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{{short description|Protagonist's error in Greek dramatic theory}}
{{Italic title}}
{{About|the classical Greek term|the medical term|Hamartia (medical term)|the album by Novembers Doom|Hamartia (album)|the moth genus|Hamartia (moth)}}
{{Redirect|Tragic flaw |the wider concept |Tragedy}}
[[File:Aristotle poetics.jpg|thumb|The title page of [[Poetics (Aristotle)|Aristotle's ''Poetics'']]]]
{{Literature}}

The term '''''hamartia''''' derives from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἁμαρτία}}, from {{lang|grc|ἁμαρτάνειν}} ''hamartánein'', which means "to miss the mark" or "to err".<ref>"Hamartia". ''Merriam-Webster.com''. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 28 September 2014.</ref><ref>Hamartia: (Ancient Greek: {{lang|grc|ἁμαρτία}}) Error of Judgement or Tragic Flaw. "Hamartia". ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Web. 28 September 2014.</ref>  It is most often associated with [[Greek tragedy]], although it is also used in [[Christian theology]].<ref name=Cooper1973>{{cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=Eugene J. |title=Sarx and Sin in Pauline Theology |journal=Laval théologique et philosophique |date=1973 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=243–255 |doi=10.7202/1020369ar |doi-access=free }}</ref> The term is often said to depict the flaws or defects of a character and portraying these as the reason of a potential downfall.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-29|title=Hamartia - Definition of Hamartia and Literary Examples|url=https://literarydevices.net/hamartia/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Literary Devices|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy|url=http://tragedy.ucsc.edu/char3A.html|access-date=2021-04-19|website=tragedy.ucsc.edu}}</ref> However, other critics point to the term's derivation and say that it refers only to a tragic but random accident or mistake, with devastating consequences but with no judgment implied as to the character.

==Definition==
''Hamartia'' as it pertains to [[Play (theatre)|dramatic literature]] was first used by [[Aristotle]] in his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. In [[tragedy]], ''hamartia'' is commonly understood to refer to the [[protagonist|protagonist's]] error that leads to a chain of actions which culminate in a reversal of events from felicity to disaster.

What qualifies as the error or flaw varies, and can include an error resulting from ignorance, an error of judgment, an inherent flaw in the character, or a [[wrongdoing]]. The spectrum of meanings has invited debate among critics and scholars and different interpretations among dramatists.

== In Aristotle's ''Poetics'' ==
Hamartia is first described in the subject of literary criticism by [[Aristotle]] in his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. The source of ''hamartia'' is at the juncture between character and the character's actions or behaviors as described by [[Aristotle]].

{{quote|Character in a play is that which reveals the moral purpose of the agents, i.e. the sort of thing they seek or avoid.<ref name="auto">Aristotle. "Poetics". Trans. Ingram Bywater. The Project Gutenberg EBook. Oxford: Clarendon P, 2 May 2009. Web. 26 Oct. 2014.</ref>}}

In his introduction to the S. H. Butcher translation of ''Poetics'', [[Francis Fergusson]] describes ''hamartia'' as the inner quality that initiates, as in [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s words, a "movement of spirit" within the protagonist to commit actions which drive the plot towards its tragic end, inspiring in the audience a build of pity and fear that leads to a purgation of those emotions, or [[catharsis]].<ref>Fergusson 8{{full|date=September 2022}}</ref><ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html The Internet Classics Archive] by Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics. Web. 11 Dec. 2014.</ref>

Jules Brody, however, argues that "it is the height of [[irony]] that the idea of the tragic flaw should have had its origin in the Aristotelian notion of ''hamartia''. Whatever this problematic word may be taken to mean, it has nothing to do with such ideas as fault, vice, guilt, [[Immoral|moral deficiency]], or the like. ''Hamartia'' is a morally neutral non-[[normative]] term, derived from the verb hamartanein, meaning 'to miss the mark', 'to fall short of an objective'. And by extension: to reach one destination rather than the intended one; to make a mistake, not in the sense of a moral failure, but in the nonjudgmental sense of taking one thing for another, taking something for its opposite. ''Hamartia'' may betoken an error of discernment due to ignorance, to the lack of an essential piece of information.  Finally, ''hamartia'' may be viewed simply as an act which, for whatever reason, ends in failure rather than success."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brody |first1=Jules |title=Fate, Philology, Freud |journal=Philosophy and Literature |date=2014 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |id={{Project MUSE|552596}} |doi=10.1353/phl.2014.0007 |s2cid=170594915 }}</ref>

In a [[Greek tragedy]], for a story to be "of adequate magnitude" it involves characters of high rank, [[reputation|prestige]], or good fortune. If the protagonist is too worthy of esteem, or too wicked, their change of fortune will not evoke the ideal proportion of pity and fear necessary for catharsis. Here Aristotle describes ''hamartia'' as the quality of a [[tragic hero]] that generates that optimal balance. 

== Tragic flaw, tragic error, and divine intervention ==
[[Aristotle]] mentions ''hamartia'' in ''Poetics''. He argues that it is a powerful device to have a story begin with a rich and powerful hero, neither exceptionally virtuous nor villainous, who then falls into misfortune by a mistake or error (''hamartia''). Discussion among scholars centers mainly on the degree to which hamartia is defined as ''tragic flaw'' or ''tragic error''.

===Critical argument for flaw===
[[Poetic justice]] describes an obligation of the dramatic poet, along with philosophers and priests, to see that their work promotes moral behavior.<ref name="Jones & Nicol 1976 p12">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Thora Burnley |last2=Nicol |first2=Bernard De Bear |title=Neo-Classical Dramatic Criticism 1560-1770 |date=1976 |publisher=CUP Archive |isbn=978-0-521-20857-4 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEo7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12 }}</ref> 18th-century French dramatic style honored that obligation with the use of ''hamartia'' as a vice to be punished<ref name="Jones & Nicol 1976 p12" /><ref>Thomas Rymer. (2014). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/514581/Thomas-Rymer</ref> ''Phèdre'', Racine's adaptation of Euripides' ''Hippolytus'', is an example of French Neoclassical use of ''hamartia'' as a means of punishing vice.<ref>Worthen, B. ''The Wadsworth Anthology of Drama'' 5th ed. 444-463. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. 2007. Print.</ref><ref>Racine, Jean. ''Phèdre'', Harvard Classics, Vol. 26, Part 3. Web. 11 Dec. 2014. http://www.bartleby.com/26/3/</ref> [[Jean Racine]] says in his Preface to ''Phèdre'', as translated by R.C. Knight:

{{quote|The failings of love are treated as real failings. The passions are offered to view only to show all the ravage they create. And vice is everywhere painted in such hues, that its hideous face may be recognized and loathed.<ref>Worthen,446</ref>}}

The play is a tragic story about a [[royal family]]. The main characters' respective vices—rage, lust and envy—lead them to their tragic downfall.<ref>Euripides. ''Hippolytus'', Harvard Classics, 8.7. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. http://www.bartleby.com/8/7/</ref>

===Critical argument for error===
In her 1963 ''[[Modern Language Review]]'' article, "The Tragic Flaw: Is it a Tragic Error?", Isabel Hyde traces the twentieth-century history of ''hamartia'' as tragic flaw, which she argues is an incorrect interpretation. Hyde draws upon the language in Butcher's interpretation of ''Poetics'' regarding ''hamartia'' as both error and "defect in character". Hyde points out a footnote in which Butcher qualifies his second definition by saying it is not a "natural" expression to describe a flaw in behavior.<ref>Butcher, Samuel H., Aristotle’s Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, New York 41911</ref> Hyde calls upon another description from A.C. Bradley's ''Shakespearean Tragedy'' of 1904 which she contends is misleading:

{{quote|...the comparatively innocent hero still shows some marked imperfection or defect, irresolution, precipitancy, pride, credulousness, excessive simplicity, excessive susceptibility to sexual emotion and the like...his weakness or defect is so intertwined with everything that is admirable in him...<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=A. C. |title=Shakespearean tragedy; lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth |date=1904 |publisher=Macmillan |url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/4559046.html |oclc=769308512 }}{{pn|date=September 2022}}</ref>}}

Hyde goes on to elucidate interpretive pitfalls of treating ''hamartia'' as tragic flaw by tracing the tragic flaw argument through several examples from well-known tragedies including ''[[Hamlet]]'' and ''[[Oedipus Rex]]''.

Hyde observes that students often state "thinking too much" as Hamlet's tragic flaw upon which his death in the story depends. That idea does not, however, offer explanation for the moments when Hamlet does act impulsively and violently. It also embarks down a trail of logic that suggests he ought to have murdered Claudius right away to avoid tragedy, which Hyde asserts is problematic.

In ''Oedipus Rex'', she observes that the ideas of Oedipus' hasty behavior at the crossroads or his trust in his intellect as being the qualities upon which the change of fortune relies is incomplete. Instead, to focus on his ignorance of the true identity of his parents as the foundation of his downfall takes into account all of his decisions that lead to the tragic end. Rather than a flaw in character, error, in Oedipus' case based upon lack of information, is the more complete interpretation.   
 
In his 1978 ''[[Classical World (journal)|Classical World]]'' article ''Hamartia, Atë, and Oedipus'', Leon Golden compares scholarship that examines where to place ''hamartia's'' definition along a spectrum connecting the moral, flaw, and the intellectual, error. His goal is to revisit the role, if any, [[Atë]], or divine intervention, plays in ''hamartia''.  The Butcher translation of "Poetics" references ''hamartia'' as both a "single great error", and "a single great defect in character", prompting critics to raise arguments.

Mid-twentieth-century scholar Phillip W. Harsh sees ''hamartia'' as tragic flaw, observing that Oedipus assumes some moral ownership of his demise when he reacts excessively with rage and murder to the encounter at the crossroads.<ref name="Golden1978">{{cite journal |last1=Golden |first1=Leon |title=Hamartia, Ate, and Oedipus |journal=The Classical World |date=1978 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.2307/4348969 |jstor=4348969 }}</ref> Van Braam, on the other hand, notes of Oedipus' ''hamartia'', "no specific sin attaching to him as an individual, but the universally human one of blindly following the light of one's own intellect."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Braam |first1=P. |title=Aristotle's Use of Ἁμαρτία |journal=The Classical Quarterly |date=1912 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=266–272 |doi=10.1017/S0009838800015652 |jstor=635946 |s2cid=170339445 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2212561 }}</ref> He adds that a defining feature of tragedy is that the sufferer must be the agent of his own suffering by no conscious moral failing on his part in order to create a tragic irony.

O. Hey's observations fall into this camp as well. He notes that the term refers to an action that is carried out in good moral faith by the protagonist, but as he has been deprived of key pieces of information, the action brings disastrous results.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hey |first1=O. |title=ἁμαρτία Zur Bedeutungsgeschichte des Wortes |journal=Philologus |volume=83 |pages=1–15 |year=1928 |doi=10.1524/phil.1928.83.14.1 |s2cid=202163307 }}</ref> J.M. Bremer also conducted a thorough study of ''hamartia'' in Greek thought, focusing on its usage in Aristotle and [[Homer]]. His findings lead him, like Hyde, to cite ''hamartia'' as an intellectual error rather than a moral failing.<ref>Bremer, J.M. "Hamartia." Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and in Greek Tragedy. Amsterdam, Adolf M. Hakkert, 1969.</ref>

===Critical arguments on divine intervention===
J. M. Bremer and Dawe both conclude that the will of the gods may factor into Aristotelian ''hamartia''. Golden disagrees.<ref name="Golden1978" /> Bremer observes that the Messenger in ''[[Oedipus Rex]]'' says, "He was raging - one of the dark powers pointing the way, ...someone, something leading him on - he hurled at the twin doors and bending the bolts back out of their sockets, crashed through the chamber,".<ref>Worthen, 85</ref> Bremer cites Sophocles' mention of Oedipus being possessed by "dark powers" as evidence of guidance from either divine or daemonic force.

Dawe's argument centers around tragic dramatists' four areas from which a protagonist's demise can originate. The first is fate, the second is wrath of an angry god, the third comes from a human enemy, and the last is the protagonist's frailty or error. Dawe contends that the tragic ''[[dénouement]]'' can be the result of a divine plan as long as plot action begets plot action in accordance with Aristotle.

Golden cites Van Braam's notion of Oedipus committing a tragic error by trusting his own intellect in spite of Tiresias' warning as the argument for human error over divine manipulation. Golden concludes that ''hamartia'' principally refers to a matter of intellect, although it may include elements of morality. What his study asserts is separate from ''hamartia'', in a view that conflicts with Dawe's and Bremer's, is the concept of divine retribution.<ref name="Golden1978" />

== In Christian theology ==
{{Main|Hamartiology}}

''Hamartia'' is also used in Christian theology because of its use in the [[Septuagint]] and [[New Testament]]. The Hebrew (''chatá'') and its Greek equivalent (''àμaρtίa''/''hamartia'') both mean "missing the mark" or "off the mark".<ref>''[http://www.blbclassic.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?Strongs=H2398&t=KJV Strong's]'', bibclassic.org</ref><ref>''[http://www.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?strongs=G266 Strong's]'', blueletterbible.org</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Miss the mark |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/miss-the-mark |access-date=21 November 2021 |website=Collins |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers}}</ref>

There are four basic usages for ''hamartia'': 

# ''Hamartia'' is sometimes used to mean acts of [[Christian views on sin|sin]] "by omission or commission in thought and feeling or in speech and actions" as in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 5:12, "all have sinned".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grimm |first1=Carl Ludwig Wilibald |url=https://archive.org/details/greekenglishlex000grim |title=A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Being Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti |date=1887 |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-8370-1879-9 |url-access=registration}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}</ref>
# ''Hamartia'' is sometimes applied to the [[fall of man]] from original righteousness that resulted in humanity's innate propensity for sin, that is [[original sin]].<ref name="Cooper1973" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Grimm |first1=Carl Ludwig Wilibald |title=A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Being Grimm's Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti |date=1887 |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-8370-1879-9}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}</ref> For example, as in Romans 3:9, everyone is "under the power of sin".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Romans 3:9 What then? Are we any better? Not at all. For we have already made the charge that Jews and Greeks alike are all under sin. |url=https://biblehub.com/romans/3-9.htm |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>
# A third application concerns the "weakness of the flesh" and the free will to resist sinful acts. "The original inclination to sin in mankind comes from ''the weakness of the flesh''."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stillingfleet |first1=Edward |url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/17826022.html |title=Fifty sermons preached upon several occasions |date=1707 |page=525 |oclc=707944015}}</ref>
# ''Hamartia'' is sometimes "personified".<ref>Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ''Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged in One Volume'' (Eerdmans, 1985), 48.</ref> For example, Romans 6:20 speaks of being enslaved to ''hamartia'' (sin).

==See also==
{{Portal |Ancient Greece |Christianity |Literature |Theology }}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=35em|
* {{annotated link|Anagnorisis}}
* {{annotated link|Catharsis#"Catharsis" before tragedy|Catharsis}}
* {{annotated link|Communal reinforcement}}
* {{annotated link|Confirmation bias}}
* {{annotated link|Hamartiology}}
* {{annotated link|Hubris}}
* {{annotated link|Narcissism}}
* {{annotated link|Narratology}}
* {{annotated link|Peripeteia}}
* {{annotated link|Pyrrhic victory}}
* {{annotated link|Tragic hero}}
* {{annotated link|Victory disease}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Michael |title=Knemon's ''Hamartia'' |journal=Greece & Rome |date=October 1970 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=199–217 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500017897 |jstor=642764 |s2cid=163239914 }}
* Bremer, J.M. "Hamartia". ''Tragic Error in the Poetics of Aristotle and in Greek Tragedy''. Amsterdam, Adolf M. Hakkert, 1969.
* Cairns, D. L. ''Tragedy and Archaic Greek Thought.'' Swansea, The Classical Press of Wales, 2013.
* {{cite journal |last1=Dawe |first1=R. D. |title=Some Reflections on Ate and Hamartia |journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology |date=1968 |volume=72 |pages=89–123 |doi=10.2307/311076 |jstor=311076 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Golden |first1=Leon |title=Hamartia, Ate, and Oedipus |journal=The Classical World |date=1978 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.2307/4348969 |jstor=4348969 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hyde |first1=Isabel |title=The Tragic Flaw: Is It a Tragic Error? |journal=The Modern Language Review |date=1963 |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=321–325 |doi=10.2307/3721422 |jstor=3721422 }}
* Hugh Lloyd-Jones, ''The Justice of Zeus'', University of California Press, 1971, p.&nbsp;212.The function of tragedy is to arose the emotions of pity and fear in the spectators.
* {{cite journal |last1=Moles |first1=J. L. |title=Aristotle and Dido's ''Hamartia'' |journal=Greece & Rome |date=1984 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=48–54 |doi=10.1017/S0017383500027881 |jstor=642369 |s2cid=162907360 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stinton |first1=T. C. W. |title=Hamartia in Aristotle and Greek Tragedy |journal=The Classical Quarterly |date=1975 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=221–254 |doi=10.1017/S0009838800030068 |jstor=638320 |s2cid=170915434 }}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=5LLjYcD4Ni8C Hamartiology (Philosophical Theology of Sin)]

{{Narrative modes}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Hamartiology}}
{{Seven Deadly Sins}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek theatre]]
[[Category:Christian hamartiology]]
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[[Category:Narratology]]
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[[Category:Poetics]]