View source for Health in Mali

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[[File:Getting UK aid to those who need it most (8511071806).jpg|thumb|400px|Distributing food aid in Mali.]]
[[Mali]], one of the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|world's poorest nations]], is greatly affected by [[poverty]], [[malnutrition]], epidemics, and inadequate [[hygiene]] and [[sanitation]]. Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world, with little improvement over the last 20 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/170250/1/9789240694439_eng.pdf?ua=1&ua=1|title = World Health Organization|date = 2015|access-date = 1 November 2015|website = WHO World Health Statistics 2015|publisher = World Health Organization}}</ref> Progress is impeded by Mali's poverty<ref name=":16"/> and by a lack of physicians.<ref name=":1" /> The [[Tuareg rebellion (2012)|2012 conflict in northern Mali]] exacerbated difficulties in delivering health services to refugees living in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Mali clashes force 120 000 from homes|url = http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mali-clashes-force-120-000-from-homes-20120222|website = News24|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> With a landlocked, agricultural-based economy, Mali is highly vulnerable to climate change.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-21 |title=Mali Country Profile {{!}} Mali |url=https://www.usaid.gov/mali/fact-sheet/mali-country-profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323133233/https://www.usaid.gov/mali/fact-sheet/mali-country-profile |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=U.S. Agency for International Development |language=en}}</ref>  A catastrophic harvest in 2023 together with escalations in armed conflict have exacerbated food insecurity in Northern and Central Mali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Publication preview page {{!}} FAO {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc5215en |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=FAODocuments |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc5215en}}</ref>   

A new measure of expected [[human capital]] calculated for 195 countries from 1990 to 2016 and defined for each birth cohort as the expected years lived from age 20 to 64 years and adjusted for educational attainment, learning or education quality, and functional health status was published by [[The Lancet]] in September 2018. Mali had the fifth lowest level of expected human capital countries with 3 health, education, and learning-adjusted expected years lived between age 20 and 64 years. This was a notable improvement over 1990 when its score was 0, the lowest of all.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lim |first1=Stephen |last2=et |first2=al |title=Measuring human capital: a systematic analysis of 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31941-X/fulltext |access-date=5 November 2018 |publisher=Lancet}}</ref>

== Health infrastructure ==
Although Mali has its own health care, with a governmental constitution that advocates countrywide health, Mali is heavily dependent upon international development organizations and foreign missionary groups for much of its health care.<ref name=":15" /> In 2015, the health expenditure by the government was only 5.8% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data|title=Human Development Data (1990-2017)|website=United Nations Human Development Programme|access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref>

===Hospitals===
[[File:Mali regions map.png|thumb|250px]]
Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, especially outside of [[Bamako]], and medicines are in short supply.<ref name="cp" /> In 2019, there  were 1,478 medical facilities in [[Maili]], including 18 government and university hospitals.  The additional medical facilities included polyclinics, clinics, and health centers.   The other facilities are small health centers and posts.<ref name=Data>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/malaria/areas/surveillance/public-sector-health-facilities-ss-africa/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422034044/https://www.who.int/malaria/areas/surveillance/public-sector-health-facilities-ss-africa/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 22, 2019|title=A spatial database of health facilities managed by the public health sector in sub-Saharan Africa|website=World Health Organization|access-date=May 8, 2020|date=February 11, 2019}}</ref>  The table below lists the hospitals, region, type, ownership, and coordinates:

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" summary="Hospitals in Mali"
|+ Hospitals in Mali
|-
!Name
!Region
!Type
!Ownership
!Coordinates
!Ref
|-
|CHU<ref>French: Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire or CHU</ref> Cnos||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.636701|-8.00353|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Chu Cnos Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|CHU Gabriel Toure||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.651171|-7.99438|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Chu Gabriel Toure Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref name=London>{{cite web|url=http://www.londonnews247.com/hospitals-in-mali/|title=Hospitals in Mali|website=London Daily News|date=10 December 2016 |access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref><ref name=USEmbassy /><ref name=UKEmbassy />
|-
|CHU Point G||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.669921|-7.99982|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Chu Point G Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref name=London /><ref name=USEmbassy /><ref name=UKEmbassy />
|-
|Institut d’Ophtalmologie Tropicale de l’Afrique (IOTA) Hopital||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.652|-7.99407|type:landmark|display=inline|name=IOTA Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref name=London /><ref name=USEmbassy /><ref name=UKEmbassy>{{cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/601869/Mali_Local_Services_Lists_-_medical_facilities_list_2017.pdf|title=List of medical facilities/practitioners in Mali|website=British Embassy, Bamako|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Mali Gavardo Hopital||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.58341|-8.05005|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Mali Gavardo Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Mali Hopital||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.63035|-7.9092|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Mali Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref name=USEmbassy>{{cite web|url=https://ml.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2020-17-March-Local-Medical-Care-Physicians-List-Bamako-Mali.pdf|title=Local Medical Care Physicians list for Bamako, Mali|website=US Embassy, Bamako|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref><ref name=UKEmbassy />
|-
|Golden Life American Hospital||[[Bamako]]||Hospital||Private||{{coord|12.623821111221222|-7.995236859366405|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Golden Life American Hospital}}||<ref name=USEmbassy /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://goldenlifehospital.com/en/|title=Golden Life Hospital|website=Golden Life American Hospital|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Pasteur Polyclinic||[[Bamako]]||Polyclinic||Private||{{coord|12.636837997310593|-8.020427954049337|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Pasteur Polyclinic}}||<ref name=UKEmbassy /><ref name=USEmbassy />
|-
|Gao Hopital||[[Gao]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|16.26849235|-0.0502213949999|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Gao Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Fousseyni Daou Hopital||[[Kayes]]||Regional Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|14.4489656383|-11.4348404861|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Fousseyni Daou Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fistulacare.org/countries/past-countries/mali/#kayes|title=Kayes Hospital|website=USAID|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Kati Hopital||[[Koulikoro]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|12.71684|-8.05018|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Kati Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Sevare Hopital||[[Mopti]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|14.52457497|-4.094687899|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Sevare Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Somino Dolo Hopital||[[Mopti]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|14.49661|-4.19584|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Somino Dolo Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Nianakoro Fomba Hopital||[[Segou]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|13.43355|-6.25017|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Nianakoro Fomba Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Segou Regional Hopital||[[Segou]]||Regional Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|13.44288|-6.268655|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Segou Regional Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|-
|Sikasso Hopital||[[Sikasso]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|11.31604497|-5.6618404|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Sikasso Hopital}}||<ref name=Data /><ref name=USAID>{{cite web|url=https://fistulacare.org/countries/past-countries/mali/#sikasso|title=Sikasso Hospital|website=USAID|access-date=January 15, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Tombouctou Hopital||[[Tombouctou Region|Tombouctou]]||Hospital||Govt.||{{coord|16.76618535|-3.007772523|type:landmark|display=inline|name=Tombouctou Hopital}}||<ref name=Data />
|}
{{GeoGroup}}

=== Physician availability ===
There are three major public hospitals in the greater [[Bamako]] region. However, Mali still lacks a great number of physicians, as there are only .08 physicians per 10 000 citizens.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The World Factbook|url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2226.html|website = www.cia.gov|access-date = 2015-11-02|archive-date = 2013-04-26|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130426202303/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2226.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2009, there were only 729 physicians in the entire country of more than 10 million people.<ref name=":16"/>

==== Doctors Without Borders ====
In Northern Mali, there are very little areas in which civilians could ask for medical assistance. Health authorities have proven to be unable to manage epidemics within the populations in northern Mali, and this gap has been filled by the [[Doctors without borders|Doctors Without Borders]]  association, also known as Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Since the coming of the MSF, more than 40,000 children have been protected from malaria and improved regional hospitals. The struggle still remains in the fact that over 40% of people in some regions must walk 9 miles to the nearest health clinic.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title = Mali|url = http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/country-region/mali|website = MSF USA|access-date = 2015-11-02}}</ref> Much of northern Mali has been afflicted with conflict, resulting in many refugees.

In southern Mali, which is more peaceful, MSF has worked to improve hospital bed numbers and malaria vaccinations.<ref name=":11" />

==== Governmental actions ====
[[File:Kità.Malì consegna ambulanza.JPG|thumb|300px|An ambulance in Mali.]]

In 2009 the government of Mali aided by the Chinese government began construction of a fourth in Missabougou quarter, Bamako, to be named "''Hôpital du Mali''".<ref>[http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/malian-leader-lays-foundation-stone-for-150-bed-hospital-2009041225400.html Malian leader lays foundation stone for 150-bed hospital] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416184800/http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/malian-leader-lays-foundation-stone-for-150-bed-hospital-2009041225400.html |date=2009-04-16 }}. PANA Press. 2009-04-11.</ref> However, the government as invested minimally into health (2.9%), rendering most major projects unable to be carried out.<ref name=":14" /> Organizations like the Health Policy Project (HPP) have been pushing for more government resources for health.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Mali|url = http://www.healthpolicyproject.com/index.cfm?id=country-Mali|website = www.healthpolicyproject.com|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Furthermore, a study by the Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology (ICHE) has determined that help from the World Health Organization in the sanitation and health of Malians was feasible and effective.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Successful Implementation of the World Health Organization Hand Hygiene Improvement Strategy in a Referral Hospital in Mali, Africa|url = http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0195941700028666|journal = Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology|date = 2010-02-01|issn = 1559-6834|pages = 133–141|volume = 31|issue = 2|doi = 10.1086/649823|first1 = Benedetta|last1 = Allegranzi|first2 = Hugo|last2 = Sax|first3 = Loséni|last3 = Bengaly|first4 = Hervé|last4 = Riebet|first5 = Daouda K.|last5 = Minta|first6 = Marie-Noelle|last6 = Chraiti|first7 = Fatoumata Maiga|last7 = Sokona|first8 = Angele|last8 = Gayet-Ageron|first9 = Pascal|last9 = Bonnabry| pmid=20017633 |url-access = subscription}}</ref>

=== Health policy systems ===
Many African countries have been advocating the implementation of user fees regarding health care within the countries, which would charge citizens based on the health care they received.<ref name=":9">Johnson, Ari, Goss, Adeline, Beckerman, Jessica, and Castro,
Arachu. "Hidden costs: The direct and indirect impact of user fees on access to malaria treatment and primary care in Mali." ''Social Science & Medicine'' 75.10 (2012) 1786-1792.</ref> There has been significant studies to show that such charging results in complicated health and social problems that could have severe consequences in gender equality, household powers, social status, and poverty.<ref name=":9" /> Fees also resulted in decreased services in utility and reduced women's health care in various areas such as decision making.<ref name=":9" />

=== Health care ===
Although Mali's constitution guarantees the right to proper health,<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title = Mali's Health System|url = http://www.access2insulin.org/malis-health-system.html|website = International Insulin Foundation|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> only around 2.9% of the nation's GDP is invested into health care, resulting in the incidence of many disease being too high.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|title = Improving Mali's Health Care System|url = http://www.ceci.ca/en/where-we-work/africa/mali/projects/improving-mali-s-health-care-system/|website = www.ceci.ca|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Much of what little health care Mali has is focused on to Mali's capitol, [[Bamako]], where around 4000 healthcare workers strive to keep 1.8 million people in good health.<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite web|title = Bamako, 1997 to 2012: What's changed?|url = http://bridgesfrombamako.com/2012/01/12/bamako-1997-to-2012-whats-changed/|website = Bridges from Bamako| date=12 January 2012 |access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> The rest of the country has less than 3500 healthcare workers in total, meaning that people living in rural areas of Mali receive minimal health care.<ref name=":14" />

Recently, there has been several corporations that have developed in order to attempt to improve Mali's economic and health systems. The most notable of this is the FENASCOM, or the "Fédération Nationale des Associations de Santé Communautaire", which unites several communal associations (around 700 in total) at the national level and strive to sway Malian government's policies on health.<ref name=":15" />

One study has shown that there are key problems regarding Mali's health system.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|title = [Economics of health care in Mali]|journal = Santé (Montrouge, France)|date = 1996-12-01|issn = 1157-5999|pmid = 9053102|pages = 353–359|volume = 6|issue = 6|first1 = S. O.|last1 = Coulibaly|first2 = M.|last2 = Keita}}</ref> First, the distribution of health care in Mali is poorly managed, resulting in a waste of resources.<ref name=":18" /> There are also signs that pharmaceutical policies are lacking in Mali, which contributes to the uneven medical drug distribution among Malian populations.<ref name=":18" />

=== Sanitation ===
In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have [[Water supply and sanitation in Mali|access to safe drinking water]].<ref name="cp" /> 69% of the population had access to sanitation facilities of some kind. 8% were estimated to have access to modern sanitation facilities. 20% of the nation's villages and livestock watering holes had modern water facilities.<ref name="cp">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Mali.pdf Mali country profile]. [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (January 2005). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> In urban areas, it was revealed that almost 90% of all citizens had access to improved water.<ref name=":3" />

Little more than a third of Mali had proper sanitation as defined by western standards.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|title = Poverty & Healthcare|url = http://www.our-africa.org/mali/poverty-healthcare|website = Our Africa|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Also, the conditions of clean water has not improved much since the percentages in 2000 shown above.<ref name=":23" /> This means that 12 million people in Mali do not have access to adequate sanitation and 4 million people do not have access to safe drinking water.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|title = Mali - Where We Work - WaterAid America|url = http://www.wateraid.org/us/where-we-work/page/mali|website = www.wateraid.org|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Unsafe water drinking and poor sanitation causes over 4,000 children under age 5 to die per year from diarrhea.<ref name=":23" /> [[WaterAid]] has actively been working in Mali to improve sanitation policies and drinking resources for Malians.<ref name=":23" />

Regarding water development planning, research has shown that it is important to consult the women of Mali, as women are the predominant people gathering and using water.<ref name=":24" /> Hydrogeological research under the Peace Corps has shown that local women are the most reliable sources of information regarding water control.<ref name=":24" /> A village needed around 50,000 liters of water a day, and it was shown that two electronically powered pumps could provide this much water, while under traditional Malian wells (dug by hand), 64 were needed.<ref name=":24" /> Hand-dug wells also had poor quality and unreliable production of water, suggesting that electronic wells could reduce water problems.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|title = Quantifying available water supply in rural Mali based on data collected by and from women|journal = Journal of Cleaner Production|date = 2013-12-01|pages = 43–52|volume = 60|series = Special Volume: Water, Women, Waste, Wisdom and Wealth|doi = 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.02.013|first1 = Cara|last1 = Shonsey|first2 = John|last2 = Gierke}}</ref>

== Health status ==
[[File:Life expectancy in Mali.svg|thumb|Development of life expectancy]]
[[Malaria]] and other [[arthropod]]-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of [[infectious disease]]s such as [[cholera]], [[hepatitis]], [[meningitis]], [[Poliovirus|Polio]], [[rabies]], [[malaria]], and [[tuberculosis]]. Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child [[malnutrition]] and a low rate of [[immunization]] for [[childhood diseases]] such as [[measles]] and [[polio]].<ref name=":10">{{cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/polio-resurfaces-mali-and-ukraine|title=Polio resurfaces in Mali and Ukraine|work=sciencemag.org|access-date=11 September 2015}}</ref>

There were an estimated 100,000 cases of [[human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome]] (HIV/AIDS) in 2010, and an estimated 1.5% of the adult population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS in 2007, among the lowest rates in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (see also [[HIV/AIDS in Africa]]).<ref name=cia/>

The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births was 830. This compares with 880 in 2005 and 1200 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 194 and the [[neonatal mortality]] as a percentage of under 5's mortality was 26. In Mali there were 3 midwives per 1,000 live births and the lifetime risk of maternal death was 1 in 22.<ref>{{Cite web| title= The State of World's Midwifery 2011: Mali | publisher= United Nations Population Fund | url= http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/resources/docs/country_info/profile/en_Mali_SoWMy_Profile.pdf  |  year=2011 | access-date=1 Aug 2011 }}.</ref>

=== Life expectancies ===
'''Infant and juvenile mortality rates:'''<ref name="dhs">{{Cite book| last1=Samaké | first1=Salif | last2=Traoré | first2=Seydou Moussa | last3=Ba | first3=Souleymane | last4=Dembélé | first4=Étienne | last5=Diop | first5=Mamadou | last6=Mariko | first6=Soumaïla| last7=Libité | first7= Paul Roger | title=Mali: Enquête Démographique et de Santé (EDSM-IV) 2006 |year=2007|publisher=Demographic and Health Surveys |place=Calverton, MD, USA | page=185 Table 12.1 | url=http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR199/FR199.pdf }}.</ref>
<br>''up to 1 year:''
80 deaths/1,000 live births. This has decreased significantly over the years, by a percentage of around 50% over the last 20 years.<ref name=":3" /><br>''up to 5 years:''115 deaths/1,000 children in 2015 (11.5% experience death in their first 5 years).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title = Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) / Data / Table|url = http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT|website = data.worldbank.org|access-date = 2015-11-01}}</ref> This places Mali at the 8th place in terms of most mortality rates for children under 5.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title = Statistics|url = http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mali_statistics.html|website = UNICEF|access-date = 2015-11-01|archive-date = 2011-03-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110303061721/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mali_statistics.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> This number has been decreasing steadily, from 132 in 2011, 127 in 2012, 123 in 2013, and 118 in 2014, then 115 currently.<ref name=":2" />

'''Life expectancy at birth:<ref name="cia">{{Cite web|title=CIA The World Factbook| url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/ | publisher=Central Intelligence Agency, USA | access-date=2010-06-27}}</ref>'''
<br>''total population:''
54.55 years (2013 est.)
<br>''male:''
52.75 years (2013 est.)
<br>''female:''
56.41 years (2013 est.)

=== Prevalent diseases ===
The degree of risk for contracting major infections diseases is very high in Mali.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|title = Mali Major infectious diseases - Demographics|url = http://www.indexmundi.com/mali/major_infectious_diseases.html|website = www.indexmundi.com|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Some of the most common food or waterborne diseases include [[diarrhea]] ([[bacteria]]l and [[Protozoan infection|protozoal]]), [[hepatitis A]], and [[typhoid fever]], all of which pose serious threats to the communities.<ref name=":20" /> Malaria and dengue fever is also very common.<ref name=":20" />

'''HIV/AIDS – adult prevalence rate:'''
0.9% (2012.)<ref name=":3" />

'''HIV/AIDS – people living with HIV/AIDS:'''
100,000 (2012.)<ref name=":3" />

'''HIV/AIDS – deaths:'''
5,800 (2007 est.)<ref name=cia/>

'''Vaccines:''' Over 89% of Mali's citizens have had basic immunization coverage.<ref name=":3" /> However, many children do not receive proper immunization from measles and polio.<ref name=":10" />

'''Malaria:''' Among all diseases, [[malaria]] is the primary cause of death in Mali, especially for children who are under 5 years old.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=http://www.pmi.gov/where-we-work/mali|title=Mali|website=www.pmi.gov|access-date=2015-11-22}}</ref> The [[prevalence]] of malaria among children under five years of age was 36% as of 2015.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/country-profiles/mali_profile.pdf?sfvrsn=24|title=Mali|date=2018|publisher=[[President's Malaria Initiative]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' is the main cause of infection.<ref name=":6" /> The entire population of Mali is at risk for malaria, although [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission]] varies across the country's [[Geography of Mali|five geo-climatic zones]].<ref name=":6" /> The disease is [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in the central and southern regions where more than 90% of the population lives and [[epidemic]] in the north.<ref name=":6" /> [[Mali War|Internally displaced persons]] migrating from the north are especially at risk given their low immunity to infection.<ref name=":6" />

Due to the diversity of malaria transmission in Mali, the malaria control strategy emphasizes specific [[Entomology|entomological]] and [[Public health surveillance|epidemiological surveillance]] and universal coverage of key malaria interventions as well as targeted operational research in areas with unstable malaria transmission.<ref name=":6" /> There has been significant global funding by organizations like the [[United States Agency for International Development]] ([[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]), [[World Health Organization]] ([[World Health Organization|WHO]]), and the [[President's Malaria Initiative]].<ref name=":21">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2014/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226015927/http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world_malaria_report_2014/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 26, 2014|title=World Malaria Report 2014|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=2015-11-22}}</ref> Mali has demonstrated significant progress in scaling up malaria prevention and control interventions, especially in [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] control.<ref name=":6" /> There was a nearly 50% reduction of under-five mortality rates from 2006 to 2012.<ref name=":6" />

'''Ebola''': ''See [[Ebola virus disease in Mali]]''

Since October 2014, when Mali had its first Ebola virus outbreak,<ref>[http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/137185/1/roadmapupdate25Oct14_eng.pdf?ua=1 "Ebola Response Roadmap Situation Report Update"] (PDF). World Health organization. 25 October 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2015.</ref> there has been a total of eight cases of Ebola with six deaths.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Mali announces end of its Ebola outbreak|url = http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2015/jan/18/mali-announces-end-of-its-ebola-outbreak/|website = The Washington Times|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref><ref>"[http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/144498/1/roadmapsitrep_26Nov2014_eng.pdf?ua=1 Mali ends last quarantines, could be Ebola-free next month]" (PDF). Reuters. 16 December 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2015.</ref> However, due to the high number of outbreaks in neighboring countries like [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Guinea]], Mali is ranked as one of the top countries at risk for an outbreak of Ebola.<ref>{{Cite news|title = Mali Red Cross Says Ebola Tracking Hampered by Health System|url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-25/mali-red-cross-says-ebola-tracking-complicated-by-health-system|newspaper = Bloomberg|access-date = 2015-11-22|first = Francois|last = Rihouay| date=25 October 2014 }}</ref>

'''Rabies:''' Dog rabies is frequent within Mali, especially the Bamako area (the most hospitalized and urbanized). 17% of people living in Bamako are vaccinated, while others have received no immunization against the rabies. The [[World Health Organization]] has set the goal of recommended vaccination coverage to 70%. Door-to-door vaccination and central-point vaccination has been suggested as possible policy implementations.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Low coverage of central point vaccination against dog rabies in Bamako, Mali|journal = Preventive Veterinary Medicine|date = 2015-06-15|pages = 203–209|volume = 120|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.04.007|pmid = 25953653|first1 = Yvonne|last1 = Muthiani|first2 = Abdallah|last2 = Traoré|first3 = Stephanie|last3 = Mauti|first4 = Jakob|last4 = Zinsstag|first5 = Jan|last5 = Hattendorf}}</ref>

'''Epilepsy:''' [[Epilepsy]] affects 15 Malians per 1000. Research has shown that much of Mali's parents with a child afflicted with epilepsy had high levels of misconceptions of the disease. There is a level of stigma directed toward people with epilepsy, and it was shown that most families consulted traditional healers (as opposed to physicians) regarding epilepsy, possibly leading to the misconceptions they have today.<ref>Pickering, Amy J, Djebbari, Habiba, Lopez, Carolina, Massa, Coulibaly, Alzua, Maria Laura. " Effect of a community-led sanitation intervention on child diarrhoea and child growth in rural Mali: a cluster-randomised controlled trial". ''The Lancet Global Health'' 3.11 (2015) e701-e711. Electronic.</ref>

'''Polio''': In June 2011, Mali had its first case with the [[Poliovirus|polio virus]] (specific strand: WPV, standing for Wild Polio Virus) that caused many problems in the Goundam, Timbuktu region of Mali. However, in September 2015, a new case of polio virus (strand: VDPV, short for Vaccine-derived Polio Virus) has popped up again, resulting in a serious national issue since the probability that polio would spread throughout the country was extremely high (considering the low rates of health care).<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|title = Polio outbreak confirmed in Mali|url = http://www.afro.who.int/en/media-centre/pressreleases/item/7988-polio-outbreak-confirmed-in-mali.html|website = www.afro.who.int|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> Polio is a deadly virus that could cause paralysis or even kill, which made the re-emergence of polio virus in Mali a huge threat; in response, the Ministry of Health of Mali and WHO ([[World Health Organization]]) has implemented an emergency response to attempt to stop the beginning of an epidemic.<ref name=":17" /> Another problem this poses is the fact that this polio was vaccine-derived, in which the disease mutated. This raises to question if any more diseases could mutate from their vaccinated forms to infect people again in Malil.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Polio Case Detected in Mali, Country on 'High Alert': WHO|url = http://www.ndtv.com/health/polio-case-detected-in-mali-country-on-high-alert-who-1215217|website = NDTV.com|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===
Because [[Economy of Mali|Mali's economy]] is one of the poorest in the world, regarded as one of the 48 least developed countries by the UN, over half of the country's population survives on less than a dollar every day.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Economy & Industry|url = http://www.our-africa.org/mali/economy-industry|website = Our Africa|access-date = 2015-11-02}}</ref> Thus, the malnutrition in Mali is severe, especially for children.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title = Mali / Hunger Relief in Africa / Action Against Hunger|url = http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/countries/africa/mali|website = www.actionagainsthunger.org|access-date = 2015-11-02}}</ref> The malnutrition levels exceed the critical level in the national scope.<ref name=":4" /> 18% of all children born are born in an underweight or [[Malnutrition|malnourished]] state.<ref name=":3" /> Over 660,000 children are at risk of acute malnutrition, while 18.9% of all citizens are underweight in a moderate or severe way.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title = Mali / WFP / United Nations World Food Programme - Fighting Hunger Worldwide|url = https://www.wfp.org/countries/mali|website = www.wfp.org|access-date = 2015-11-02}}</ref>

Because of the series of shocks Mali has received recently, including a pastoral crisis in 2010, a drought in 2011, and a political crisis in 2012–2013, there has been reports that 1.5 million people are currently in food insecurity in 2014. This is expected to increase in the "lean season", which is the time between June and October. Because Mali is a landlocked country, and because it is regarded as rank 182 on the UN Human Development Index, Mali is one of the most food deprived countries in the world.<ref name=":12" />

The [[World Food Programme]] (WFP) has been supporting the nutritional deprivation of Mali's citizens through two operations: The Emergency Operation (EMOP) and The Country Programme. EMOP provided food and cash to vulnerable families and provided nutritional help for women and children, who do not receive proper food security. EMOP has also implemented free school meals to reduce child hunger. The Country Programme has brought food to school and governmental systems to both encourage education and eliminate hunger. They have also focused efforts in improving aid to pregnant women and breastfeeding women so that they would not be deprived of nutrition.<ref name=":12" />

== Children's health ==
[[File:Child mortality rate in Mali.png|thumb|Development of child mortality rate in Mali since 1963]]
[[Malaria]], a preventable and curable disease that is heavily prevalent in Africa and is detrimental to African children,<ref>{{Cite web|title = WHO / Malaria|url =https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs094/en/|website = www.who.int|access-date = 2015-10-09}}</ref> is prevalent in Mali. Mali's children especially are susceptible not only to malaria but also other diseases and parasites, which prompts their [[immune system]]s to generate an unusually high number of responses and mechanisms for defense.<ref>Thomas, Bolaji N. et
al. "Circulating Immune Complex Levels Are Associated with Disease Severity and Seasonality in Children with Malaria from Mali."''Biomarker Insights'' 7 (2012): 81–86. ''PMC''. Web. 25 Sept. 2015.</ref>

Children in Mali also face severe [[skin diseases]], among which pyoderma tinea capitis, pediculosis capitis, [[scabies]], and molluscum contagiosum are the most prevalent. Many of these skin diseases are associated with poor hygiene. Even though skin diseases cause a severe problem for children in Mali, the public health service does not take care of skin diseases, making skin disease a huge problem in the health of Mali.<ref name=":0">Mahe, Antoine, Prual, Alain, Konate, Madina, Bobin, Pierre. "Skin
diseases of           children in Mali: A
public health problem." ''Tropical Medicine & Hygiene''  89.5 (1995) 467-470. Print.</ref>

Children may be more prone to diseases due to the high rate of child labor, capping at 21.4% of all children in Mali.

Due to the prevalence of child diarrhea in rural Mali, the government of Mali has implemented a "community-led total sanitation" policy that activates communities to create their own toilets. This was implemented to try to stop public defecation. Research has shown that the implementation of this policy in villages promote child growth and improvements in health for children in older children. Research has also shown that monetary support with community-led total sanitation could be the future pathway for Mali to reduce diarrhea and prevent growth faltering.<ref>Pickinerg, Amy J., Djebbari, Habiba, Carolina, Lopez, Coulibaly, Massa, Alzua, Maria Laura. "Effect of a community-led sanitation intervention on child diarrhoea and child growth in rural Mali: a cluster-randomised controlled trial". ''The Lancet Global Health'' 3.11 (2015). e701-e711, Print.</ref>

Children's [[mental health]] is also negatively affected by the health conditions in Mali. With around 59,000 children predicted to have lost either one or both of their parents due to disease, there are about as many people having HIV/AIDS in Mali as there are kids without a parent.<ref name=":16" />

The introduction of community health workers in Bamako in 2011 has led to a dramatic reduction in the number deaths of children under five, which have been reduced from 148 per thousand, among the worst in the world, to seven in 2018, about the same as the USA.  The free primary healthcare programme for  pregnant women and children under five is to be extended across the country.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pilling |first1=David |title=Mali's 'astounding' community health programme should be emulated |url=https://www.ft.com/content/63294e4a-3a88-11e9-b856-5404d3811663 |access-date=10 April 2019 |publisher=Financial Times |date=27 February 2019}}</ref>

==Women's health==

=== Status of women in Mali ===
{{Main|Women in Mali}}

In Mali, women do not receive as many rights in terms of the family laws, as they are vulnerable in cases of divorce, child custody, inheritance rights, and general protection of civil rights. A woman must, for example, pay a large amount of money if she wants a divorce.<ref name=":26">{{Cite web|title = Mali|url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78745.htm|website = U.S. Department of State|access-date = 2015-11-23}}</ref> Although the Malian constitution prohibits discrimination based on gender, domestic violence is common and tolerated against women.<ref name=":26" />

===Pregnancy===
Women are generally expected to take care of infants and kids for most of their lives.<ref name=":5" /> Also, even during pregnancy and times nearing childbirth, women in Mali are culturally  pushed to work their normal routines, managing household jobs and taking care of the other kids.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, breastfeeding is deemed to be the most acceptable way of raising infants, increasing the pressure on women.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | author = Dettwyler Katherine A | year = 1987 | title = Breastfeeding and weaning in Mali: Cultural context and hard data | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 24 | issue = 8| pages = 633–644 | doi=10.1016/0277-9536(87)90306-6| pmid = 3603085 }}</ref>
[[File:Mali - Women at work.jpg|thumb|Malian women doing housework.]]
Women in Mali have especially high rates of pregnancy at a young age (younger than 18 years of age), even compared to other African countries.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012"/> 9.8% of girls who are not yet 18 in Mali are mothers, a percentage that is almost 5 times that of Nigeria and Togo. Mali has one of the highest infant mortality rates as well, reaching a peak of 28%, which could be attributed to a lack of ultrasound examinations and tocolysis.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kunzel W. |author2=Herrero J. |author3=Onwuhafua P. |author4=Staub T. |author5=Hornung C. | year = 1996 | title = Maternal and perinatal health in Mali, Togo and Nigeria | journal = European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology | volume = 69 | issue = 1| pages = 11–17 | doi=10.1016/0301-2115(95)02528-6|pmid=8909951 }}</ref> Children in Mali also marry very early, which may attribute to the early marriage: 55% of all children marry before the age of 18.<ref name=":3" />

Since 2005, Mali has adopted a free cesarean policy in which all costs associated with the surgery in the public sector are covered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Witter, S., Boukhalfa, C.|display-authors=etal|date=2016|title=Cost and impact of policies to remove and reduce fees for obstetric care in Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Morocco|pmid=27483993|journal=International Journal for Equity in Health|volume=15|issue=123|pages=123|doi=10.1186/s12939-016-0412-y|pmc=4970227 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Health in urban Mali===
Despite the very low number of physicians in Mali (8 physicians per 100,000 people<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2226.html|website=www.cia.gov|publisher=CIA|access-date=19 October 2015|archive-date=26 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130426202303/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2226.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>), study has shown that most women in Mali seek medical treatment when giving birth.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012">{{cite journal |author1=Bove Riley M |author2=Vala-Haynes Emily |author3=Valeggia Claudia R | year = 2012 | title = Women's health in urban Mali: Social predictors and health itineraries | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 75 | issue = 8| pages = 1392–1399 | doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.06.012|pmid=22818488 |pmc=3560408}}</ref> This was especially prevalent in the urban regions of Mali. Also, a woman's social indicators, including her status and type of marriage (widowed, married, or engaged in a male [[polygyny]]), her social power regarding other members of the community, and her connections throughout different regions and a variety of people were the defining characteristics of her status of health as well.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012" />

There is a strong correlation between a woman's social status and health status, as women of more esteemed social status sought more medical treatment and care than those of lesser status who tried to fight through illnesses themselves.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012" /> Two of the most affected groups in terms of social instability (and therefore health insecurity) were those pregnant with polygamous men and those who have lost their husbands, directing many researchers to target those women in terms of aid.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012"/>

Because of the nature of Mali's cultural context among women, their relations with other women (including social networks, conflicts among co-wives, standings in women's associations) heavily influences their use of contraceptives, number of children, and child survival.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012" /> While many women in Mali suffer from sexually transmitted infections, this area is quite understudied and is lacking in data.<ref name="Bove, Riley M 2012"/>

===Health in rural Mali===
There is a severe dearth of health services in rural Mali, since even urban regions do not have adequate numbers of physicians. Unlike women living in urban Mali, women in rural regions tended to depend more on other around them for their health needs, being influenced by their community and the number of people with at least secondary education. Delivery (of infants, from pregnancy) remains a huge issue for those living in rural areas. [[Poverty]] and personal problems related to rural areas also negatively affect the health status of women in these areas.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gage Anastasia J | year = 2007 | title = Barriers to the utilization of maternal health care in rural Mali | journal = Social Science & Medicine | volume = 65 | issue = 8| pages = 1666–1682 | doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.06.001| pmid = 17643685 }}</ref>

One study that investigated rural villages in Mali revealed that in these areas, women and families had to decide between cost and efficiency of medical care because they were too far from medical centers.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|title = Client choice of health care treatment in rural Mali. POPLINE.org|url = http://www.popline.org/node/357832|website = www.popline.org|access-date = 2015-11-22}}</ref> What was also found was that qualified staff members in medicine worked few hours and often turned down clients, forcing those in rural Mali to depend on traditional medicinal healing.<ref name=":19" /> Also, even though the per capita income was less than $200 in the rural villages, medicines cost more than they are in Western countries.<ref name=":19" />

===Female genital cutting practices===
[[Female genital mutilation]] is an act that intentionally harms or damages the female organs in a nonmedical setting.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title = WHO / Female genital mutilation|url =https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/|website = www.who.int|access-date = 2015-11-02}}</ref> More than 125 million young girls from birth to age 15 undergo this process, of which most are from Africa and Middle East.<ref name=":8" /> Although the [[U.N.]] and [[World Health Organization]] has implemented policies to stop the inhumane act of removing genital parts, the cutting is often culturally and religiously rooted in societies, making it hard to eliminate.<ref name=":8" />

Mali, like many other African countries, engage in female genital cutting practices, which negatively impact women's health.<ref name=":7" /> Female genital cutting often occurs between the ages of 4 and 8, and results in hemorrhage, shock, pain, damage to organs, urinary infections, and other serious diseases.<ref name=":7" /> Because the equipment used may not be cleaned completely, HIV and Hepatitis B is also spread with the procedure. In Mali, around 94% of women undergo female genital cutting practices. Apart from physical health, this is also commonly seen as having a severe psychological effect on women as well.<ref name=":7" /> Approximately 95% of adult women have undergone female genital mutilation.<ref name=":26" />

The objective of the female genital cutting practice is to decrease promiscuity for the husband once the woman gets married. It is often seen as a religious and cultural tradition, even though the government in Mali has made several attempts to alleviate the practices.<ref name=":7">Jones, Heidi, Diop, Nafissatou, Askew, Ian, and Kabore, Inoussa. "Female Genital Cutting Practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and Their Negative Health Outcomes." Studies in Family Planning 30.3 (1999) 219-230.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ebola virus disease in Mali]]
*[[Ministry of Public Health and Hygiene (Mali)]]
*[[Mali]]
*[[COVID-19 pandemic in Mali]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mali topics}}
{{Africa topic|Health in}}
{{Africa topic|List of hospitals in}}

[[Category:Health in Mali| ]]