocument |archive-date=October 17, 2006}}</ref><ref name="btselem2007">{{cite web| url=http://www.btselem.org/english/Publications/Summaries/200705_Hebron.asp | title=Ghost Town: Israel's Separation Policy and Forced Eviction of Palestinians from the Center of Hebron |date=May 2007 | publisher=[[B'Tselem]]}}</ref> Palestinians are barred from using [[Al-Shuhada Street]], a principal commercial thoroughfare that is locally nicknamed "Apartheid Street" as a result.<ref name="hebron-wp">{{cite news|author=Janine Zacharia|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/07/AR2010030702702.html|title=Letter from the West Bank: In Hebron, renovation of holy site sets off strife|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=March 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>David Shulman (March 22, 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130323220130/http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2013/mar/22/hope-hebron/ "Hope in Hebron"]. ''New York Review of Books''.<br />"Those who still live on Shuhada Street can't enter their own homes from the street. Some use the rooftops to go in and out, climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys. Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other (often deserted) houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market. According to a survey conducted by the human-rights organization B'Tselem in 2007, 42 percent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron (area H2)—some 1,014 families—have abandoned their homes and moved out, most of them to area H1, now under Palestinian control."</ref>
[[File:Al Khalil Hebron (135198889).jpeg|thumb|The Israeli settlement of Beit Romano, in the old town, 2015]]
[[File:SettlersShuhadaStreet.jpg|thumb|Armed Israeli settlers on [[Al-Shuhada Street]], November 6, 2010]]
Israeli organization [[B'Tselem]] states that there have been "grave violations" of Palestinian human rights in Hebron because of the "presence of the settlers within the city". The organization cites regular incidents of "almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city", curfews and restrictions of movement that are "among the harshest in the Occupied Territories", and violence by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city's H2 sector.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.btselem.org/English/Publications/Summaries/200308_Hebron_Area_H2.asp|title=B'Tselem - Publications - Hebron, Area H-2: Settlements Cause Mass Departure of Palestinians, August 2003|website=www.btselem.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mounting Human Rights Crisis in Hebron |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/04/11/isrlpa241.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081115080658/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/04/11/isrlpa241.htm |archive-date=November 15, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=331234&contrassID=2&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y|title=Israeli human rights group slams Hebron settlers|access-date=August 17, 2025|archive-date=June 9, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609125609/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=331234&contrassID=2&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to [[Human Rights Watch]], Palestinian areas of Hebron are frequently subject to indiscriminate firing by the IDF, leading to many casualties.<ref name="HRW-storm2">{{harvnb|Bouckaert|2001|pp=5, 40–43, 48, 71–72}}</ref> One former IDF soldier, with experience in policing Hebron, has testified to [[Breaking the Silence (non-governmental organization)|Breaking the Silence]], that on the briefing wall of his unit a sign describing their mission aim was hung that read: "To disrupt the routine of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood."{{sfn|Freedland|2012|p=22}} Hebron mayor [[Mustafa Abdel Nabi]] invited the [[Christian Peacemaker Teams]] to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment, [[House demolition in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict|home demolitions]] and land expropriation.<ref>{{cite web |title=History/Mission of CPT |url=http://www.cpt.org/publications/history.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011002839/http://cpt.org/publications/history.php |archive-date=October 11, 2008 |publisher=Christian Peacemaker Teams}}</ref> In 2017, [[Temporary International Presence in Hebron]] (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of work in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incidents reported during this period, stated that Israel violated international law in Hebron and has breached the rights of residents as established by the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. The report claimed that Israel  violated Article 49 of the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. Israeli settlement in Hebron was also cited as a violation.<ref name="20yrs">{{cite web | title=Confidential 20-year monitoring report: Israel regularly breaks int'l law in Hebron | website=Haaretz | date=December 17, 2018 | url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-confidential-report-claims-israel-regularly-breaks-international-law-in-hebron-1.6747523 | access-date=December 17, 2018}}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:Grapes in Hebron.jpg|thumb|Grape farming in Hebron]]
Hebron is situated on the southern [[West Bank]].<ref name=":13" /> Nestled in the [[Judaean Mountains]], it lies {{convert|930|m|sp=us}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=History Of Hebron {{!}} Hebron Rehabilitation Committee |url=https://www.hrc.ps/en/node/22 |access-date=August 3, 2024 |website=www.hrc.ps}}</ref> Hebron is located {{convert|30|km|sp=us}} south of [[Jerusalem]], {{convert|60.1|km|sp=us}} east of [[Gaza City|Gaza]], {{convert|43|km|sp=us}} northeast of [[Beersheba]] and {{convert|68.4|km|sp=us}} southeast of [[Tel Aviv]], both in [[Israel]] and {{convert|89.8|km|sp=us}} northeast of [[Amman]], [[Jordan]].<ref name=":13" /> The city is surrounded by [[Bani Na'im]] and [[Dura, Hebron|Dura]] to the east, [[Halhul]] to the north, [[Taffuh]] to the west and [[Yatta, Hebron|Yatta]] to the south.<ref name=":15">{{Cite news |title=Hebron City Profile |url=http://vprofile.arij.org/hebron/pdfs/Hebron%20City%20profile.pdf |work=[[The Applied Research Institute - Jerusalem]]}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> The Israeli–controlled H2 region is located in the eastern region of the city.<ref name=":13" />

It is one of the highest cities in the area and was, until the 19th century, considered the highest city in the Middle East.<ref name=":13" /> With the governorate and metropolitan area, it forms about 19% of the West Bank total area.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 3, 2014 |title=Total central bank liabilities |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_surveys-euz-2014-graph12-en |journal=OECD Economic Surveys: Euro Area 2014 |series=OECD Economic Surveys: Euro Area |doi=10.1787/eco_surveys-euz-2014-graph12-en |isbn=978-92-64-20688-5 |issn=1999-0804|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The city is surrounded by several mountains and hills, including the [[Hebron Hills]] (''Jabal al–Khalil'') and [[Mount Nabi Yunis, Palestine|Mount Nabi Yunis]].<ref name=":13" /><ref>Jordan Journal of Physics ARTICLE Radionuclides Measurements in Some Rock Samples Collected from the Environment of Hebron Governorate -Palestine - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/figure/West-Bank-geographical-map-and-sample-location-of-the-Hebron-region_fig1_311993953</nowiki> [accessed August 3, 2024]</ref> The Mount Nabi Yunis, situated north of the city, is the highest point in Palestine, with an altitude of 1,030&nbsp;meters (3,380&nbsp;ft).<ref>[http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10457 West Bank High Point, Palestinian Authority], Peakbagger, retrieved October 14, 2012.</ref> While the Hebron Hills is southern part of the wider [[Judaean Mountains]], which spreads throughout Israel and Palestine and have an altitude of 1,026&nbsp;m (3,366&nbsp;ft).<ref name="google1">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-TQpUtI-dgC&pg=PA295 |title=Encyclopedia of Prehistory: South and Southwest Asia |date=March 31, 2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9780306462627 |editor=[[Peter N. Peregrine]], [[Melvin Ember]] |volume=8 |access-date=February 13, 2012}}</ref> The two larger settlements whose population exceeds 7000 sit on the hills overlooking the Hebron's eastern quarters – [[Kiryat Arba|Kirayt Arba]] and [[Givat Harsina]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geopolitical situations In Hebron Governorate Palestine |url=https://hlrn.org/img/documents/The_Geopolical_situation_in_Hebron_HIC.pdf}}</ref> Wadi al–Quff near Hebron is one of the largest natural reserves in Palestine.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |date=May 30, 2018 |title=A Space for Nature: Wadi Al-Quff Nature Reserve {{!}} IUCN |url=https://www.iucn.org/news/protected-areas/201805/space-nature-wadi-al-quff-nature-reserve |access-date=August 4, 2024 |website=www.iucn.org |language=en}}</ref> Located towards northeast of the city, it is surrounded by nearby towns and villages of [[Tarqumiyah|Tarqumia]], Halhoul, [[Beit Kahil|Beit Kahel]] and [[Beit Ula|Beit Ola]].<ref name=":17" /> The natural reserve covers up an area of {{Convert|3.73|km2|acre|sp=us}}.<ref name=":17" /> Wadi al–Quff Natural reserve is home to some of the rare species of animals and plants.<ref name=":17" />

Hebron is located on fertile mountainous area, making the city agriculturally rich, thus giving it a strategic importance.<ref name=":13" /> This is the reason for Hebron, today being a hub for cultivation of fruits and vineyards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 31, 2024 |title=Hebron {{!}} Ancient City, Palestinian Territory {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Hebron-city-West-Bank |access-date=August 3, 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The alternative sources of water network is cisterns.<ref name=":15" /> There are ten springs and three wells in the city.<ref name=":15" /> The water of springs and wells are not currently used.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":13" /> The [[Nahal Hevron|Hebron River]] (''Wadi al–Khalil''), known as ''Nahal Hebron'' in Hebrew located along the region of [[Judea]] and [[Negev]], is one of the water sources for the city.<ref name="Eco">{{cite web |url=https://old.ecopeaceme.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Community_Based_Problem_Solving_Nov_2016_Final.pdf |title=Advancing Sanitation Solutions and Reuse in the Hebron Stream: Shared Waters / Geographic Description |work=Community Based Problem Solving on Water Issues: Cross-border "Priority Initiatives" of the Good Water Neighbors Project |publisher=[[EcoPeace Middle East]] |editor-last= |editor-first= |volume=November, 2016 |location=Amman, Bethlehem and Tel Aviv |page=29 |access-date=February 23, 2021}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> Currently the river is polluted, mainly due to the generation of waste, mostly by the industrial areas, situated on the city's east and south.<ref name="Eco" /><ref name=":13" />

=== Climate ===
The climate in Hebron is temperate and the mean year-round temperature ranges between 15 and 16° (an average of 7° in winter and 21° in summer).<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=Hebron, West Bank, PS Climate Zone, Monthly Averages, Historical Weather Data |url=https://weatherandclimate.com/palestine/west-bank/hebron#google_vignette |access-date=August 3, 2024 |website=weatherandclimate.com}}</ref> Annual precipitations average around 502&nbsp;mm.<ref name=":14" /> Hebron has ''a'' Mediterranean, hot summer climate (Classification: Csa).<ref name=":14" /> The city's yearly temperature is 22.74&nbsp;°C (72.93&nbsp;°F) and it is 0.14% higher than Palestine's averages.<ref name=":14" /> It typically receives about 15.72 millimeters (0.62 inches) of precipitation and has 39.47 rainy days (10.81% of the time) annually, during January and February.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ighbareyeh |first1=Jehad M. H. |last2=Cano-Ortiz |first2=Ana |last3=E |first3=Cano |date=March 17, 2022 |title=Bioclimate of Hebron city in Palestine |url=http://transylvanianreviewjournal.com/index.php/TRAS/article/view/876 |journal=Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences |language=en |volume=63 |issue=3 |issn=2247-8310}}</ref>{{Weather box
| location = Hebron, [[Palestine]] (2007-2018)
| metric first = y
| single line = y
| Jan high C = 11.4
| Feb high C = 13.2
| Mar high C = 16.5
| Apr high C = 20.7
| May high C = 25.0
| Jun high C = 27.5
| Jul high C = 29.2
| Aug high C = 29.4
| Sep high C = 27.8
| Oct high C = 24.4
| Nov high C = 20.0
| Dec high C = 14.9
| year high C = 
| Jan mean C = 8.3
| Feb mean C = 10.0
| Mar mean C = 12.3
| Apr mean C = 15.8
| May mean C = 19.6
| Jun mean C = 22.0
| Jul mean C = 23.7
| Aug mean C = 23.9
| Sep mean C = 22.1
| Oct mean C = 19.5
| Nov mean C = 14.8
| Dec mean C = 10.7
| year mean C = 
| Jan low C = 5.4
| Feb low C = 6.6
| Mar low C = 8.6
| Apr low C = 11.4
| May low C = 15.3
| Jun low C = 17.5
| Jul low C = 19.2
| Aug low C = 19.6
| Sep low C = 17.8
| Oct low C = 15.9
| Nov low C = 11.3
| Dec low C = 7.0
| year low C = 
| Jan record high C = 24.5
| Feb record high C = 25.0
| Mar record high C = 31.0
| Apr record high C = 34.0
| May record high C = 36.0
| Jun record high C = 37.6
| Jul record high C = 36.8
| Aug record high C = 39.0
| Sep record high C = 36.0
| Oct record high C = 34.5
| Nov record high C = 29.5
| Dec record high C = 26.6
| Jan record low C = -3.8
| Feb record low C = -2.0
| Mar record low C = -1.0
| Apr record low C = 3.0
| May record low C = 6.6
| Jun record low C = 11.0
| Jul record low C = 14.0
| Aug record low C = 15.0
| Sep record low C = 12.0
| Oct record low C = 9.6
| Nov record low C = 4.0
| Dec record low C = -2.5
| rain color = green
| Jan rain mm = 138.2
| Feb rain mm = 108.6
| Mar rain mm = 49.9
| Apr rain mm = 15.4
| May rain mm = 4.7
| Jun rain mm = 0.0
| Jul rain mm = 0.0
| Aug rain mm = 0.0
| Sep rain mm = 1.4
| Oct rain mm = 18.8
| Nov rain mm = 40.1
| Dec rain mm = 95.1
| year rain mm = 472.0
| unit rain days = 
| Jan rain days = 10.0
| Feb rain days = 9.0
| Mar rain days = 5.2
| Apr rain days = 3.5
| May rain days = 1.3
| Jun rain days = 0.0
| Jul rain days = 0.0
| Aug rain days = 0.0
| Sep rain days = 0.7
| Oct rain days = 2.6
| Nov rain days = 5.4
| Dec rain days = 7.7
| year rain days = 
| Jan humidity = 73.0
| Feb humidity = 69.5
| Mar humidity = 63.9
| Apr humidity = 56.3
| May humidity = 52.4
| Jun humidity = 55.0
| Jul humidity = 56.5
| Aug humidity = 60.6
| Sep humidity = 68.0
| Oct humidity = 66.6
| Nov humidity = 67.8
| Dec humidity = 71.2
| year humidity = 
| Jan sun = 164.3
| Feb sun = 156.7
| Mar sun = 214.5
| Apr sun = 261.3
| May sun = 313.1
| Jun sun = 337.9
| Jul sun = 363.8
| Aug sun = 346.9
| Sep sun = 279.3
| Oct sun = 243.2
| Nov sun = 186.5
| Dec sun = 165.7
| year sun = 
| Jan percentsun = 52
| Feb percentsun = 51
| Mar percentsun = 59
| Apr percentsun = 68
| May percentsun = 74
| Jun percentsun = 80
| Jul percentsun = 85
| Aug percentsun = 85
| Sep percentsun = 77
| Oct percentsun = 70
| Nov percentsun = 60
| Dec percentsun = 53
| year percentsun = 69
| source 1 = Palestinian Meteorological Department<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.pmd.ps/en/climate-bulletin
| title = Climate Bulletin
| publisher = Palestinian Meteorological Department
| access-date = January 23, 2023
| archive-date = December 6, 2023
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231206064919/https://www.pmd.ps/en/climate-bulletin
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
| source = 
}}

=== Urban development ===
[[File:King faisal street.jpg|thumb|King Faisal Street in Hebron was named in commemoration of [[Shah Faisal]], the [[king of Saudi Arabia]] from 1964 to 1975]]
Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: the ''[[suq]]'' and ''Harat al-Masharqa'' adjacent to the [[Ibrahimi Mosque]], the Silk Merchant Quarter (''Haret Kheitun'') to the south and the Sheikh Quarter (''Haret al-Sheikh'') to the north.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Hebrón _ AcademiaLab |url=https://academia--lab-com.translate.goog/enciclopedia/hebron/?_x_tr_sl=es&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc |access-date=July 31, 2024 |website=academia--lab-com.translate.goog}}</ref> It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.<ref name="De Cesari 2009 235–236">{{harvnb|De Cesari|2009|pp=235–36}}</ref>
In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared.<ref name="De Cesari 2009 235–236" /> The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding the [[Cave of Machpelah]], the ''Haret Kheitun'' (the Jewish Quarter, ''Haret el-Yahud''), the ''Haret el-Sheikh'' and the [[Druze]] Quarter.<ref name="books.google.co.uk">[https://archive.org/details/journaladeputat00collgoog/page/n68 <!-- pg=395 --> Journal of a deputation sent to the East by the committee of the Malta Protestant college, in 1849: containing an account of the present state of the Oriental nations, including their religion, learning, education, customs, and occupations, Volume 2], J. Nisbet and co., 1854. p. 395.</ref> As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighborhoods.<ref name=":11" /> By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial center, ''Bab el-Zawiye'', emerged.<ref>{{harvnb|Büssow|2011|p=202}}</ref> As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west.<ref>{{harvnb|Efrat|1984|p=191}}</ref> In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it.<ref name="Kedar 2000 112–113">{{harvnb|Kedar|2000|pp=112–13}}</ref> By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters: ''el-Sheikh'' and ''Bab el-Zawiye'' to the west, ''el-Kazzazin'', ''el-Akkabi'' and ''el-Haram'' in the center, ''el-Musharika'' to the south and ''el-Kheitun'' in the east.<ref>{{harvnb|Brill|1993|p=887}}</ref> Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945.<ref name="Kedar 2000 112–113" /> 
[[File:سماء الخليل.jpg|thumb|Sunset in the sky of Hebron Ras al-Jura|left]]
The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along the [[Jerusalem Road 21|Hebron-Jerusalem highway]], stretching northwards for over {{convert|3|mi|0|abbr=out}} at a depth of 600&nbsp;ft (200m) either way. Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land. There was less development to the south-east, where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile (1.5&nbsp;km).<ref name="Efrat 1984 192" /> In 1971, with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments, the [[Hebron University]], an Islamic university, was founded.<ref>[http://www.hebron.edu/en/about-hu/hu-founder.html About Founder of Hebron University] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016234433/http://www.hebron.edu/en/about-hu/hu-founder.html |date=October 16, 2012}}, Hebron University, 2010–2011.</ref><ref>''A ghetto state of ghettos: Palestinians under Israeli citizenship'', Mary Boger, City University of New York. Sociology – 2008. p. 93: "The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al-Khalil (Hebron), headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al-Ja'bari a prominent anti-PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd-allah and Husayn, who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation."</ref> In an attempt to enhance the view of the [[Ibrahimi Mosque|Ibrahami Mosque]], Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site.<ref>{{harvnb|Ricca|2007|p=177}}</ref> The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin Quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site, which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.<ref>{{harvnb|Auerbach|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ooUqc8snyZUC&pg=PA79 79]}}</ref>

Today, the area along the north–south axis to the east comprises the modern city of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron, ''Khalil Foq'').<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=August 22, 2018 |title=The Hebron most don't see |url=https://www.jpost.com/in-jerusalem/the-hebron-most-dont-see-565554 |access-date=August 1, 2024 |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |language=en |issn=0792-822X}}</ref> It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who moved there from the crowded old city, ''Balde al-Qadime'' (also called Lower Hebron, ''Khalil Takht'').<ref name="De Cesari 2009 230–233">{{harvnb|De Cesari|2009|pp=230–33}}</ref> The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two luxury hotels in the city.<ref name=":12" /> The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along the [[Jerusalem Road 20|Jerusalem Road]], and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls.<ref name=":12" /> Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on the ''krum'', rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period.<ref name="De Cesari 2009 230–233" /> The southern part is where the working-class neighborhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and the [[Palestine Polytechnic University|Hebron Polytechnic University]].<ref name="De Cesari 2009 230–233" /> The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the center of the city.<ref name=":12" /> This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads that lead to the entrance of the old city.<ref name="De Cesari 2009 230–233" /> Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial center of the city, known as the vegetable market (''hesbe''), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s.<ref name=":12" /> The vegetable market is now located in the square of ''Bab el-Zawiye''.<ref name="De Cesari 2009 230–233" />

{{Panorama
| image = Hebron city banner.JPG
| height = 150
| caption = Panoramic view of residential area of Hebron
}}

== Demographics ==
{{Historical populations
|title        = Historical population
|source       = <ref name="Robinson 88"/><ref name="ConderCR1879" /><ref name="barron" /><ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=April 1, 1945 |title=Village Statistics – 1945 |url=https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p23.jpg |website= |location= |publisher= |page=23 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=July 3, 2025}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Table 1.5 Population of Nahiyas by Sex |url=https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/JordanCensusPages/JordanCensus1961-p12.pdf |website= |location= |publisher= |page=12 |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=July 3, 2025}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years |url=https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/heb_t1.aspx |website= |location= |publisher=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119001153/https://www.pcbs.gov.ps/_PCBS/census/phc_97/heb_t1.aspx |archive-date=2008-11-19 |access-date=July 3, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Table 26 (Cont.): Localities in the West Bank by Selected Indicators, 2007 |url=http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |website= |location= |publisher=[[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]] |page=119 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210081942/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_PCBS/Downloads/book1487.pdf |archive-date=2010-12-10 |access-date=July 3, 2025}}</ref><ref name="PrelimCensus2017" />
|1838 |10,000
|1874 |17,000
|1922 |16,577
|1945 |24,400
|1961 |37,868
|1997 |119,093
|2007 |163,146 
|2017 |201,063
}}
Hebron has, historically, been an Arab city but a small Jewish community has existed since the 16th century,{{sfn|Yiftachel|Roded|2010|p=193}} encouraged to settle there by the Ottoman authorities following the [[expulsion of Jews from Spain]].{{sfn|Weber|Dubovoy|1995|p=337}} In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron.<ref name="Turnerp261">{{harvnb|Turner|1820|p=261}}</ref> In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000, including an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, and to 41 Jewish taxpayers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'.<ref name="Robinson 88"/> In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the Jews having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.<ref name="PackardUnion1842">{{cite book|author1=Frederick Adolphus Packard |title=The Union Bible Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qAaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA304|year=1842|publisher=American Sunday-School Union|page=304|quote=About four hundred families of Arabs dwell in Hebron, and about one hundred and twenty families of Jews; the latter having been greatly reduced in number by a bloody battle in 1834, between them and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.}}</ref> Its population stood at 16,577 in 1922 of which 16,074 (97%) were Muslim, 430 (2.5%) were Jewish and 73 (0.4%) were Christian.<ref name=barron>[[:File:J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine.djvu|J. B. Barron, ed. Palestine, Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Government of Palestine]], page 9</ref><ref name="CP7fYghBFQC 1936, p. 887">{{cite book|author=M. Th. Houtsma|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=PA887|volume=4|year=1993|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-09790-2|page=887}}</ref>

The Jewish community was expelled from the city following the massacre of nearly 70 Jews in 1929. However, since Israel gained control of the West Bank in 1967, Hebron and eastern Jerusalem have been the only cities in the region to receive [[Israeli settlement|Jewish settlement]].{{sfn|Yiftachel|Roded|2010|p=193}}

Hebron had a population of 201,063 [[Palestinians]] in 2017,<ref name="PrelimCensus2017" /> and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of its [[Old City of Hebron|Old City]]. Roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration, lives in the region of H2 Hebron.{{sfn|Neuman|2018|p=4}} The surrounding area forms the Hebron metropolitan area, with an estimated population of around 782,227 {{as of|2021|lc=on}}.<ref name="PNIC">[http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_Rainbow/Documents/HebronE.html "Projected Mid -Year Population for Hebron Governorate by Locality 2017-2021"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227145647/http://www.pcbs.gov.ps/Portals/_Rainbow/Documents/HebronE.html|date=February 27, 2021}} [[Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics]]. 2021.</ref> It is third largest metropolitan area in Palestine, after Gaza and Jerusalem.<ref name="PNIC" />

Hebron is also home to several ethnic minority and foreign diaspora communities.<ref name="KD">{{Cite news |last=Hercz |first=Roger |title=How Palestinians came to reject Kurdish demands for homeland |url=https://www.newarab.com/opinion/how-palestinians-came-reject-kurdish-demands-homeland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220202931/https://www.newarab.com/opinion/how-palestinians-came-reject-kurdish-demands-homeland |archive-date=December 20, 2024 |access-date=January 1, 2025 |work=The New Arab |language=en-EN |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kurds]] have been living in the city since [[Saladin]]'s [[Battle of Hattin|conquest of Palestine]].<ref name="KD" /> Along with Jerusalem and Gaza, the city is also home to [[Kurds in Palestine|Palestinians of Kurdish descent]].<ref name="KD" /> Nearly a third of the population of Hebron, is considered to be of Kurdish background.<ref name="KD" /> The Kurdish Quarter, known as ''Harat al-Akrad'', still exists today.<ref name="KD" /> Hebron is also home to a small Samaritan community, after Nablus.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Denova |first=Rebecca |title=Samaritans |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Samaritans/ |access-date=August 6, 2024 |website=World History Encyclopedia |date=February 8, 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
<!-- this needs expansion to earlier times. -->

==Economy==
[[File:Palestinian keffiyeh loom.jpg|thumb|A loom at work making keffiyeh at the Hirbawi factory in Hebron.]]
[[File:Hebron216.JPG|left|thumb|Industrial area of Hebron]]
Hebron is a leading commercial and industrial center in the Levantine region.<ref name=":4" /> The presence of [[Energy in Palestine|minerals and resources]] in surroundings have increased the city's value.<ref name=":4" /> It emerged as in important trade hub in the West Bank.<ref name=":4" /> Hebron is most productive region in the country after [[Jerusalem]]–[[Bethlehem]]–[[Ramallah]] area. The H1 Area, which is under control of [[Palestinian Authority]] have been a large contributor to the city's economy.<ref name=":4" /> Despite having tense relations, Israelis and Palestinians have strong trade relations in Hebron.<ref name=":4" /> The city is popular for its ceramics and glass industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ceramics from Hebron |url=https://palestinecenterforpeace.com.au/pages/ceramics-from-hebron |access-date=June 23, 2024 |publisher=Palestine Center for Peace}}</ref>

It is the source of 60% of stone and marble resources in the West Bank.<ref name=":4" /> 33% of the Palestine's [[GNP]] is from Hebron, including 60% of the jewelry industry and jewelry production, 28% of the output in the agricultural sector and 75% of the leather and shoe industry.<ref name=":4" /> Most agricultural products from Palestinian controlled Hebron are sent to Israel.<ref name=":4" /> Trade volume between Israel and the Palestine reaches $30 billion annually and the city trades with [[China]] as well.<ref name=":4" /> The minimum wage is 50 [[Israeli new shekel|NIS]] per day versus an average of 30 NIS per day in other Palestinian areas.<ref name=":4" />[[File:Hebron CBD night 1.jpg|thumb|Ein Sarah Street, Hebron Central Business District at night]] [[File:Inside Hebron Mall.jpg|left|thumb|Inside the Hebron City Center Mall]]From the 1970s to the early 1990s, a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry. According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat, the number reached least 35,000 people and there were more than 1,000 workshops around the city.<ref name="AJShoe">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2015/03/decline-hebron-shoe-industry-150302125843692.html|title=The decline of Hebron's shoe industry|work=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]|date=April 4, 2015}}</ref> Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40,000 people employed in 1,200 shoe businesses.<ref name="AMShoe">{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/ru/originals/2013/03/palestinian-industry-suffers-cheap-imports.htm|title=The decline of Hebron's shoe industry|work=[[Al Monitor]]|date=March 13, 2013}} {{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> However, the [[Oslo Accords|1993 Oslo Accords]] and [[Protocol on Economic Relations|1994 Paris Protocol]] between Israel and the [[PLO]] made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority, which was created after the Oslo Accords, did not regulate it. They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat, who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries's chairman, said more is still needed.<ref name="AJShoe" /> The [[Palestinian government]] decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.<ref name="AMShoe" />
90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper,<ref name="AJShoe" /> and the Chinese are more aesthetic. Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry is [[Palestinian freedom of movement|Israeli restrictions]] on Palestinian exports.<ref name="AMShoe" /> Today, there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry, who only run part-time, and they employ around 3,000–4,000 people. More than 50% of the shoes are exported to Israel, where consumers have a better economy. Less than 25% goes to the Palestinian market, with some going to [[Jordan]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and other [[Arab countries]].<ref name="AJShoe" />
[[File:زجاج الخليل.jpg|thumb|[[Hebron glass]] in a market]]
The most advanced printing press in the Middle East is in Hebron.<ref name=":4" /> Hebron is major source of import goods to Israel.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Hebron, the wealthiest, most high-tech Palestinian Authority City |date=April 6, 2016 |url=http://hebron.org.il/history/403 |access-date=March 3, 2024 |publisher=the Jewish Community of Hebron |language=en}}</ref> Mattresses manufactured in Hebron are exported to Israeli markets in [[Tel Aviv]], [[Beersheba]] and [[Haifa]].<ref name=":4" /> Around 17,000 factories and workshops are located throughout the Area H1.<ref name=":4" /> Historically, the traditional glass industry is popular in Hebron.<ref name=":4" /> A new industrial city has been built in [[Tarqumiyah]], which houses more than 140 factories. Royal Industrial Trading operates a pipe manufacturing plant in Hebron, which is spread across an area of {{Convert|40000|m2|acre|sp=us}} and employs over 650 people.<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 4, 2018 |title=visiting Royal Industrial Trading in Hebron |publisher=The Excellence Center |url=https://excellencenter.org/visiting-royal-industrial-trading-in-hebron/ |access-date=June 23, 2024 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, an electronic recycling factory was opened in [[Idna|Idhna]] and operates to this day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feature: Palestinian recycling factory commits to ending e-waste |url=http://www.news.cn/english/2021-09/08/c_1310175816.htm |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=news.cn |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623132410/http://www.news.cn/english/2021-09/08/c_1310175816.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[European Union]] and the [[World Bank]] proposed to construct a regional water treatment plant, which will treat existing sewage stream coming from 80% of the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 14, 2021 |title=Palestine: €36 million to build the Hebron regional waste water treatment plant |website=PreventionWeb |url=https://www.preventionweb.net/news/eu36-million-eu-and-world-bank-build-hebron-regional-waste-water-treatment-plant |access-date=June 23, 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The city is a hub for the jewelry industry and houses approximately 70 jewelry factories employing over 1500 workers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldfield |first=Norbert |chapter=Palestinian Working Women Society for Development: Building resilience in the Hebron Hills in Occupied Palestinian Territory |date=April 2, 2021 |title=Peace Building through Women's Health |pages=158–174 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003163657-12 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003163657-12 |isbn=978-1-003-16365-7}}</ref>

Super Nimer company manufactures sanitary ware products and water network from its factory, whose area ranges from {{Convert|30000|m2|acre|sp=us}} to {{Convert|45000|m2|acre|sp=us}}.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Successes Stories in Hebron Governorate |url=http://www.pipa.ps/page.php?id=236481y2319489Y236481 |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=pipa.ps |archive-date=June 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623132409/http://www.pipa.ps/page.php?id=236481y2319489Y236481 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Opened in 2004, Super Tiger operates a factory spread across an area of {{Convert|7|acre|m2|sp=us}}.<ref name=":5" /> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine]], Hebron rapidly transformed into a medical supplies manufacturing hub, with numerous factories installing and commissioning new production lines for the product and was approved by the [[Ministry of National Economy (Palestine)|Ministry of National Economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feature: Palestinian factories turn into medical supplies manufacturers amid coronavirus outbreak |publisher=Xinhua |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-03/16/c_138880973.htm|access-date=June 23, 2024}}</ref>

==Political status==
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| align             = left
| image1            = Hebron Redeployment Map.jpg
| caption1          = Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2.
| image2            = Hebron redeployment 1997.jpg
| caption2          = Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements
| footer            = 1997 [[Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron]]
}}

Under the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the [[Arab Higher Committee]] in Palestine and the [[Arab League]]) rejected it, opposing any partition.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Palestinian refugees in Jordan 1948–1957|last=Plascov|first=Avi|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7146-3120-2|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=daLPXTYcoewC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jerusalem question, 1917–1968|last=Bovis|first=H. Eugene|year=1971|publisher=Hoover Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8179-3291-6|page=40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1L49R1xKA6QC}}</ref> The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom of [[Jordan]] in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with the [[Protocol Concerning the Redeployment in Hebron|Hebron Agreement]], Israel withdrew from 80 percent of Hebron, which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.

An international unarmed observer force—the [[Temporary International Presence in Hebron]] (TIPH) was subsequently established to help the normalization of the situation and to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jewish population residing in their enclave in the old city. The TIPH operates with the permission of the Israeli government, meeting regularly with the Israeli army and the [[Israeli Civil Administration]], and is granted free access throughout the city. In 2018, the TIPH came under criticism in Israel due to incidents where an employee was, according to the Israeli police, filmed puncturing the tires of the car of an [[Israeli settler]], and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.<ref name=20yrs />

The post-1967 settlement in Hebron was driven by theological doctrines from the [[Mercaz HaRav Kook]], which consider the [[Land of Israel]] and its people as holy, and believe that the messianic Age of [[Redemption (theology)|Redemption]] has arrived. Hebron holds special significance in this narrative, with traditions linking it to [[Abraham]], [[King David]], and the entrance to the [[Garden of Eden]].<ref name="Røislien">Hanne Eggen Røislien,  [http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/view/14/14 "Living with Contradiction: Examining the Worldview of the Jewish Settlers in Hebron"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002002611/http://www.ijcv.org/index.php/ijcv/article/view/14/14|date=October 2, 2015}} ''[[International Journal of Conflict and Violence]]''. Vol. 1 (2). 2007. pp. 169–184, pp. 181–182.</ref> Settling in Hebron is seen as a right and duty, a favor to the world, and an example of being "a light unto the nations" (''[[Light Unto the Nations|Or la-Goyim]]'').<ref name="Røislien" />  This viewpoint has resulted in numerous violent clashes with Palestinians, which some settlers see as contributing to the messianic process.

=== Occupation and settlements ===
In 1968, Rabbi [[Moshe Levinger]] and a group of Israelis, disguised as tourists, rented the main hotel in Hebron and refused to leave.<ref>Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DF03xwLaPucC&pg=PA69 ''Jewish Terrorism in Israel'']. Columbia University Press. 2011. p. 72.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|p=356}}</ref> The government initially wanted to evacuate the settlers but eventually allowed them to relocate to a nearby military base, which became the settlement of [[Kiryat Arba]].<ref name= AIC04>[http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/opt_prot_aic_hebron_dec_2004.pdf ''Occupation in Hebron''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105174717/http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/opt_prot_aic_hebron_dec_2004.pdf|date=January 5, 2016}}, pp. 10–12. Alternative Information Center, 2004</ref> After lobbying efforts, the settlement gained support from some Israeli leaders. Over time, the settlement expanded with the [[Israeli outpost|outpost]] [[Givat Ha'avot]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gorenberg|2007|pp=205, 359}}.</ref> The operation was planned and financed by the [[Movement for Greater Israel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lustick|1988|p=205 n.1}}</ref> In 2011, the [[Israeli Supreme Court]] ruled that Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron before 1948 and are not entitled to compensation for their losses.<ref name="Levinsohn2011" /> Originally named Hesed l'Avraham, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations of [[Baghdadi Jews|Baghdadi Jewish]] families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed after [[Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America]], which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.<ref name= HbJ>{{harvnb|Auerbach|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ooUqc8snyZUC&pg=PA60 60]}}</ref> In 1979, a group of 15 settler mothers and their 35 children squatted in the Dabouia building in Hebron, exploiting the government's indecision during [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|negotiations with Egypt]].{{sfn|Neuman|2018|pp=79-80}} Led by Miriam Levinger, they established a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement and created conflict with Arab shopkeepers.<ref name=":3">{{harvnb|Perera|1996|pp=178}}: "As I made my way to the Machpelah, I passed a curious scene. The Hadassah hospital of Hebron, which is Arab-administered, had been taken over by Israeli women of Kiryat Arba, the new settlement on the hill overlooking the city. Miriam Levinger, wife of Moshe Levinger, the militant right-wing rabbi who founded Kiryat Arba, was screaming in her Brooklyn-accented Hebrew at the Palestinian police, who were – very politely – attempting to remove the women from the hospital grounds."</ref> A retaliatory attack by a Palestinian group resulted in the death of six yeshiva students.<ref name=":3" /> Despite appeals to the Israeli Supreme Court, the settlers remained.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vitullo |first=Anita |year=2003 |title=People Tied to Place: Strengthening Cultural Identity in Hebron's Old City |journal=Journal of Palestine Studies |volume=33 |issue=1 |page=72 |doi=10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.68 |issn=0377-919X}}</ref> The following year, the government legitimized residency in Hebron and expelled the elected mayor.<ref>{{harvnb|Kretzmer|2002|pp=117–18}}</ref> This pattern of settlement followed by hostilities with Palestinians was repeated in Tel Rumeida.<ref>{{harvnb|Falah|1985|p=253}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bouckaert|2001|p=86}}</ref>{{sfn|Neuman|2018|pp=79-80}}[[File:Abraham Avinu Synagogue, Hebron.jpg|thumb|Abraham Avinu Synagogue in 1925]]
The [[Abraham Avinu Synagogue]] was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine. It was the center of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the [[1929 Hebron massacre|1929 riots]]. In 1948 under Jordanian rule, the remaining ruins were razed.<ref>{{harvnb|Auerbach|2009|pp=40, 45, 79}}</ref> The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets on [[Al-Shuhada Street]] in the south of the Old City. The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighboring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers. Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores, despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return.<ref name= AIC04/> {{ill|Beit Romano|fr|Beit Romano}} was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano of [[Constantinople]] and served [[History of the Jews in Turkey|Sephardi Jews from Turkey]]. In 1901, a [[yeshiva]] was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students.<ref name= HbJ/> In 1982, Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office (Osama Ben Munqez School) and the adjacent bus station. The school was turned into a settlement, and the bus station into a military base against an order of the [[Israeli Supreme Court]].<ref name= AIC04/> In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri (Haim the [[Egyptian Jews|Jewish Egyptian]]) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots in [[Tel Rumeida]]. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.<ref>{{harvnb|Platt|2012|pp=79–80}}.</ref> In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called Ramat Yeshai. In 1998, the government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 the [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|Defence Minister]] approved the building of the first housing units.<ref name= AIC04/>

In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation.<ref>Levinson, Chaim. [https://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/idf-brass-calls-for-immediate-removal-of-new-hebron-settlement-1.422007 "IDF brass calls for immediate removal of new Hebron settlement."] ''Haaretz''. April 2, 2012.</ref> The IDF, in accordance with settler demands, requested the removal of a Palestinian flag on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice. According to Palestinians, the IDF negotiated the removal of the flag in exchange for the release of a resident of Hebron from legal custody.<ref>Chaim Levinson (March 17, 2014). [https://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/.premium-1.580203 "Following settlers' demand, IDF removes Palestinian flag from Hebron roof"]. ''[[Haaretz]]''.</ref> In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound of ''Plugat Hamitkanim'' in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.<ref>[http://www.maannews.com/Content.aspx?id=772789 "Watchdog: Expansion of Hebron settlements amounts to 'right of return for Jews only"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917031714/http://www.maannews.com/Content.aspx?id=772789|date=September 17, 2016}} [[Ma'an News Agency]]. August 22, 2016.</ref> In late 2019, the Israeli Defense Minister [[Naftali Bennett]] instructed the [[Israeli Civil Administration|military administration]] to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighborhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after the [[Cave of the Patriarchs massacre]]. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.<ref>Hagar Shezaf (December 1, 2019). [https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-israel-plans-new-jewish-neighborhood-in-hebron-s-abandoned-arab-market-1.8201992 "Israel Plans New Jewish Neighborhood in Hebron's Arab Market"]. ''[[Haaretz]]''.</ref><ref>Elisha Ben Kimon, Yoav Zitun, Elior Levy (December 1, 2019). [https://www.ynetnews.com/article/HJOLZK11ar "Bennett plans building Jewish neighborhood in Hebron"]. [[Ynet]].</ref><ref>Yumna Patel (December 4, 2019). [https://mondoweiss.net/2019/12/israels-plan-to-build-new-settlement-atop-old-hebron-market-evokes-painful-memories-for-residents/ "Israel's plan to build new settlement atop Hebron market evokes painful memories for residents"]. ''[[Mondoweiss]]''.</ref>

== Culture ==

=== Tourism ===
{{main|Old City of Hebron}}
[[File:Hebron Old city-souq.jpg|thumb|[[Bazaar|''Souk'']] in Old City of Hebron]]
Hebron is home to numerous mosques, synagogues, churches, parks, palaces, castles and forts.<ref name=":10" /> The [[Old City of Hebron]] was a declared a Palestinian [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]] on July 7, 2017.<ref name="OldTownofHebron">{{cite news |last=Adamczyk |first=Ed |title=UNESCO declares Hebron, West Bank, a world heritage site |language=en |publisher=UPI |date=July 7, 2017 |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2017/07/07/UNESCO-declares-Hebron-West-Bank-a-world-heritage-site/3011499431429/ |access-date=July 7, 2017}}</ref> The move caused controversies and faced opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it being called as Palestinian site, instead of Israeli.<ref name="ABC UNESCO">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/unesco-puts-city-hebron-heritage-danger-list-48495103 |title=Israelis outraged by UNESCO decision on Hebron holy site | publisher=ABC News |agency=Associated Press |date=July 7, 2017 |access-date=July 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707222506/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/unesco-puts-city-hebron-heritage-danger-list-48495103 |archive-date=July 7, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=October 24, 2011 |title=# THE FUNAMBULIST PAPERS 13 /// A Visit to The Old City of Hebron by Raja Shehadeh |url=https://thefunambulist.net/editorials/guest-writers-essays-13-a-visit-to-the-old-city-of-hebron-by-raja-shehadeh |access-date=July 31, 2024 |website=THE FUNAMBULIST MAGAZINE |language=en-GB}}</ref> It is one of the best preserved sites of the [[Mamluk]] era.<ref name=":10" />

* The most famous site in Hebron is the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]].<ref name=":10" /> The [[Herodian architecture|Herodian era structure]] is said to enclose the tombs of the biblical [[Patriarchs]] and [[Matriarchs (Bible)|Matriarchs]].<ref name=":10" /> The site is known for the burial place of [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], along with their wives [[Sarah]], [[Rebecca (biblical figure)|Rebecca]] and [[Leah]] respectively.<ref name=":10" /> The Isaac Hall now serves as the Ibrahimi mosque, while the Abraham and Jacob Hall serve as a synagogue.<ref name=":10" /> 
* The tombs of other biblical figures – [[Abner|Abner ben Ner]], [[Othniel|Otniel ben Kenaz]], [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] and [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]] are also located in the city.<ref name=":10" /> It is reverred to Christians, Muslims and Jews.<ref name=":10" /> These sites are located in the H2 region, which is controlled by the Israeli authorities.
* The early Ottoman-era [[Abraham Avinu Synagogue]] in the city's historic Jewish Quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738.<ref name=":10" />
* Mosques from the era include the [[Sheikh Ali al-Bakka Mosque|Sheikh Ali al-Bakka]] and [[Al-Jawali Mosque|Al-Jawali]] mosque.

Hebron is also home to several sites for Christian worship, with numerous churches located around the city.<ref name=":10" /> The [[Oak of Sibta]] (Oak of Abraham) is an ancient tree which, in non-Jewish tradition,<ref>{{harvnb|Finn|1868|p=184}}:'the great oak of Sibta, commonly called Abraham's oak by most people except the Jews, who do not believe in any Abraham's oak there. The great patriarch planted, indeed, a grove at Beersheba; but the "Eloné Mamre" they declare to have been "plains", not "oaks", (which would be Alloné Mamre,) and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron.'</ref> is said to mark the place where Abraham pitched his tent.<ref name=":10" /> The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] owns the site and the nearby [[Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery]], consecrated in 1925.<ref name=":10" /> Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved its [[Mamluk architecture]].<ref name=":10" /> Many structures were built during the period, especially Sufi [[Zawiya (institution)|zawiya]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Museum With No Frontiers|title=Pilgrimage, sciences and Sufism: Islamic art in the West Bank and Gaza|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bqMVAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Édisud|isbn=978-9953-36-064-5|page=200}}</ref><ref name=":10" />

Other sites:

* Situated on the northeast of the city, Wadi al–Quff Natural Reserve is visited by 2,000 people, mostly on weekends.<ref name=":17" /> It is currently under the management of the Palestinian government.<ref name=":17" /> 
* Aristobolia (''[[Khirbet]] [[Istanbul]]''), in south of Hebron, near [[Zif, Hebron|Zif]] village, is home to Byzantine-era [[basilica]], built during the beginning of [[Islamic History|Islamic era]].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |title=The Undiscovered Archaeological Riches of Hebron |url=https://thisweekinpalestine.com/the-undiscovered-archaeological-riches-of-hebron/ |access-date=August 3, 2024 |website=This Week in Palestine |language=en-US}}</ref> 
* ''Khirbet al–Karmil'' is home to Crusader pool, ruined Byzantine church and Crusader fortress.<ref name=":16" /> 
* [[As-Samu]] is an ancient biblical village, currently a modern town.<ref name=":16" /> It is home to 4th century synagogue, numerous Ottoman-era structure and an Islamic building, probably built during the time of [[Saladin]] of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]].<ref name=":16" />

=== Religious traditions ===
[[File:Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery.jpg|left|thumb|[[Church of the Holy Forefathers and Monastery of the Holy Trinity|Russian Orthodox Monastery in Hebron]]]]
Some Jewish traditions regarding [[Adam]] place him in Hebron after his expulsion from [[Garden of Eden|Eden]]. Another has [[Cain]] kill [[Abel]] there. A third has [[Adam and Eve]] buried in the cave of Machpelah. A Jewish-Christian tradition had it that Adam was formed from the red clay of the field of [[Damascus]], near Hebron.<ref name="Vilnay 1973 170–172">{{harvnb|Vilnay|1973|pp=170–72}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bSpJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA223 Miscellanies of divinitie: divided into three books] Edward Kellet, 1633. p. 223: "Sixthly, the field of Damascus, where the red earth lieth, of which they report Adam was formed; which earth is tough, and may be wrought like wax, and lieth close by Hebron."</ref> A tradition arose in medieval Jewish texts that the Cave of the Patriarchs itself was the very entrance to the [[Garden of Eden]].<ref>{{harvnb|Neuman|2018|p=1}}</ref> During the Middle Ages, pilgrims and the inhabitants of Hebron would eat the red earth as a charm against misfortune.<ref>{{cite book|author=Marcus Milwright|title=The Fortress of the Raven: Karak in the Middle Islamic Period (1100 -1650)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7w7TW4NVBcC&pg=PA119|year=2008|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-16519-9|page=119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. G. R. Forlong|title=Encyclopedia of Religions Or Faiths of Man 1906, Part 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jz-6wHrg2QC&pg=PA220|year=2003|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-0-7661-4308-1|page=220}} {{dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Others report that the soil was harvested for export as a precious medicinal spice in [[Egypt]], [[Arabia]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[India]] and that the earth refilled after every digging.<ref name="Vilnay 1973 170–172"/> Legend also tells that [[Noah]] planted his vineyard on Mount Hebron.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zev Vilnay|title=The Sacred land|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEUwAAAAYAAJ|volume=2|year=1975|publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America|isbn=978-0-8276-0064-5|page=47}}</ref> In [[History of Christianity#Early Middle Ages (476–842)|medieval Christian]] tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities where [[Elizabeth (Biblical person)|Elizabeth]] was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace of [[John the Baptist]].<ref>{{harvnb|Craveri|1967|p=25}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Milman|1840|p=49}}.</ref>

One Islamic tradition has it that [[Muhammad]] alighted in Hebron during his [[Isra and Mi'raj|night journey]] from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes.<ref>{{harvnb|Gil|1997|p=100}}.</ref> Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part of [[Tamim al-Dari]]'s domain; this was implemented during [[Umar]]'s reign as caliph. According to the arrangement, al-Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and the ''[[waqf]]'' of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them.<ref>{{harvnb|Levi della Vida|1993|p=648}}</ref> The ''simat al-Khalil'' or "Table of Abraham" is attested to in the writings of the 11th century [[Persian people|Persian]] traveler [[Nasir-i Khusraw]].<ref name=":10" /> According to the account, this early Islamic food distribution center — which predates the Ottoman ''[[imaret]]s'' — gave all visitors to Hebron a loaf of bread, a bowl of [[lentil]]s in [[olive oil]], and some [[raisins]].<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-136-49894-7| last = Woodhead| first = Christine| title = The Ottoman World| page=73 |date = December 15, 2011}}</ref>

According to Tamara Neuman, settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins: remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship, that, she argues, effectively erases the [[diaspora|diasporic thrust]] of Jewish tradition; and writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated, while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods.<ref>{{harvnb|Neuman|2018|p=5|ps=: "This narrowed or fundamentalist focus involves three further changes that are also useful for framing this study: the first is that religiously inscribed space, particularly the remaking of many Palestinian areas into a geography of biblical sites and origins, has been given a new significance in the construction of a distinct Jewish (settler) identity. Spatial reorganization has also resulted in a range of incremental practices included under the rubric of religion that link up with this process of inscription— including renaming, reenvisioning, and rebuilding. These practices in turn support and magnify resolute place-based attachments. The second shift is that these remade biblical sites, specifically in Hebron and within the Tomb of the Patriarchs itself, are being given a new centrality in Jewish observance, one that largely cancels out the exilic orientation of Jewish tradition. They give rise to a form of Jewish observance focusing on exact origins and specific graves to the exclusion of a more characteristic yearning for the messianic future. Third, the final change entails writing out the many historical convergences between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam reflected in the traditions themselves so as to eliminate possibilities for accommodating difference, while using Jewish observance and forms of direct violence in order to erase the presence of an existing Palestinian population."}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths=180>
File:المستشفى الأهلي.jpg|Al-Ahli Arab Hospital, Hebron
File:دورا الحكومي.jpg|Dura Hospital
File:Hebron-79924.jpg|A Palestinian woman from Hebron wearing [[Palestinian traditional costumes|Palestinian traditional dress]] in 1947
File:Qedra (1).jpg|''[[Qidreh|Qidra]]'' or ''[[Qidreh]]'', is a famous dishes from the city of Hebron
</gallery>

==Twin towns / sister cities==
Hebron is [[twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with:

{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* '''[[Amman]],''' (Jordan)
* '''[[Beyoğlu]],''' (Turkey)
* '''[[Bursa]], ''' (Turkey)
* '''[[Casablanca]], Morocco'''
* '''[[Derby]]''', England<ref>[http://www.derbytelegraph.co.uk/History-Derby-sister-city-Hebron-Palestine/story-20973895-detail/story.html History made as Derby becomes 'sister city' of Hebron, Palestine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923231045/http://www.derbytelegraph.co.uk/History-Derby-sister-city-Hebron-Palestine/story-20973895-detail/story.html |date=September 23, 2015}}, ''Derby Telegraph''</ref>
* '''[[Fez, Morocco|Fez]],''' (Morocco)
* '''[[Jajmau]]''' (India)
* '''[[Keçiören]],''' (Turkey)
* '''[[Kraljevo]]''', Serbia<ref>{{cite web |script-title=sr:Братски и партнерски градови и општине |language=sr |trans-title=Sister and partner cities and municipalities |publisher=Kraljevo |url=https://www.kraljevo.rs/kontakt/bratski-i-partnerski-gradovi-i-opstine/?script=lat}}</ref>
* '''[[Medina]],''' (Saudi Arabia)
* '''[[Saint-Pierre-des-Corps]],''' (France)
* '''[[Urfa|Şanlıurfa]],''' (Turkey)
* '''[[Yiwu]],''' (China)
{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Shabab Al-Khalil SC]], the town's [[association football|football]] team
* [[Palestinian Child Arts Center]]
* [[List of burial places of biblical figures]]
* [[List of people from Hebron]]
* [[Oak of Mamre]], Christian holy site, historically near Hebron but now inside the city, distinct from the Terebinth of Mamre
* [[Abraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery]], Russian Orthodox monastery at the "Oak of Mamre"

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|20em}}

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*{{Cite book
  |title = The Crescent on the Temple: The Dome of the Rock as Image of the Ancient Jewish Sanctuary
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*{{Cite book
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*{{Cite book
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*{{Cite book
 |chapter       = Remembering Jewish-Arab Contact and Conflict
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*{{Cite book
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*{{Cite book
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Human rights in the Israeli-occupied territories, 1967–1982
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*{{Cite book
 |title       = Year Zero of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1929
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*{{Cite book
 |title       = Tent Work in Palestine. A Record of Discovery and Adventure
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 |year        = 1879
 |volume      = 2
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*{{Cite book
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  |title = Arab-Israeli Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric War
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*{{Cite book
  |title = To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Cultural Heritage Beyond the "state": Palestinian Heritage Between Nationalism and Transnationalism
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*{{Cite book
  |title = The Social Location of the Visions of Amram (4Q543-547)
  |series = Studies in biblical literature
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*{{Cite book
 |chapter       = Hebron
 |title         = Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: a historical encyclopedia
 |last          = Dumper
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*{{Cite book
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*{{Cite book
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  |chapter = Sharing Sacred Space in the Holy Land
  |title = Cultural encounters with the environment: enduring and evolving geographic themes
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*{{Cite book
  |chapter = Recent Colonization in Hebron
  |title = The Impact of Gush Emunim: politics and settlement in the West Bank
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  |title = Hebron welcomes pull-out
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*Frenkel, Yehoshua (2011). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23409608?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ''Hebron — An Islamic Sacred City (634–1099)''] (in JSTOR) (חברון — עיר קודש אסלאמית 634–1099 לסה"נ) (''Catedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv'', issue 141, p.&nbsp;27 – 52) {{in lang|he}}
*{{A History of Palestine, 634-1099}}
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 |chapter      = Religion and Genocide
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*{{Cite news
  |title = Ancient Toilet Reveals the Unique Way the Israelites Fought Idol-worship
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  |title = Abraham in Mamre: Historische und exegetische Studien zur Region von Hebron und zu Genesis 11, 27 – 19, 38
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 |title=Hebron settlers try to buy more homes
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  |title = The Palestinian people: a history
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  |publisher = Harvard University Press
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*{{Cite journal |title = Un nouveau récit de l'invention des Patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob à Hebron
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  |journal = [[Revue de l'Orient Latin]]
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  |last = Kosover
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  |year = 1966
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*{{Cite journal |title = The Early Cult of Hebron and Judg. 16:1–3
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  |journal = The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
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  |chapter = The Life of Moses Ben Maimon
  |title = Judaism in Practice: From the Middle Ages Through the Early Modern Period
  |last = Kraemer
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  |publisher = Princeton University Press
  |year = 2001
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  |title = The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories
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  |title = The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine
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  |publisher = Brill
  |year = 1987
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*{{Cite book
  |title = A Separate People: Jewish Women in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt in the Sixteenth Century
  |last = Lamdan
  |first = Ruth
  |publisher = Brill
  |series = Brill's Series in Jewish Studies
  |volume = 26
  |year = 2000
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  |title = La question de Palestine: 1799–1922, l'invention de la terre sainte
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  |location = Paris
  |year = 1999
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*{{Cite book
 |chapter       = New Aramaic Ostraca from Idumea and their Historical Interpretation
 |title         = Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period
 |last          = Lemaire
 |first         = A.
 |author-link   = André Lemaire
 |editor1-last  = Lipschitz
 |editor1-first = Oded
 |editor2-last  = Oeming
 |editor2-first = Manfred
 |publisher     = Eisenbrauns
 |year          = 2006
 |pages         = 413–456
 |isbn          = 978-1-57506-104-7
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  |title = Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from AD 650 to 1500.
  |last = Le Strange
  |first = G.
  |author-link = Guy Le Strange
  |publisher = Alexander P. Watt
  |location = London
  |year = 1890
  |isbn = 978-1-143-27239-4
  |url = https://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft
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*{{Cite book
  |chapter = Tamīm al-Dārī
  |title = E.J. Brill's first encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936
  |last = Levi della Vida
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  |author-link = Giorgio Levi della Vida
  |editor1-last = Houtsma
  |editor1-first = M.T.
  |editor1-link = Martin Theodoor Houtsma
  |editor2-last = Arnold
  |editor2-first = T.W.
  |editor2-link = Thomas Walker Arnold
  |publisher = Brill
  |year = 1993
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  |pages = 646–648
  |volume = VIII
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*{{Cite book
  |title = West Bank Diary: Middle East Violence as Reported by a Former American Hostage
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  |author-link = Jerry Levin (journalist)
  |publisher = Hope Publishing House
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  |isbn = 978-1-932717-03-7
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*{{Cite news
  |title = Border Police, Hebron's substitute for summer camp counselors
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  |work = [[Haaretz]]
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*{{Cite book
  |title = The Other Lands of Israel: Imaginations of the Land in 2 Baruch
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  |first = Liv Ingeborg
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  |title = My Israel Question
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  |title = For the Land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel
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  |author-link = Ian Lustick
  |publisher = Council on Foreign Relations
  |location = New York
  |year = 1988
  |isbn = 978-0-87609-036-7
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*{{Cite book
 |chapter       = The Dating of the First Phase of the Samaritan Temple on Mt Gerizim in Light of Archaeological Evidence
 |title         = Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century BCE.
 |last          = Magen
 |first         = Yitzakh
 |editor1-last  = Lipschitz
 |editor1-first = Oded
 |editor2-last  = Knoppers
 |editor2-first = Gary N.
 |editor3-last  = Albertz
 |editor3-first = Rainer
 |publisher     = Eisenbrauns
 |year          = 2007
 |pages         = 157–212
 |isbn          = 978-1-575-06130-6
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*{{Cite book
  |title = The Jew in the American world: a source book
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Encyclopedia of the Palestinians
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  |publisher = Infobase Publishing
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*{{Cite news
  |title = Settlers' Defiance Reflects Postwar Israeli Changes
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  |first = Jennifer
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Medieval Islamic Civilization
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*{{Cite book
  |chapter = Eastern Christianities (eleventh to fourteenth century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites
  |title = Eastern Christianity
  |series = The Cambridge History of Christianity
  |last = Micheau
  |first = Françoise
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  |title = The history of Christianity: from the birth of Christ to the abolition of paganism in the Roman Empire
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  |author-link = Henry Hart Milman
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*{{Cite book
 |chapter       = Qirya
 |title         = Theological dictionary of the Old Testament
 |last          = Mulder
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 |editor1-last  = Botterweck
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 |year          = 2004
 |volume        = 13
 |pages         = 164–167
 |isbn          = 978-0-8028-2337-3
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  |title = The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700
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*{{Cite book
 |title       = Canaan in the 2nd Millennium BCE
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 |first       = Nadav
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 |isbn        = 978-1-575-06113-9
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*{{Cite book |title = The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land
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*{{Cite book
 |title     = Settling Hebron : Jewish Fundamentalism in a Palestinian City
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 |first     = Tamara
 |publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]
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  |title = The Origin Myths and Holy Places in the Old Testament: A Study of Aetiological Narratives
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*{{Cite book  |title = Jewish Terrorism in Israel
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  |publisher = Columbia University Press
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*{{Cite news
  |title = Details of Hebron Massacre: List of victims of the incident and subsequent disturbances
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  |publisher = Palestine Human Rights Information Center
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  |title = The Cross and the Pear Tree: A Sephardic Journey
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  |title = City of Abraham: History, Myth and Memory: A Journey through Hebron
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  |title = The life of Jesus
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  |title = Reinventing Jerusalem: Israel's Reconstruction of the Jewish Quarter after 1967
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*{{Cite book
  |title = The Crusades, c. 1071– c. 1291
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*{{Cite book
  |title = A History of Jordan
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  |title = Biblical researches in Palestine, 1838–52. A journal of travels in the year 1838
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*{{Cite book
  |title = Live by the Sword: Israel's Struggle for Existence in the Holy Land
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  |year = 2011
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  |title = The Palestinians: in search of a just peace
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  |title = A History of the Crusades:The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem
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  |year = 1965a
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*{{Cite book
  |title = A History of the Crusades:The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100–1187
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  |author-link = Steven Runciman
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  |year = 1965b
  |orig-year = 1952
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*{{Cite book
  |title = A History of the Crusades:The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades
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*{{Cite book
  |chapter = Hebron
  |title = The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church
  |last = Salaville
  |first = Sévérien
  |editor1-last = Herbermann
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  |title = Preliminary Report on the Events in Hebron as presented by Commanding Officer of the Central Command General Dani Yatom Before the Diplomatic Corps
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  |title =   West Bank Palestinians Are Also Going Hungry. This 800 Year-old Soup Kitchen Is Stepping Up
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  |newspaper = [[Haaretz]]
  |date = April 8, 2024
|url =https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/palestinians/2024-04-08/ty-article-magazine/.premium/west-bank-palestinians-are-also-going-hungry-an-800-year-old-soup-kitchen-is-stepping-up/0000018e-be16-db65-a7af-fe9e22950000
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*{{Cite book |publisher=Karl Baedeker |location=Leipsig |title=Palestine and Syria |year=1876 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoIDAAAAQAAJ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoIDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279 |chapter=Hebron}}
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Hebron |volume= 13 |last= Macalister |first= Robert Alexander Stewart |author-link= Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister| pages = 192&ndash;193 |short= 1}}
*{{Cite book |publisher=J. Murray |location=London |title=Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine |date=1858 |oclc=2300777 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/ahandbookfortra00portgoog#page/n138/mode/2up |chapter=Hebron}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Hebron}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20151207001922/http://www.hebron-city.ps/ www.hebron-city.ps]
*[http://www.pbase.com/rdavid/hebron Photographs of Hebron]
*[http://www.hebron.com/  english Hebron.com – English]
*[http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/ Collection of Palestinian articles on Hebron published by ''"This Week in Palestine"'']
*[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/pdf/census_hebron.pdf Sephardic Studies] 1839 Sephardic census of Ottoman-controlled Hebron.
*{{cite web |author=ArchNet.org |publisher=MIT School of Architecture and Planning |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA |url=http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2247 |title=Hebron |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105174049/http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2247 |archive-date=January 5, 2014}}
*[https://app.box.com/s/no70ci49vgl5uu98102n ''Settlement Encroachments in Hebron Old City'']. Photo's/maps of settlements and closed roads. Hebron Rehabilitation Committee, April 1, 2014.
*[https://mapsengine.google.com/map/viewer?mid=zJkDcCGYaj8Q.koBtxSNYrqT4 Settlements on GoogleMaps]
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Hebron.html Ancient Canaanite and Biblical Hebron (Tel Rumeida) in Israel]

{{Cities in the West Bank}}
{{Hebron Governorate|state=collapsed}}
{{Holy sites in Judaism}}
{{Towns depopulated during the First Jewish–Roman War}}
{{Villages destroyed during the Bar Kokhba revolt}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Hebron| ]]
[[Category:Bronze Age sites in Palestine]]
[[Category:Canaanite cities]]
[[Category:13 Kohanic cities]]
[[Category:Cities of Refuge]]
[[Category:Cities in the West Bank]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Historic Jewish communities]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible cities]]
[[Category:Torah cities]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 4th millennium BC]]
[[Category:Former national capitals]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Palestine]]
[[Category:Holy cities of Judaism]]