View source for Governor-General of India

{{Short description|Representative of the Indian monarch}}
{{redirect|Viceroy of India|viceroys and governors of Portuguese India|List of governors of Portuguese India}}
{{For|a list of the office holders during the British Raj|List of Governors-General of India}}
{{for multi|previous similar titles from 1680–1758|List of governors of Bengal Presidency}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox official post
| post = Viceroy and Governor-General
| body = India
| insignia = [[File:Flag of the Governor-General of India (1885–1947).svg|150px|border]]
| insigniacaption = Standard during the [[British Raj]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flag of the Governor General of India |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-271 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20220724045920/https://www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-271 |archive-date=July 24, 2022 |access-date=2024-09-07 |website=www.rmg.co.uk |publisher=[[Royal Museums Greenwich]] |place=[[National Maritime Museum]]}}</ref>
| flag = [[File:Flag of the Governor-General of India (1947–1950).svg|150px|border]]
| flagcaption = Standard during the [[Dominion of India]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapliyal |first=Uma Prasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWnqZwEACAAJ |title=Military Flags of India: From the Earliest Times |date=2011 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-7646-742-1 |pages=110 |language=en |quote=From 15 August 1947 to 26 January 1950, the flag of the Governor-General of India was dark blue with the Lion and Crown crest in the center and INDIA in golden letters below}}</ref>
| style = [[His Excellency]]
| residence = {{plainlist|
*[[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Government House]] (1858–1931)
*[[Rashtrapati Bhavan|Viceroy's House]] (1931–1950)
*[[Rashtrapati Niwas|Viceregal Lodge]] (1888–1947)}}
| appointer = {{unbulleted list |{{nowrap|[[East India Company]] (1774–1858)}}
|[[Monarch of the United Kingdom]] (1858–1950)}}
| appointer_qualified = 
| termlength = [[At His Majesty's pleasure]] (''de jure'')<br>Five years{{clarify|text=, renewable|date=June 2024}} (''de facto'')
| superseded_by = {{plainlist|
*[[Governor-General of Pakistan]] (in territory that became [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]])
*[[President of India|President]] [[India|of India]] (after [[Dominion of India|India]] became a [[Republic]] by adopting [[Constitution of India|its Constitution]])}}
| formation = 20 October 1773 ([[Bengal Presidency|Fort William]])<br/>22 April 1834 ([[Company rule in India|India]])
| first = [[Warren Hastings]] ([[Bengal Presidency|Fort William]])<br/>[[Lord William Bentinck]] ([[Company rule in India|India]])
| last = {{plainlist|
*[[Lord Mountbatten]] (21 February 1947 — 15 August 1947; as the ''Viceroy of India'')
*[[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] (21 June 1948 — 26 January 1950; as the ''Governor-General of Dominion of India'')}}
| abolished = {{start date and years ago|1950|01|26|df=y|p=y}}
}}

The '''Governor-General of India''' (1833 to 1950, from 1858 to 1947 the '''Viceroy and Governor-General of India''', commonly shortened to '''Viceroy of India''') was the representative of the [[monarch of the United Kingdom]] in their capacity as the [[Emperor of India|Emperor or Empress of India]] and after [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]] in 1947, the representative of the [[List of heads of state of India#Monarch of India (1947–1950)|Monarch of India]]. The office was created in 1773, with the title of [[Governor-General]] of the [[Presidency of Fort William]]. The officer had direct control only over his presidency but supervised other [[East India Company]] officials in India. Complete authority over all of British territory in the Indian subcontinent was granted in 1833, and the official came to be known as the governor-general of India.

In 1858, because of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] the previous year, the territories and assets of the East India Company came under the direct control of the [[British Crown]]; as a consequence, [[company rule in India]] was succeeded by the [[British Raj]]. The governor-general (now also the [[Viceroy]]) headed the central government of India, which administered the provinces of [[British India]], including [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]], [[Madras Presidency|Madras]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], the [[United Provinces of British India|United Provinces]], and others.<ref>The term [[British India]] is mistakenly used to mean the same as the British Indian Empire, which included both the provinces and the [[princely states]].</ref> However, much of India was not ruled directly by the British Government; outside the provinces of British India, there were hundreds of nominally independent [[princely states]] or "native states", whose relationship was not with the British Government or the United Kingdom, but rather one of [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] directly with the British monarch as sovereign successor to the [[Mughal emperors]]. From 1858, to reflect the governor-general's new additional role as the monarch's representative in response to the fealty relationships vis the princely states, the additional title of viceroy was granted, such that the new office was entitled "Viceroy and Governor-General of India". This was usually shortened to "Viceroy of India".

The title of viceroy was abandoned when British India was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] into the two independent [[dominion]]s of [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]], but the office of governor-general continued to exist in each country separately until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956, respectively.

Until 1858, the governor-general was selected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, to whom he was responsible. Thereafter, he was appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the British Government; the [[Secretary of State for India]], a member of the [[British Cabinet]], was responsible for instructing him on the exercise of their powers. After 1947, the sovereign continued to appoint the governor-general but thereafter did so on the advice of the government of the newly independent Dominion of India.

The governor-general served [[At His Majesty's pleasure|at the pleasure of the sovereign]], though the practice was to have them serve five-year terms. A governor-general could have their commission rescinded; and if one was removed, or left, a provisional governor-general was sometimes appointed until a new holder of the office could be chosen. The first governor-general in India (of Bengal) was [[Warren Hastings]], the first official governor-general of British India was [[Lord William Bentinck]], and the first governor-general of the Dominion of India was [[Lord Mountbatten]].

==History==

[[File:Warren Hastings greyscale.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Warren Hastings]], the first governor-general of [[Fort William, India|Fort William]] from 1773 to 1785.]]
[[File:Bentinck william.png|thumb|291x291px|[[Lord William Bentinck]], the first governor general of India from 1834 – 1835]]
Many parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] were governed by the British [[East India Company]] (founded in 1600), which nominally acted as the agent of the [[Mughal emperor]]. Early British administrators were [[List of governors of Bengal Presidency|presidents or governors]] of the [[Bengal Presidency]]. In 1773, motivated by corruption in the company, the British government assumed partial control over the governance of India with the passage of the [[Regulating Act 1773]]. A governor-general and [[Supreme Council of Bengal]] were appointed to rule over the Presidency of [[Fort William, India|Fort William]] in [[Bengal]]. The first governor-general and Council were named in the Act.

The [[Charter Act 1833]] replaced the governor-general and Council of Fort William with the governor-general and Council of India. The power to elect the governor-general was retained by the Court of Directors, but the choice became subject to the sovereign's approval via the [[India Board]].

After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the British East India Company's territories in India were put under the direct control of the sovereign. The [[Government of India Act 1858]] vested the power to appoint the governor-general in the sovereign. The governor-general, in turn, had the power to appoint all lieutenant governors in India, subject to the sovereign's approval.

India and Pakistan acquired independence in 1947, but governors-general continued to be appointed over each nation until republican constitutions were written. [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma]], remained governor-general of India for ten months after independence, but the two nations were otherwise headed by native governors-general. India became a secular republic in 1950; Pakistan became an Islamic one in 1956.

==Functions==

[[File:George Curzon2.jpg|thumb|220px|[[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]] in his robes as viceroy of India, a post he held from 1899 to 1905.]]
[[File:Lord Mountbatten addressing the Chamber of Princes.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Lord Mountbatten]] addressing the [[Chamber of Princes]] as Crown Representative in the 1940s]]
The governor-general originally had power only over the [[Presidency of Fort William in Bengal]]. The Regulating Act, however, granted the governor-general additional powers relating to foreign affairs and defence. The other presidencies of the East India Company ([[Madras Presidency|Madras]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] and [[British Bencoolen|Bencoolen]]) were not allowed to declare war on or make peace with an Indian prince without receiving the prior approval of the governor-general and Council of Fort William.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

The powers of the governor-general, in respect of foreign affairs, were increased by the [[Pitt's India Act|India Act 1784]]. The act provided that the other governors under the East India Company could not declare war, make peace or conclude a treaty with an Indian prince unless expressly directed to do so by the governor-general or by the company's Court of Directors.

While the governor-general thus became the controller of foreign policy in India, he was not the explicit head of British India. That status came only with the [[Government of India Act 1833|Charter Act 1833]], which granted him "superintendence, direction and control of the whole civil and military Government" of all of British India. The act also granted legislative powers to the governor-general and council.

In 1835, [[Lord William Bentinck]] became the first governor general of India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lord William Bentinck {{!}} British government official |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lord-William-Bentinck |access-date=2019-05-30 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>

After 1858, the governor-general (now usually known as the viceroy) functioned as the chief administrator of India and as the sovereign's representative. India was divided into numerous [[provinces of India|provinces]], each under the head of a governor, lieutenant governor or chief commissioner or [[Administrator of the Government|administrator]]. Governors were appointed by the [[British government]], to whom they were directly responsible; lieutenant governors, chief commissioners, and administrators, however, were appointed by and were subordinate to the viceroy. The viceroy also oversaw the most powerful [[princely state|princely rulers]]: the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], the [[Maharaja of Mysore]], the Maharaja ([[Scindia]]) of [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]], the [[Dogra dynasty|Maharaja]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and the [[Gaekwad dynasty|Gaekwad]] (Gaekwar) Maharaja of [[Baroda State|Baroda]]. The remaining princely rulers were overseen either by the [[Rajputana Agency]] and [[Central India Agency]], which were headed by representatives of the viceroy or by provincial authorities.

The [[Chamber of Princes]] was an institution established in 1920 by a royal proclamation of King-Emperor [[George V]] to provide a forum in which the princely rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. The chamber usually met only once a year, with the viceroy presiding, but it appointed a standing committee, which met more often.

Upon independence in August 1947, the title of viceroy was abolished. The representative of [[List of heads of state of India|India's sovereign]], King [[George VI]], became known once again as the governor-general. In 1948, [[C. Rajagopalachari]] became the only Indian governor-general. The governor-general's role was almost entirely ceremonial, with power being exercised on a day-to-day basis by the Indian cabinet. After the nation became a republic in 1950, the [[president of India]] continued to perform the same functions.

==Council==
{{Main|Council of India|Viceroy's Executive Council}}
[[File:Rashtrapati Niwas, Shimla.jpg|220px|right|thumb| The [[Rashtrapati Niwas|Viceregal Lodge]] in [[Shimla|Simla]], built in 1888, was the summer residence of the viceroy of India]]
The governor-general was always advised by a Council on the exercise of his legislative and executive powers. The governor-general, while exercising many functions, was referred to as the "Governor-General in Council."

The [[Regulating Act 1773]] provided for the election of four counsellors by the East India Company's Court of Directors. The governor-general was to be assisted by an executive council of four members and was given a casting vote but no veto. The decision of the council was binding on the governor-general.

In 1784, the council was reduced to three members; the governor-general continued to have both an ordinary vote and a casting vote. In 1786, the power of the governor-general was increased even further, as Council decisions ceased to be binding.

The Charter Act 1833 made further changes to the structure of the council. The Act was the first law to distinguish between the executive and legislative responsibilities of the governor-general. As provided under the Act, there were to be four members of the Council appointed by the Court of Directors. The first three members were permitted to participate on all occasions, but the fourth member was only allowed to sit and vote when legislation was being debated.

In 1858, the Court of Directors ceased to have the power to appoint members of the council. Instead, the one member who had a vote only on legislative questions came to be appointed by the sovereign, and the other three members by the [[secretary of state for India]].

The [[Indian Councils Act 1861]] made several changes to the council's composition. Three members were to be appointed by the Secretary of State for India, and two by the Sovereign. The power to appoint all five members passed to the Crown in 1869. The viceroy was empowered to appoint an additional 'six to twelve' members (changed to 'ten to sixteen' in 1892, and to 'sixty' in 1909). The five individuals appointed by the sovereign or the Indian secretary headed the executive departments, while those appointed by the viceroy debated and voted on legislation.

In 1919, an Indian legislature, consisting of a Council of State and a Legislative Assembly, took over the legislative functions of the Viceroy's Council. The viceroy nonetheless retained significant power over legislation. He could authorise the expenditure of money without the Legislature's consent for "ecclesiastical, political [and] defence" purposes, and for any purpose during "emergencies." He was permitted to veto, or even stop debate on, any bill. If he recommended the passage of a bill, but only one chamber cooperated, he could declare the bill passed over the objections of the other chamber. The legislature had no authority over foreign affairs and defence. The president of the Council of State was appointed by the viceroy; the Legislative Assembly elected its president, but the election required the viceroy's approval.

==Style and title==
Until 1833, the title of the position was "governor-general of the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal". The [[Government of India Act 1833]] converted the title into "governor-general of India", effective from 22 April 1834.<ref name=Keith>[https://archive.org/details/speechesdocument01keituoft/page/268/mode/2up ''Government of India Act 1833''], Keith, Arthur Berriedale, ''Speeches & Documents on Indian Policy, 1750–1921'', see section 41 of the Act</ref> The title "viceroy and governor-general" was first used in the queen's proclamation appointing Viscount Canning in 1858.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Queen_Victoria%27s_Proclamation|title=Queen Victoria's Proclamation}}</ref> It was never conferred by an act of parliament but was used in [[warrants of precedence]] and in the statutes of knightly orders. In usage, "viceroy" is employed where the governor-general's position as the monarch's representative is in view.<ref>H. Verney Lovett, "The Indian Governments, 1858–1918", ''The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume V: The Indian Empire, 1858–1918'' (Cambridge University Press, 1932), p. 226.</ref> The viceregal title was not used when the sovereign was present in India. It was meant to indicate new responsibilities, especially ritualistic ones, but it conferred no new statutory authority. The governor-general regularly used the title in communications with the [[Imperial Legislative Council]], but all legislation was made only in the name of the Governor-General-in-Council (or the Government of India).<ref>Arnold P. Kaminsky, ''The India Office, 1880–1910'' (Greenwood Press, 1986), p. 126.</ref>

The governor-general was styled ''Excellency'' and enjoyed precedence over all other government officials in India. He was referred to as 'His Excellency' and addressed as 'Your Excellency'. From 1858 to 1947, the governor-general was known as the viceroy of India (from the French ''roi'', meaning 'king'), and wives of Viceroys were known as Vicereines (from the French ''reine'', meaning 'queen'). The Vicereine was referred to as 'Her Excellency' and was also addressed as 'Your Excellency'. Neither title was employed while the Sovereign was in India. However, the only British sovereign to visit India during the period of British rule was [[George V]], who attended the [[Delhi Durbar]] in 1911 with his wife, [[Mary of Teck|Mary]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

When the [[Order of the Star of India]] was founded in 1861, the viceroy was made its grand master ''ex officio''. The viceroy was also made the ''ex officio'' grand master of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] upon its foundation in 1877.

Most governors-general and viceroys were [[Peerage|peers]]. Frequently, a viceroy who was already a peer would be granted a peerage of higher rank, as with the granting of a [[marquessate]] to [[Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading|Lord Reading]] and an [[earldom]] and later a marquessate to [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas]]. Of those viceroys who were not peers, [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|Sir John Shore]] was a [[baronet]], and [[Lord William Bentinck]] was entitled to the [[courtesy title]] '[[lord]]' because he was the son of a [[duke]]. Only the first and last governors-general{{spaced ndash}}[[Warren Hastings]] and [[Rajaji|Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]]{{spaced ndash}}as well as some provisional governors-general, had no honorific titles at all.

==Flag and insignia==
{{Main|Star of India (flag)}}

From around 1885, the viceroy of India was allowed to fly a [[Union Flag|Union Jack Flag]] augmented in the centre with the 'Star of India' surmounted by a crown. This flag was not the viceroy's personal flag; it was also used by governors, lieutenant governors, chief commissioners and other British officers in India. When at sea, only the viceroy flew the flag from the mainmast, while other officials flew it from the foremast.

From 1947 to 1950, the governor-general of India used a dark blue flag bearing the royal crest (a lion standing on the Crown), beneath which was the word 'India' in gold [[majuscules]]. The same design is still used by many other Commonwealth Realm governors-general. This last flag was the personal flag of the governor-general only.

<gallery class="center">
File:Badge of the Viceroy of India (1876-1904).svg|Badge of the viceroy of India (1876–1904) depicted with St. Edward's Crown
File:Crest of the Viceroy of India.svg|Badge of the viceroy and governor-general (1904–1947) depicted with Tudor Crown
File:Flag of the Governor-General of India (1885–1947).svg|Standard of the viceroy and governor-general (1885–1947)
File:Flag of the Governor-General of India (1947-1950).svg|Standard of the governor-general (1947–50)
</gallery>

==Residence==

[[Image:FraserCalcuttaGovernmentHouse.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Government House]] served as the Governor-General's residence during most of the nineteenth century.]]
The governor-general of Fort William resided in [[Belvedere Estate|Belvedere House]], [[Calcutta]], until the early nineteenth century, when [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Government House]] was constructed. In 1854, the lieutenant governor of Bengal took up residence there. Now, the Belvedere Estate houses the [[National Library of India]].

[[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]], who is reputed to have said that 'India should be governed from a [[palace]], not from a [[country house]]', constructed a grand [[mansion]], known as Government House in Calcutta, between 1799 and 1803. The mansion remained in use until the capital moved from Calcutta to [[Delhi]] in 1912. Thereafter, the lieutenant governor of Bengal, who had hitherto resided in Belvedere House, was upgraded to a full governor and transferred to Government House. Now, it serves as the residence of the [[List of governors of West Bengal|governor]] of the Indian state of [[West Bengal]], and is referred to by its [[Bengali language|Bengali]] name [[Raj Bhavan, Kolkata|Raj Bhavan]].

After the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi, the viceroy occupied the newly built Viceroy's House, designed by Sir [[Edwin Lutyens]]. Though construction began in 1912, it did not conclude until 1929; the palace was not formally inaugurated until 1931. The final cost exceeded £877,000 (over £35 million in modern terms)—more than twice the figure originally allocated. Today the residence, now known by the Hindi name of '[[Rashtrapati Bhavan]]', is used by the [[president of India]].

Throughout the British administration, governors-general retreated to the [[Rashtrapati Niwas|Viceregal Lodge]] ''(now Rashtrapati Niwas)'' at [[Shimla]] each summer to escape the heat, and the government of India moved with them. The Viceregal Lodge now houses the [[Indian Institute of Advanced Study]]. The [[Peterhoff, Shimla|Peterhoff building]] in Shimla was also used by several viceroys, although the original building was destroyed by fire in 1981.

==List==
{{main|List of governors-general of India}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|India|Pakistan|United Kingdom|Politics}}
* [[British Empire]]
* [[Commander-in-Chief, India]]
* [[Council of India]]
* [[Emperor of India]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[India Office]]
* [[Indian Civil Service]]
* [[Indian independence movement]]
* [[List of governors-general of India]]
* [[Partition of India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.acarm.org/government_buildings.shtml Association of Commonwealth Archivists and Record Managers (1999) "Government Buildings – India"]{{Dead link|date=December 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [[George William Forrest|Forrest, G. W.]], [[Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]], (editor) (1910) ''Selections from the State Papers of the Governors-General of India; Warren Hastings'' (2 vols), Oxford: [[Blackwell's]]
* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' ("British Empire" and "Viceroy"), London: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1911, 11th edition,
* James, Lawrence (1997) ''Raj: the Making and Unmaking of British India'' London: Little, Brown & Company {{ISBN|0-316-64072-7}}
* Keith, A. B. (editor) (1922) ''Speeches and Documents on Indian Policy, 1750–1921'', London: [[Oxford University Press]]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557562/India.html Oldenburg, P. (2004). "India." ''Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia.''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20091028004833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557562/India.html Archived] 2009-10-31)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170430232921/http://mountbattenofburma.com/ mountbattenofburma.com – Tribute & Memorial website to Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma]

== Further reading ==
{{Commons category|Governors-General of India}}
*{{cite book|author=Arnold, Sir Edwin|title=The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India: Annexation of Pegu, Nagpor, and Oudh, and a general review of Lord Dalhousie's rule in India|publisher=Saunders, Otley, and Company|url=https://archive.org/details/marquisdalhousi04arnogoog|year=1865}}
* Dodwell H. H., ed. ''The Cambridge History of India. Volume 6: The Indian Empire 1858–1918. With Chapters on the Development of Administration 1818–1858'' (1932) 660pp [https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory06rapsuoft online edition]; also published as vol 5 of the ''Cambridge History of the British Empire''
*[[Moon, Penderel]]. ''The British Conquest and Dominion of India'' (2 vol. 1989) 1235pp; the fullest scholarly history of political and military events from a British top-down perspective;
*Rudhra, A. B. (1940) ''The Viceroy and Governor-General of India''. London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press
* {{Citation| last1=Spear| first1=Percival| author-link= Percival Spear | year=1990| orig-year=First published 1965| title=A History of India |volume=2| publisher=New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298| isbn=978-0-14-013836-8}}.

{{Governors-General of India}}
{{Representatives of the monarch in Commonwealth realms and Dominions}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Governor-General of India}}
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[[Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Westminster system]]