View source for Grassland

{{short description|Area with vegetation dominated by grasses}}
{{redirect|Greensward|the park plan|Central Park}}
{{About|the landscape of grasslands, a common vegetation type|other uses|Grassland (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Nachusa Grasslands Spring 2016.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Nachusa Grasslands]], spring 2016]]
[[File:Setaria pumila 20141024.jpg|thumb|''[[Setaria pumila]]'', a species of [[Poaceae]] (the dominant plant family in grasslands)]]
A '''grassland''' is an area (or ecosystem) where the [[vegetation]] is [[dominance (ecology)|dominated]] by [[Poaceae|grasses]]. However, [[Cyperaceae|sedges]] and [[Juncaceae|rushes]] can also be found along with variable proportions of [[legumes]] such as [[clover]], and other [[Herbaceous plant|herbs]]. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except [[Antarctica]] and are found in most [[ecoregion]]s of the [[Earth]]. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest [[biome]]s on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Gibson |first=David J. |title=Grasses and grassland ecology |date=30 October 2008 |isbn=978-0-19-154609-9 |location=New York |oclc=308648056}}</ref> There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shipley |first1=J.R. |last2=Frei |first2=E.R. |last3=Bergamini |first3=A. |last4=Boch |first4=S. |last5=Schulz |first5=T. |last6=Ginzler |first6=C. |last7=Barandun |first7=M. |last8=Bebi |first8=P. |last9=Bollman |first9=K. |last10=Bolliger |first10=J. |last11=Graham |first11=C.H. |last12=Krumm |first12=F. |last13=Pichon |first13=N. |last14=Delpouve |first14=N. |last15=Rigling |first15=A. |last16=Rixen |first16=C. |title=Agricultural practices and biodiversity: Conservation policies for natural grasslands in Europe |journal=Current Biology |date=August 19, 2024 |volume=34 |issue=16 |pages=R753–R761 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.062 |pmid=39163831 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and agricultural grasslands.<ref name=":0" /> They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Conant |first=Richard T. |title=Challenges and opportunities for carbon sequestration in grassland systems: a technical report on grassland management and climate change mitigation |date=2010 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] |isbn=978-92-5-106494-8 |oclc=890677450}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chapin III |first1=F. Stuart |first2=Osvaldo E. |last2=Sala |first3=Elisabeth |last3=Huber-Sannwald|author-link3=Elisabeth Huber-Sannwald |title=Global Biodiversity in a Changing Environment: Scenarios for the 21st Century |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4613-0157-8 |oclc=1059413892}}</ref>

== Definitions ==
[[Image:Coxilhas.jpg|thumb|right|''Coxilhas'' (hills covered by grasslands) in the [[Pampas]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] state, [[Brazil]]]]
Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are:
* "...any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation."<ref name=":0" />
* "...terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures." (Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems, 2000)<ref name=":0" />
* "A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (25-75 cm) to support grass..." (Stiling, 1999)<ref name=":0" />

Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Landscape images from the Nordic countries|date=2015-08-19|isbn=978-92-893-4241-4|doi=10.6027/TN2015-549|last1=Lindhjem|first1=Henrik|last2=Reinvang|first2=Rasmus|last3=Zandersen|first3=Marianne|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:norden:org:diva-4035}}</ref> These can be defined as:
* Grassland existing as a result of human activity (mowing or livestock grazing), where environmental conditions and the species pool are maintained by natural processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rūsiņa |first=Solvita |date=2012-09-10 |title=Semi-natural Grassland Vegetation Database of Latvia |journal=[[Biodiversity & Ecology]] |volume=4 |page=409 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00197 |issn=1613-9801 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

They can also be described as the following:
* "Semi-natural grasslands are one of the world's most biodiverse habitats on a small spatial scales."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Waldén |first=Emelie |title=Restoration of semi-natural grasslands Impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem services and stakeholder perceptions. |date=2018 |publisher=Department of Physical Geography, [[Stockholm University]] |others=Lindborg, Regina., Helm, Aveliina., Landscape Ecology. |isbn=978-91-7797-172-6 |location=Stockholm |oclc=1038678595}}</ref>
* "Semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species rich ecosystems in the world."<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Johansen |first1=Line |last2=Westin |first2=Anna |last3=Wehn |first3=Sølvi |last4=Iuga |first4=Anamaria |last5=Ivascu |first5=Cosmin Marius |last6=Kallioniemi |first6=Eveliina |last7=Lennartsson |first7=Tommy |date=April 2019 |title=Traditional semi-natural grassland management with heterogeneous mowing times enhances flower resources for pollinators in agricultural landscapes |journal=[[Global Ecology and Conservation]] |language=en |volume=18 |article-number=e00619 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00619 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2019GEcoC..1800619J |hdl=11250/2612648 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
* "...have been formed over the course of centuries through extensive grazing and mowing."<ref name=":1" />
* "...without the use of pesticides or fertilisers in modern times."<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Pärtel |first=M. |date=2005 |title=Biodiversity in temperate European grasslands: origin and conservation |journal=[[Grassland Science in Europe]] |volume=10 |pages=1–14}}</ref>

There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay [[meadow]]s.<ref name=":2" />

== Evolutionary history ==
The [[graminoid]]s are among the most versatile [[organism|life form]]s. They became widespread toward the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period, and [[coprolite]]s of fossilized [[dinosaur]] feces have been found containing [[phytolith]]s of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern [[rice]] and [[bamboo]].

The appearance of mountains in the [[western United States]] during the [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] epochs, a period of some 25&nbsp;million years, created a continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |title=University of California Museum of Paleontology Grasslands website |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/grasslands.php |access-date=2011-12-01 |website=[[University of California Museum of Paleontology]]}}</ref>

Around 5&nbsp;million years ago during the [[Late Miocene]] in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the [[Pleistocene]] (the last 1.8&nbsp;million years).<ref name=":2" /> Following the [[Pleistocene]] [[ice age]]s (with their [[Glacial period|glacials]] and [[interglacial]]s), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8&nbsp;million years, there is high variability. For example [[Mammoth steppe|steppe-tundra]] dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in the Mediterranean area.<ref name=":2" /> Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes.

The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas.<ref name=":2" /> However, there's also evidence for the local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hejcman |first1=M. |last2=Hejcmanová |first2=P. |last3=Pavlů |first3=V. |last4=Beneš |first4=J. |date=2013 |title=Origin and history of grasslands in Central Europe - a review |url=https://www.academia.edu/3660767 |journal=[[Grass and Forage Science]] |volume=68 |issue=3 |page=345 |doi=10.1111/gfs.12066 |bibcode=2013GForS..68..345H |issn=0142-5242}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feurdean |first1=Angelica |last2=Ruprecht |first2=Eszter |last3=Molnár |first3=Zsolt |last4=Hutchinson |first4=Simon M. |last5=Hickler |first5=Thomas |date=1 December 2018 |title=Biodiversity-rich European grasslands: Ancient, forgotten ecosystems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718307456 |journal=[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]] |volume=228 |pages=224–232 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.09.022 |bibcode=2018BCons.228..224F |issn=0006-3207 |access-date=4 February 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions.<ref name=":2" />

Most of the grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spehn |first1=Eva M. |last2=Joshi |first2=Jasmin |last3=Schmid |first3=Bernhard |last4=Alphei |first4=Jörn |last5=Körner |first5=Christian |date=2000 |title=Plant diversity effects on soil heterotrophic activity in experimental grassland ecosystems |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1004891807664 |journal=Plant and Soil |volume=224 |issue=2 |pages=217–230 |doi=10.1023/A:1004891807664|bibcode=2000PlSoi.224..217S |s2cid=25639544 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming.<ref name=":2" />
== Ecology ==

=== Biodiversity ===
Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found.<ref name=":2" /> A European record that was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter.<ref name=":2" /> Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter.

[[File:Black rhino with calf (male).jpeg|thumb|Black rhino]]
In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the [[snipe]] and the [[little bustard]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kunz |first=Werner |title=Species conservation in managed habitats: the myth of a pristine nature with a preamble by Josef H. Reichholf |year=2016 |isbn=978-3-527-68884-5 |location=Weinheim, Germany |oclc=948690426}}</ref> Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators,<ref name=":3" /> there are many approaches to conservation activities lately.

Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers.

Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century.<ref name=":1" /> The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe.<ref name=":1" />

Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by the landscape change due to agriculture of the last century.<ref name=":5" />

The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as [[perennial ryegrass]] and [[white clover]]. In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately.

=== Vegetation ===
[[File:Quercus robur 'Pendula'.JPG|thumb|upright|''Quercus robur'', also known as the English oak, dominating the semi-natural grasslands]]

Grassland [[vegetation]] can vary considerably depending on the grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are ''[[Quercus robur]]'', ''[[Betula pendula]]'', ''[[Corylus avellana]]'', ''[[Crataegus]]'' and many kinds of herbs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wahlman |first1=Henrik |last2=Milberg |first2=Per |date=2002 |title=Management of semi-natural grassland vegetation: evaluation of a long-term experiment in southern Sweden |journal=[[Annales Botanici Fennici]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=159–166 |jstor=23726791 |issn=0003-3847}}</ref>

In [[Calcareous grassland|chalk grassland]], the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in [[North America]]n [[tallgrass prairie]], [[South America]]n grasslands, and [[Africa]]n [[savanna]]. Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the [[dehesa|dehesa and montado]], in Spain and Portugal respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=University of California Museum of Paleontology |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/ |website=[[University of California Museum of Paleontology]] |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>

As flowering [[plant]]s and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in [[climate]]s where annual [[rain]]fall ranges between {{convert|500|and|900|mm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biograssland.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001027185727/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biograssland.html |archive-date=2000-10-27 |title=NASA Earth Observatory webpage |website=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov |access-date=2011-12-01}}</ref> The root systems of perennial grasses and [[forb]]s form complex mats that hold the [[soil]] in place.

=== Fauna ===
[[File:Mountain Plover, Charadrius montanus.jpg|thumb|left|Mountain plover]]

Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs, [[pronghorn]], [[black-footed ferret]], [[plains bison]], [[mountain plover]], African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and [[swift fox]]. Grazing animals, herd animals, and [[Predation|predators]] in grasslands, like lions and [[cheetah]]s live in the grasslands of the African savanna.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=Grasslands {{!}} Habitats {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/habitats/grasslands |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref> [[Mite]]s, insect [[larvae]], [[nematode]]s, and [[earthworm]]s inhabit deep soil, which can reach {{Convert|6|m|ft|abbr=off}} underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic [[fungi]], extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with [[urea]] and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menta |first=Cristina |chapter=Soil Fauna Diversity - Function, Soil Degradation, Biological Indices, Soil Restoration |date=2012-08-29 |title=Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World |editor-last=Lameed |editor-first=Gbolagade Akeem |publisher=InTech |language=en |isbn=978-953-51-0719-4}}</ref>
[[File:Cheetah Brothers AdF.jpg|thumb|Cheetah]]
Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the [[blue wildebeest]], [[American bison]], [[giant anteater]], and [[Przewalski's horse]].<ref>{{cite web |title=44.3D: Temperate Grasslands |url=https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/44%3A_Ecology_and_the_Biosphere/44.3%3A_Terrestrial_Biomes/44.3D%3A_Temperate_Grasslands |date=2018-07-17 |website=Biology LibreTexts |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>

The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within the American West—and introduction of [[invasive species]], like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species.<ref name=":4" /> Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct.<ref name=":4" />

== Ecosystem services ==
Grasslands provide a range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Stevens |first1=Nicola |last2=Bond |first2=William |last3=Feurdean |first3=Angelica |last4=Lehmann |first4=Caroline E.R. |date=2022-10-17 |title=Grassy Ecosystems in the Anthropocene |journal=[[Annual Review of Environment and Resources]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=annurev–environ–112420-015211 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-112420-015211 |s2cid=251265576 |issn=1543-5938|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Carbon sequestration ===
Grasslands hold about twenty percent of global [[soil carbon]] stocks.<ref name=":6" /> [[Herbaceous plant|Herbaceous]] (non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and [[senescence]]. Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60–80% of the biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on a broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased [[evapotranspiration]].<ref name=":7">{{cite web |title=Grassland Carbon Management {{!}} Climate Change Resource Center |url=https://research.fs.usda.gov/centers/ccrc |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=www.fs.usda.gov}}</ref>

Grasslands have suffered large losses of [[organic carbon]] due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of the disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon ([[Soil carbon|SOC]]) balance of grasslands. [[Bedrock]], irrigation practices, [[soil acidification]], [[Liming (soil)|liming]], and [[pasture]] management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lorenz |first1=Klaus |title=Carbon Sequestration in Grassland Soils |date=2018 |work=Carbon Sequestration in Agricultural Ecosystems |pages=175–209 |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92318-5_4 |isbn=978-3-319-92317-8 |last2=Lal |first2=Rattan}}</ref> Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=The potential of U.S. grazing lands to sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect |date=2001 |publisher=Lewis Publishers |others=R. F. Follett, J. M. Kimble, R. Lal |isbn=1-56670-554-1 |location=Boca Raton, FL |oclc=44174278}}</ref> The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hungate |first1=Bruce A. |last2=Barbier |first2=Edward B. |last3=Ando |first3=Amy W. |last4=Marks |first4=Samuel P. |last5=Reich |first5=Peter B. |last6=van Gestel |first6=Natasja |last7=Tilman |first7=David |last8=Knops |first8=Johannes M. H. |last9=Hooper |first9=David U. |last10=Butterfield |first10=Bradley J. |last11=Cardinale |first11=Bradley J. |date=April 2017 |title=The economic value of grassland species for carbon storage |journal=[[Science Advances]] |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |article-number=e1601880 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1601880 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=5381958 |pmid=28435876 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E1880H}}</ref>

There is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in time measurements produce an insufficient evidence base.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jordon |first1=W. Matthew |last2=Buffet |first2=Jean-Charles |last3=Dungait |first3=A.J. Jennifer |last4=Galdos |first4=V. Marcelo |last5=Garnett |first5=Tara |last6=Lee |first6=R. Michael |last7=Lynch |first7=John |last8=Röös |first8=Elin |last9=Searchinger |first9=D. Timothy |last10=Smith |first10=Pete |last11=Godfray |first11=H.J. Charles |date=January 2024 |title=A restatement of the natural science evidence base concerning grassland management, grazing livestock and soil carbon storage |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=291 |issue=2015 |article-number=20232669 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2023.2669 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=10806435 |pmid=38264781}}</ref>

=== Other ecosystem services ===
* promotion of genetic diversity
* weather amelioration<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sala |first=Osvaldo E. |title=Ecosystem services in grasslands |pages=237–252 |oclc=1231779567}}</ref>
* provision of wildlife habitat

== Degradation ==
Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoekstra |first1=Jonathan M. |last2=Boucher |first2=Timothy M. |last3=Ricketts |first3=Taylor H. |last4=Roberts |first4=Carter |date=2004-12-03 |title=Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities of habitat loss and protection: Confronting a biome crisis |journal=[[Ecology Letters]] |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00686.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $7 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344142265|title=Large scale land investments, household displacement and the effect on land degradation in semiarid agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia}}</ref> According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture and mining.<ref>{{cite web |title=010 - Protecting and restoring endangered grassland and savannah ecosystems |url=https://iucncongress2020.org/motion/010 |access-date=2021-06-01 |website=[[IUCN]] World Conservation Congress 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation.<ref name=":9" /> 

=== Causes ===

==== Land use intensification ====
Grasslands have an extensive history of [[human activity]] and [[Disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]].<ref name="fs.usda.gov">{{cite web |title=Grasslands and Climate Change {{!}} Climate Change Resource Center |url=https://research.fs.usda.gov/centers/ccrc |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=www.fs.usda.gov |archive-date=2020-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023202126/https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/biomes/grasslands |url-status=live}}</ref> To feed a growing human population, most of the world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African [[savanna]]s, are in danger of being lost to agriculture.<ref name=":4" /> Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms.

Grassland vegetation is often a [[plagioclimax]]; it remains dominant in a particular area usually due to [[grazing]], cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub [[seedling]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ochoa-Hueso |first1=R. |last2=Delgado-Baquerizo |first2=M. |last3=King |first3=P.T.A. |last4=Benham |first4=M. |last5=Arca |first5=V. |last6=Power |first6=S.A. |date=2019 |title=Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition |journal=[[Soil Biology and Biochemistry]] |volume=129 |pages=144–152 |doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 |bibcode=2019SBiBi.129..144O |hdl=10261/336676 |s2cid=92606851|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild [[herbivore]]s as well as by nomadic [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and their [[cattle]], sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on [[climate change]] by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Jun |last2=Feng |first2=Chao |last3=Wang |first3=Deli |last4=Wang |first4=Ling |last5=Wilsey |first5=Brian J. |last6=Zhong |first6=Zhiwei |date=August 2015 |editor-last=Firn |editor-first=Jennifer |title=Impacts of grazing by different large herbivores in grassland depend on plant species diversity |journal=[[Journal of Applied Ecology]] |language=en |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=1053–1062 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12456 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2015JApEc..52.1053L }}</ref>
[[File:Main land-cover trajectories from the 1960s to 2015.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Main land-cover trajectories from the 1960s to 2015]]
Grasslands may occur naturally or as a result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass [[prairie]]s in the [[Midwestern United States|U.S. Midwest]] may have been extended eastward into [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], and [[Ohio]] by human agency. Much grassland in [[northwest Europe]] developed after the [[Neolithic Period]] when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grasslands Information and Facts |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/grasslands/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310135502/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/grasslands/ |archive-date=March 10, 2017 |date=2019-03-15 |website=[[National Geographic]] |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>

==== Climate change ====
Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between {{convert|600|mm|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1500|mm|abbr=on}} and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite web |title=EO Experiments: Grassland Biome |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biograssland.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001027185727/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/biograssland.html |archive-date=2000-10-27 |access-date=2011-12-01 |website=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov}}</ref> However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20&nbsp;°C) and hotter (30&nbsp;°C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the [[Woody plant encroachment|encroachment of woody species]]. Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low [[soil fertility]] such as [[serpentine barrens]] and [[calcareous]] grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Craven |first1=Dylan |last2=Isbell |first2=Forest |last3=Manning |first3=Pete |last4=Connolly |first4=John |last5=Bruelheide |first5=Helge |last6=Ebeling |first6=Anne |last7=Roscher |first7=Christiane |last8=van Ruijven |first8=Jasper |last9=Weigelt |first9=Alexandra |last10=Wilsey |first10=Brian |last11=Beierkuhnlein |first11=Carl |date=2016-05-19 |title=Plant diversity effects on grassland productivity are robust to both nutrient enrichment and drought |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=371 |issue=1694 |article-number=20150277 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2015.0277 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=4843698 |pmid=27114579}}</ref> When not limited by other factors, increasing CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO<sub>2</sub> are limited by factors including water availability and available [[nutrient]]s, particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO<sub>2</sub> on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased [[mineralization (soil science)|mineralization]] from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in [[biodiversity]] as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process.<ref name=":7" />

==== Afforestation or introduction of invasive species ====
Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-05-28 |title=Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands? |url=https://scienceline.org/2021/05/can-tree-campaigns-curb-climate-change-without-harming-grasslands/ |access-date=2021-06-01 |website=Scienceline |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Sacco |first1=Alice |last2=Hardwick |first2=Kate A. |last3=Blakesley |first3=David |last4=Brancalion |first4=Pedro H. S. |last5=Breman |first5=Elinor |last6=Cecilio Rebola |first6=Loic |last7=Chomba |first7=Susan |last8=Dixon |first8=Kingsley |last9=Elliott |first9=Stephen |last10=Ruyonga |first10=Godfrey |last11=Shaw |first11=Kirsty |date=April 2021 |title=Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits |journal=[[Global Change Biology]] |language=en |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=1328–1348 |doi=10.1111/gcb.15498 |pmid=33494123 |bibcode=2021GCBio..27.1328D |issn=1354-1013 |doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11937/88524 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Forest centric restoration efforts can create the risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes.<ref name=":9" /> A map created by the [[World Resources Institute]] in collaboration with the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] identifies 2 billion hectares for potential [[forest restoration]]. It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dasgupta |first=Shreya |date=2021-06-01 |title=Many Tree-Planting Campaigns Are Based on Flawed Science |url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/many-tree-planting-campaigns-are-based-on-flawed-science/ |access-date=2021-06-12 |website=The Wire Science |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bond |first1=William J. |last2=Stevens |first2=Nicola |last3=Midgley |first3=Guy F. |last4=Lehmann |first4=Caroline E.R. |date=November 2019 |title=The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534719302526 |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |language=en |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=963–965 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003 |pmid=31515117 |bibcode=2019TEcoE..34..963B |s2cid=202568025|hdl=20.500.11820/ad569ac5-dc12-4420-9517-d8f310ede95e |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Duell |first1=Eric B. |last2=Londe |first2=Dave W. |last3=Hickman |first3=K. R. |last4=Greer |first4=Mitchell J. |last5=Wilson |first5=Gail W. T. |date=2021-07-15 |title=Superior performance of invasive grasses over native counterparts will remain problematic under warmer and drier conditions |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11258-021-01156-y |journal=[[Plant Ecology (journal)|Plant Ecology]] |volume=222 |issue=9 |pages=993–1006 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11258-021-01156-y |bibcode=2021PlEco.222..993D |s2cid=237775557 |issn=1385-0237|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Management ====
The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss or degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on [[disturbance (ecology)|disturbances]] such as [[wildfire]]s, [[controlled burn]]s or [[grazing]] to persist, although this subject is still controversial.<ref>{{cite journal |date=2022-06-03 |title=New perspectives in fire management in South American savannas: The importance of intercultural governance |journal=Ambio |doi=10.1007/s13280-018-1054-7 |language=en-US |last1=Mistry |first1=Jayalaxshmi |last2=Schmidt |first2=Isabel Belloni |last3=Eloy |first3=Ludivine |last4=Bilbao |first4=Bibiana |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=172–179 |pmid=29752682 |pmc=6346601}}</ref> A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years.<ref>{{cite journal |date=2022-06-03 |title=Preventing traditional management can cause grassland loss within 30 years in southern Brazil |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-57564-z |language=en-US |last1=Sühs |first1=Rafael Barbizan |last2=Giehl |first2=Eduardo Luís Hettwer |last3=Peroni |first3=Nivaldo |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=783 |pmid=31964935 |pmc=6972928|bibcode=2020NatSR..10..783S }}</ref> This study showed that grasslands inside [[protected areas]], in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, were quickly replaced by shrubs ([[Woody plant encroachment|shrub encroachment]]). Moreover, the absence of fire in grasslands can lead to an increase in the dominance of a few species and litter accumulation, resulting in a reduction in the number of herbaceous species and changes in herbaceous species composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Casali |first1=Sofia |last2=Sühs |first2=Rafael Barbizan |last3=Joner |first3=Fernando |last4=Pinto |first4=Gustavo Lemes |last5=Neckel-Oliveira |first5=Selvino |last6=Giehl |first6=Eduardo Luís Hettwer |date=2025-04-02 |title=Fire regime and local biotic and abiotic factors as drivers of diversity patterns in highland grasslands in southern Brazil |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11258-025-01512-2 |journal=Plant Ecology |volume=226 |issue=5 |pages=539–552 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11258-025-01512-2 |bibcode=2025PlEco.226..539C |issn=1385-0237}}</ref>   

=== Types of degradation ===

==== Land cover change ====
Land cover has always changed during the years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with [[arable land]], forest and land used for [[infrastructure]] and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Aune |first1=Sigrun |last2=Bryn |first2=Anders |last3=Hovstad |first3=Knut Anders |date=2018-07-04 |title=Loss of semi-natural grassland in a boreal landscape: impacts of agricultural intensification and abandonment |journal=[[Journal of Land Use Science]] |language=en |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=375–390 |doi=10.1080/1747423X.2018.1539779 |issn=1747-423X |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018JLUS...13..375A |hdl=10852/72980 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 1960 most of the land, 49.7%, was covered with [[forest]] and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the earth (10.6%).<ref name=":5" />

A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it was converted into arable or pasture land and forests.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Monteiro |first1=Antonio T. |last2=Fava |first2=Francesco |last3=Hiltbrunner |first3=Erika |last4=Della Marianna |first4=Giampaolo |last5=Bocchi |first5=Stefano |date=April 2011 |title=Assessment of land cover changes and spatial drivers behind loss of permanent meadows in the lowlands of Italian Alps |journal=[[Landscape and Urban Planning]] |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.12.015 |bibcode=2011LUrbP.100..287M |issn=0169-2046}}</ref> It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cousins |first1=Sara A. O. |last2=Auffret |first2=Alistair G. |last3=Lindgren |first3=Jessica |last4=Tränk |first4=Louise |date=January 2015 |title=Regional-scale land-cover change during the 20th century and its consequences for biodiversity |journal=Ambio |volume=44 |issue=S1 |pages=17–27 |doi=10.1007/s13280-014-0585-9 |pmid=25576277 |pmc=4288995 |bibcode=2015Ambio..44S..17C |issn=0044-7447}}</ref> Furthermore, the accessibility of the land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling the terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery.<ref name=":5" />

The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of [[rangeland management]], which focuses on [[ecosystem services]] associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to the economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grassland of the world |url=http://www.fao.org/3/y8344e06.htm |website=www.fao.org |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=2020-05-20 |archive-date=2020-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818055532/http://www.fao.org/3/y8344e06.htm }}</ref>{{main|Woody plant encroachment}}
Vast areas of grassland are affected by [[Woody plant encroachment|woody encroachment]], which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting [[overgrazing]]) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO<sub>2</sub> levels in the atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge.

== Conservation and restoration ==
Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Buisson |first1=Elise |last2=Le Stradic |first2=Soizig |last3=Silveira |first3=Fernando A. O. |last4=Durigan |first4=Giselda |last5=Overbeck |first5=Gerhard E. |last6=Fidelis |first6=Alessandra |last7=Fernandes |first7=G. Wilson |last8=Bond |first8=William J. |last9=Hermann |first9=Julia-Maria |last10=Mahy |first10=Gregory |last11=Alvarado |first11=Swanni T. |date=April 2019 |title=Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands: Tropical grassland resilience and restoration |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/brv.12470 |journal=[[Biological Reviews]] |language=en |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=590–609 |doi=10.1111/brv.12470 |pmid=30251329 |hdl=2268/229154 |s2cid=52816465|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knight |first1=Michelle L. |last2=Overbeck |first2=Gerhard E. |date=2021-05-28 |title=How much does is cost to restore a grassland?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.13463 |journal=[[Restoration Ecology (journal)|Restoration Ecology]] |volume=29 |issue=8 |article-number=e13463 |language=en |doi=10.1111/rec.13463 |bibcode=2021ResEc..2913463K |s2cid=236416000 |issn=1061-2971|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bardgett |first1=Richard D. |last2=Bullock |first2=James M. |last3=Lavorel |first3=Sandra |last4=Manning |first4=Peter |last5=Schaffner |first5=Urs |last6=Ostle |first6=Nicholas |last7=Chomel |first7=Mathilde |last8=Durigan |first8=Giselda |last9=L. Fry |first9=Ellen |last10=Johnson |first10=David |last11=Lavallee |first11=Jocelyn M. |date=2021-09-07 |title=Combatting global grassland degradation |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-021-00207-2 |journal=[[Nature Reviews Earth & Environment]] |volume=2 |issue=10 |language=en |pages=720–735 |doi=10.1038/s43017-021-00207-2 |bibcode=2021NRvEE...2..720B |s2cid=237426110 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref>

Restoration methods and measures include the following:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buisson |first1=Elise |last2=Fidelis |first2=Alessandra |last3=Overbeck |first3=Gerhard E. |last4=Schmidt |first4=Isabel B. |last5=Durigan |first5=Giselda |last6=Young |first6=Truman P. |last7=Alvarado |first7=Swanni T. |last8=Arruda |first8=André J.|last9=Boisson |first9=Sylvain |last10=Bond |first10=William |last11=Coutinho |first11=André |date=April 2021 |title=A research agenda for the restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands and savannas |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.13292 |journal=[[Restoration Ecology (journal)|Restoration Ecology]] |language=en |volume=29 |issue=S1 |article-number=e13292 |doi=10.1111/rec.13292 |bibcode=2021ResEc..2913292B |s2cid=225160067 |issn=1061-2971}}</ref>
* prescribed fires
* appropriate management of livestock and wild herbivores: in light of land use intensification caused by global food demand, grassland land use practices may need to be adjusted to better support key ecosystem services.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Savage |first1=Joanna |last2=Woodcock |first2=Ben A. |last3=Bullock |first3=James M. |last4=Nowakowski |first4=Marek |last5=Tallowin |first5=Jeremy R. B. |last6=Pywell |first6=Richard F. |date=2021-06-01 |title=Management to Support Multiple Ecosystem Services from Productive Grasslands |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |page=6263 |doi=10.3390/su13116263 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021Sust...13.6263S }}</ref>
* tree cutting
* shrub removal
* invasive species control
* reintroduction of native grasses and forbs via seeding or transplant: a main challenge for grassland restoration is how to overcome seed limitation.<ref name=":8" />

For the period 2021–2030 the [[United Nations General Assembly]] has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About the UN Decade |url=http://www.decadeonrestoration.org/about-un-decade|access-date=2021-06-01 |website=UN Decade on Restoration |language=en}}</ref>

== Types of grasslands ==
[[File:Desna river Vinn meadow 2016 G2.jpg|thumb|Meadow by the Desna river in Ukraine]]

=== Classifications of grassland ===
Grassland types by [[Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper|Schimper]] (1898, 1903):<ref name="Schimper">{{cite book |last=Schimper |first=A. F. W. |orig-date=1898 |title=Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage |language=de |trans-title=Plant geography on a physiological basis |translator-first=Jena |translator-last=Fisher |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/8099#/summary |date=1903}}</ref>
* [[Meadow]] (hygrophilous or tropophilous grassland)
* [[Steppe]] (xerophilous grassland)
* [[Savanna]]h (xerophilous grassland containing isolated trees)[[File:Steppe Family by Mashin Rostislav.jpg|thumb|Steppe family: a common grassland animal, the swift fox]]

Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967):<ref>Ellenberg, H. & D. Mueller-Dombois. 1967. Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth [based on a discussion draft of the UNESCO working group on vegetation classification and mapping.] ''Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich'' 37 (1965-1966): 21—55, [http://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?var=true&pid=bgi-002:1965-1966:37::129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021095709/http://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?var=true&pid=bgi-002:1965-1966:37::129|date=2016-10-21}}.</ref>

Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities

# Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands)
# Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.)
# Meadows, [[pasture]]s or related grasslands
# Sedge [[swamp]]s and flushes
# Herbaceous and half-woody salt swamps
# Forb vegetation[[File:Tallgrass Prairie Heritage Park (29237722250).jpg|thumb|A hike through the Tallgrass Prairie Heritage Park in Canada]]

Grassland types by Laycock (1979):<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laycock |first=W.A. |date=1979 |chapter=Introduction |pages=1–2 |editor-last=French |editor-first=N R. |title=Perspectives in Grassland Ecology |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4612-6182-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7_kBwAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

# [[Tallgrass prairie|Tallgrass]] (true) prairie
# [[Shortgrass prairie]]
# [[Mixed grass prairie|Mixed-grass prairie]]
# [[Shrub-steppe|Shrub steppe]]
# Annual grassland
# [[Desert]] (arid) grassland
# High mountain grassland

=== General grasslands types ===

==== Tropical and subtropical ====
These grasslands can be classified as the [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome]]. The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large [[mammal]]s, such as [[wildebeest]] (''Connochaetes taurinus'') and [[zebra]] (''Equus zebra''). Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the [[Llanos]] grasslands of [[South America]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/tropical-and-subtropical-grasslands-savannas-and-shrublands |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Cumberlain Plain Woodland6.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|[[Cumberland Plain Woodland]], a grassy woodland that covers [[Western Sydney]]]]

==== Temperate ====
Mid-latitude grasslands, including the [[prairie]] and [[List of California native plants#Selected grasses|Pacific grasslands]] of [[North America]], the [[Pampas]] of [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]], calcareous [[downland]], and the [[steppe]]s of [[Europe]]. They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the [[temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome]]. Temperate grasslands are the home to many large [[herbivores]], such as [[bison]], [[gazelle]]s, [[zebra]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es, and [[wild horse]]s. [[Carnivores]] like [[lion]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[cheetah]]s and [[leopard]]s are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include [[deer]], [[prairie dog]]s, [[mouse|mice]], [[jack rabbit]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[snake]]s, [[fox]]es, [[owl]]s, [[badger]]s, blackbirds, [[grasshopper]]s, [[meadowlark]]s, [[Old World sparrow|sparrow]]s, [[quail]]s, [[hawk]]s and [[hyena]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/temperate-grasslands-savannas-and-shrublands |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Flooded ====
Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the [[Everglades]] of [[Florida]], the [[Pantanal]] of [[Brazil]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Paraguay]] or the [[Esteros del Ibera]] in [[Argentina]], are classified with flooded savannas as the [[flooded grasslands and savannas|flooded grasslands and savannas biome]] and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of [[Orchidaceae|orchids]], 300 [[bird]] species, and 150 [[fish]] species.

[[Watermeadow|Water-meadows]] are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flooded grasslands and savannas {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/flooded-grasslands-and-savannas |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>[[File:AntelopeValleyCAgrassland.JPG|thumb|Grassland in the [[Antelope Valley]], [[California]]]]

==== Montane ====
High-altitude grasslands located on high [[mountain ranges]] around the world, like the [[Páramo]] of the [[Andes Mountains]]. They are part of the [[montane grasslands and shrublands|montane grasslands and shrublands biome]] and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet conditions as well as intense sunlight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Montane grasslands and shrublands {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/montane-grasslands-and-shrublands |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Tundra grasslands ====
Similar to montane grasslands, polar [[Arctic tundra]] can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the [[Pleistocene]] [[glacial periods]] (commonly referred to as [[ice age]]s), a grassland known as steppe-tundra or [[mammoth steppe]] occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere. These areas were very cold and arid and featured sub-surface [[permafrost]] (hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety of fauna. As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the [[Holocene]] much of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a grassland, becoming the modern [[Eurasian steppe]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tundra {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/tundra |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Desert and xeric ====
Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the [[deserts and xeric shrublands|deserts and xeric shrublands biome]]. Temperature extremes and low amounts of rainfall characterise these kinds of grasslands. Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss.<ref>{{cite web |title=Deserts and xeric shrublands {{!}} Biomes {{!}} WWF |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/biomes/deserts-and-xeric-shrublands |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=[[World Wildlife Fund]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions ==
The grassland [[ecoregions]] of the [[temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] [[biome]] are:

{{Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|state=expanded]}}

== Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions ==
{{Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|state=expanded}}

== See also ==
* [[Meadow]]
* [[Forest]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Courtwright, Julie. 2011. ''Prairie Fire: A Great Plains History''. University Press of Kansas. 274 pp.
* French, N. R. (ed.). 1979. ''Perspectives in Grassland Ecology''. Springer, New York, 204 pp., [https://books.google.com/books?id=v7_kBwAAQBAJ Perspectives in Grassland Ecology: Results and Applications of the US/IBP Grassland Biome Study].
* Suttie, J. M.; Reynolds, S. G.; C. Batello. 2005. ''Grasslands of the world''. Rome: FAO. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y8344e/y8344e00.htm#Contents Grassland of the world].
* Wilsey, B.J. 2018. Biology of Grasslands. Oxford University Press.

== External links ==
*{{Commonscatinline|Grasslands}}

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[[Category:Grasslands| ]]
[[Category:Agricultural land]]
[[Category:Ecoregions]]
[[Category:Grasses|*]]
[[Category:Plains]]
[[Category:Poaceae]]