View source for Gospel

{{Short description|Books on the life and teachings of Jesus}}
{{about|the written accounts of the life of Jesus|the Christian message, the "good news"|The gospel|other uses}}
{{Redirect|Evangel|the authors of the Gospel|Four Evangelists}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date = January 2025}}
{{Books of the New Testament}}

[[File:Papyrus BnF Suppl. gr. 1120 ii 3 (Gregory-Aland papyrus P4) - Gospel of Matthew's title, euangelion kata Maththaion.jpg|thumb|Fragment of a flyleaf with the title of the [[Gospel of Matthew]], {{lang|grc|ευαγγελιον κ̣ατ̣α μαθ᾽θαιον}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|Euangelion kata Maththaion}}). From [[Papyrus 4]] ({{Circa|AD 200}}), it is the earliest manuscript title for Matthew and one of the earliest manuscript titles for any gospel.]]

'''Gospel''' originally meant the [[Christianity|Christian]] message ("[[the gospel]]"), but in the second century [[Anno domino|AD]] the term {{Transliteration|grc-x-koine|euangélion}} ({{Langx|grc-x-koine|εὐαγγέλιον|lit=good news}}, from which the English word originated as a [[calque]]) came to be used also for the books in which the message was reported.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=697}} In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words and deeds of [[Jesus]], culminating in [[trial of Jesus|his trial]] and [[crucifixion of Jesus|death]], and concluding with various reports of his [[Post-resurrection appearances of Jesus|post-resurrection appearances]].{{sfn|Alexander|2006|p=16}}

The Gospels are commonly seen as literature that is based on oral traditions, Christian preaching, and Old Testament exegesis with the consensus being that they are a variation of Greco-Roman biography; similar to other ancient works such as Xenophon's [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memoirs of Socrates'']].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=98–99}}</ref>{{sfn|Lincoln|2004|p=133}} They are meant to convince people that Jesus was a charismatic miracle-working holy man, providing examples for readers to emulate.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=52}}{{sfn|Dunn|2005|p=174}}{{sfn|Vermes|2013|p=32}} As such, they present the Christian message of the second half of the first century AD,{{sfn|Keith|Le Donne|2012|p={{page needed|date=July 2021}}}} Modern [[Biblical studies|biblical scholars]] are therefore cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically as historical documents, and although they afford a good idea of Jesus' public career, critical study has largely failed to distinguish his original ideas from those of the later [[Early Christian writers|Christian authors]],{{sfn|Keith|2016}}{{sfn|Keith|Le Donne|2012}} and the focus of research has therefore shifted to Jesus as remembered by his followers,{{sfn|Dunn|1995|pp=371–372}}{{sfn|Dunn|2003}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dunn_1995_teachings_as remembered"}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dunn_2003_back_to_Jesus"}} and understanding the Gospels themselves.{{sfn|Keith|2012}}

The [[biblical canon|canonical]] gospels are the four which appear in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]]. They were probably written between AD 66 and 110, which puts their composition likely within the lifetimes of various eyewitnesses, including Jesus's own family.<ref name="van Os 2011 57, 83">{{cite book |last= van Os |first= Bas |year= 2011 |title= Psychological Analyses and the Historical Jesus: New Ways to Explore Christian Origins |publisher= T&T Clark |pages= 57, 83 |isbn= 978-0567269515}}</ref><ref name="Sanders 1996 5">{{cite book |last= Sanders |first= EP |year= 1996 |title= The Historical Figure of Jesus |publisher= Penguin |page= 5 |isbn= 0140144994}}</ref>{{sfn|Perkins|1998|p=241}}{{sfn|Reddish|2011|pp=108, 144}}{{sfn|Lincoln|2005|p=18}} Most scholars hold that all four were anonymous (with the modern names of the "[[Four Evangelists]]" added in the 2nd century), almost certainly none<!-- Do not change without first discussing on Talk page --> were by eyewitnesses, and are the products of literarily creative authors (which did involve claiming consulting eyewitnesses).{{sfn|Reddish|2011|pp=13, 42}}<ref name="Byrskog 2000 18–28, 69">{{cite book |last= Byrskog |first= Samuel |year= 2000 |title= Story as History - History as Story: The Gospel Tradition in the Context of Ancient Oral History |publisher= Mohr Siebrek Ek |pages= 18–28, 69 |isbn= 978-3161473050}}</ref><ref name="Rodriguez 57">{{cite book |last= Rodriguez |first= Rafael |title= Jesus Darkly: Remembering Jesus with the New Testament |publisher= Abingdon Press |page= 57 |isbn= 978-1501839115}}</ref><ref name="Becker 2017 39–40, 59">{{cite book |last= Becker |first= Eve-Marie |title= The Birth of Christian History: Memory and Time from Mark to Luke-Acts |year= 2017 |publisher= Yale University Press |pages= 39–40, 59 |isbn= 978-0300165098}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> According to the majority of scholars, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] was the first to be written, using a variety of sources,{{sfn|Goodacre|2001|p=56}}{{sfn|Boring|2006|pp=13–14}} followed by [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], which both independently used Mark for their narrative of Jesus's career, supplementing it with a collection of sayings called "the [[Q source]]", and additional material unique to each, though alternative hypotheses that posit the direct use of Matthew by Luke or vice versa without Q are increasing in popularity.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Runesson |first=Anders |title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins |date=2021 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference |publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers |year=2023 |isbn=9789042950344}}</ref>{{sfn|Levine|2009|p=6}} There have been different views on the transmission of material that led to the [[synoptic gospels]], with various scholars arguing memory and orality reliably preserved traditions that ultimately go back to the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|1995}}<ref name="Wright 1998">{{cite journal |last=Wright |first=NT |title=Early Traditions and the Origins of Christianity |journal=Sewanee Theological Review |year=1998 |volume=41 |issue=2}}</ref><ref name="Bockmuehl 2006 166–178">{{cite book |last=Bockmuehl |first=Markus |author-link=Markus Bockmuehl |year=2006 |title=Seeing the Word: Refocusing New Testament Study |publisher=Baker Academic |pages=166–178 |isbn=978-0801027611}}</ref><ref name="McIver 2011">{{cite book |last=McIver |first=Robert |year=2011 |title=Memory, Jesus, and the Synoptic Gospels |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1589835603}}</ref> Other scholars have been more skeptical and see more changes in the traditions prior to the written Gospels.{{sfn|Ehrman|1997}}{{sfn|Valantasis|Bleyle|Haugh|2009}} [[Gospel of John|John]] may have been aware of the Synoptics, and there is currently considerable debate over the gospel's social, religious and historical context.{{sfn|Bynum|2012|pp=7, 12}}{{sfn|Burge|2014|p=309}} In modern scholarship, the synoptic gospels are the primary sources for reconstructing Christ's ministry while John is used less since it differs from the synoptics.{{sfn|Sanders|2010}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_primary_sources"}} According to the manuscript evidence and citation frequency by the early [[Church Fathers]], Matthew and John were the most popular gospels while Luke and Mark were less popular in the early centuries of the church.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Charles |last2=Kruger |first2=Michael |title=The Early Text of the New Testament |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199566365 |page=83 |chapter=The Early Text of Matthew}}</ref>

Many [[new Testament apocrypha|non-canonical gospels]] were also written, all later than the four canonical gospels, and like them advocating the particular theological views of their various authors.{{sfn|Petersen|2010|p=51}}{{sfn|Culpepper|1999|p=66}} Important examples include the gospels of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], [[Gospel of Peter|Peter]], [[Gospel of Judas|Judas]], and [[Gospel of Mary|Mary]]; [[infancy gospels]] such as that of [[Gospel of James|James]] (the first to introduce the [[perpetual virginity of Mary]]); and [[gospel harmony|gospel harmonies]] such as the [[Diatessaron]].

==Etymology==
''Gospel'' is the [[Old English]] translation of the [[Koine Greek|Hellenistic Greek]] term {{lang|grc-x-koine|εὐαγγέλιον}}, meaning "good news";{{sfn|Woodhead|2004|p=4}} this may be seen from analysis of {{lang|grc|ευαγγέλιον}} ({{lang|grc-x-koine|εὖ}} "good" + {{lang|grc-x-koine|ἄγγελος}} "messenger" + {{lang|grc-x-koine|-ιον}} [[diminutive]] suffix). The Greek term was [[Latinisation (literature)|Latinized]] as {{lang|la|evangelium}} in the [[Vulgate]], and translated into [[Latin]] as {{lang|la|bona annuntiatio}}. In Old English, it was translated as {{lang|ang|gōdspel}} ({{lang|ang|gōd}} "good" + {{lang|ang|spel}} "news"). The Old English term was retained as {{lang|enm|gospel}} in [[Middle English Bible translations]] and hence remains in use also in [[Modern English]].

[[Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopaedia Britannica]] defines gospel as stemming from gōdspel "good story/news," a calque translating Latin evangelium from Greek εὐαγγέλιον "good news."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/gospel-New-Testament |title=Gospel {{!}} New Testament |access-date=2025-10-23}}</ref>


{{Anchor|Canonical gospels}}

==Canonical gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John==
{{Main|Gospel of Matthew|Gospel of Mark|Gospel of Luke|Gospel of John|Four Evangelists}}
{{Redirect|Four Gospels||Four Gospels (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox religious text|verses=3,779|period=[[Christianity in the 1st century#Apostolic Age|Apostolic Age]]|chapters=89|language=[[Koine Greek]]|name=Canonical Gospels|image=Sargis Pitsak.jpg|religion=[[Christianity]]|caption=The first page of the Gospel of Mark in [[Armenian language|Armenian]], by [[Sargis Pitsak]], 14th century}}

===Contents===
The four canonical gospels share the same basic outline of the life of Jesus: he begins his public ministry in conjunction with that of [[John the Baptist]], calls disciples, teaches and heals and confronts the [[Pharisees]], dies on the cross and is raised from the dead.{{sfn|Thompson|2006|p=183}} Each has its own distinctive understanding of him and his divine role{{sfn|Culpepper|1999|p=66}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart |title=Jesus as God in the Synoptics (For members) |url=https://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-as-god-in-the-synoptics-for-members/ |website=Ehrman Blog |date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311164815/https://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-as-god-in-the-synoptics-for-members/ |archive-date=11 March 2015}}</ref> and scholars recognize that the differences of detail among the gospels are irreconcilable, and any attempt to harmonize them would only disrupt their distinct theological messages.{{sfn|Scholz|2009|p=192}} The patterns of parallels and differences found in the gospels are typical of ancient biographies about actual people and history, and are thus unproblematic if not read anachronistically.<ref name="Keener 20192">{{cite book |last=Keener |first=Craig |author-link=Craig Keener |title=Christobiography: Memory, History, and the Reliability of the Gospels |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2019 |isbn=978-0802876751 |pages=261}}</ref>

Matthew, Mark, and Luke are termed the [[synoptic gospels]] because they present very similar accounts of the life of Jesus.{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=217}} Mark begins with the baptism of the adult Jesus and the heavenly declaration that he is the son of God; he gathers followers and begins his ministry, and tells his disciples that he must die in Jerusalem but that he will rise; in Jerusalem, he is at first acclaimed but then rejected, betrayed, and crucified, and when the women who have followed him come to his tomb, they find it empty.{{sfn|Boring|2006|pp=1–3}} Mark never calls Jesus "God" or claims that he existed prior to his earthly life, apparently believes that he had a normal human parentage and birth, and makes no attempt to trace his ancestry back to [[King David]] or [[Adam]];{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=158}}{{sfn|Parker|1997|p=125}} it originally ended at [[Mark 16]]:8 and had no [[Resurrection of Jesus#Biblical accounts|post-resurrection appearances]], although Mark 16:7, in which the young man discovered in the tomb instructs the women to tell "the disciples and Peter" that Jesus will see them again in Galilee, hints that the author knew of the tradition.{{sfn|Telford|1999|p=148-149}}

The authors of Matthew and Luke added infancy and resurrection narratives to the story they found in Mark, although the two differ markedly.{{sfn|Eve|2021|p=29}} Each also makes subtle theological changes to Mark, though James Barker argues this is exaggerated, with ancient rhetorical practices explaining many differences in the gospels instead.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barker |first=James |title=Writing and Rewriting the Gospels |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2025 |isbn=978-0802874528 |pages=46}}</ref> The Markan miracle stories, for example, confirm Jesus' status as an emissary of God (which was Mark's understanding of the Messiah), but in Matthew they demonstrate his divinity,{{sfn|Aune|1987|p=59}} and the "young man" who appears at Jesus' tomb in Mark becomes a radiant angel in Matthew.{{sfn|Beaton|2005|pp=117, 123}}{{sfn|Morris|1986|p=114}} Luke, while following Mark's plot more faithfully than Matthew, has expanded on the source, corrected Mark's grammar and syntax, and eliminated some passages entirely, notably most of chapters 6 and 7.{{sfn|Johnson|2010a|p=48}}

John, the most overtly theological, is the first to make Christological judgements outside the context of the narrative of Jesus's life.{{sfn|Culpepper|1999|p=66}} He presents a significantly different picture of Jesus's career,{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=217}} omitting any mention of his ancestry, birth and childhood, his [[baptism of Jesus|baptism]], [[temptation of Christ|temptation]] and [[transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]];{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=217}} his chronology and arrangement of incidents is also distinctly different, clearly describing the passage of three years in Jesus's ministry in contrast to the single year of the synoptics, placing the [[cleansing of the Temple]] at the beginning rather than at the end, and the [[Last Supper]] on the day before [[Passover]] instead of being a Passover meal.{{sfn|Anderson|2011|p=52}} However, there are also verses such as Mark 14:49 and Matthew 23:37 often viewed as hints of a longer ministry in the Synoptics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=Dale |title=The Gospel of John in Historical Inquiry |publisher=T&T Clark |year=2019 |isbn=978-0567681348 |pages=277}}</ref> Ancient writing practices involved such chronological displacement and changes, with even reliable biographers including [[Plutarch]] displaying them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vytlačilová |first=Magdalena |title=Jesus, the Gospels, and the Galilean Crisis by Tucker S. Ferda (review) |journal=Neotestamentica |date=2023 |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1353/neo.2023.a938405 }}</ref> According to Delbert Burkett, the Gospel of John is the only gospel to call Jesus God, though other scholars including [[Larry Hurtado]] and Michael Barber view a possible divine [[Christology]] in the synoptics.<ref name="web">{{Cite web |date=16 March 2016 |title=Jesus in the Gospels |url=https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2016/03/16/jesus-in-the-gospels/ |access-date=29 September 2024 |website=Larry Hurtado's Blog |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barber |first=Michael |year=2023 |title=The Historical Jesus and the Temple: Memory, Methodology and the Gospel of Matthew- Foreword by Dale C. Allison, Jr. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=xi |isbn=978-1009210850}}</ref>{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=216}} In contrast to Mark, where Jesus hides his identity as messiah, in John he openly proclaims it.{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=214}}

===Composition===
[[File:Relationship between synoptic gospels-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The Synoptic sources: the Gospel of Mark (the triple tradition), [[Q source|Q]] (the double tradition), and material unique to Matthew (the [[M&nbsp;source]]), Luke (the [[L&nbsp;source]]), and Mark{{sfn|Honoré|1986|pp=95–147}}]]

Like the rest of the [[New Testament]], the four gospels were written in Greek.{{sfn|Porter|2006|p=185}} The Gospel of Mark probably dates from around AD 70,{{sfn|Perkins|1998|p=241}} Matthew and Luke around AD 80–90,{{sfn|Reddish|2011|pp=108, 144}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Charlesworth |first=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT64 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |publisher=Abingdon Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6}}</ref> and John AD 90–100,{{sfn|Lincoln|2005|p=18}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Parsenios |first=George |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1108437707 |pages=156}}</ref> which puts their composition likely within the lifetimes of various eyewitnesses, including Jesus's own family.<ref name="van Os 2011 57, 83"/><ref name="Sanders 1996 5"/> Despite the traditional ascriptions, all four are anonymous, and none were written by eyewitnesses to the [[Historical Jesus]], though most scholars view the author of [[Luke-Acts]] as an eyewitness to [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Keener |first= Craig |author-link=Craig Keener |year=2015 |title=Acts: An Exegetical Commentary (Volume 1) |publisher= Baker Academic |page=402 |isbn=978-0801039898}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Dunn |first= James |author-link= James Dunn (theologian) |year= 2016 |title= The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=  Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |page= x |isbn= 978-0802874023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Fitzmyer |first= Joseph |author-link= Joseph Fitzmyer |year= 1998 |title= The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries) |publisher= Yale University Press |page= 50 |isbn= 978-0300139822}}</ref> However, Paul never met Jesus. Before the gospels were written, he claimed to have had a vision of Jesus after his death and later met his brother James.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:3-8}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|1:11-19}}</ref> The form-critics largely viewed the gospels as compilers of transmitted traditions, but the gospels are now seen as biographers engaging in literarily creative and imaginative form of art (which did involve claiming consulting eyewitnesses).{{sfn|Reddish|2011|pp=13, 42}}<ref name="Byrskog 2000 18–28, 69"/><ref name="Rodriguez 57"/><ref name="Becker 2017 39–40, 59"/><ref name=":3" /> A few scholars defend the traditional ascriptions or attributions, but for a variety of reasons, the majority of scholars have abandoned this view or hold it only tenuously.{{sfn|Lindars|Edwards|Court|2000|p=41}}<ref name="Gathercole">{{Cite journal |last=Gathercole |first=Simon |date=1 October 2018 |title=The Alleged Anonymity of the Canonical Gospels |url=https://academic.oup.com/jts/article/69/2/447/5101372 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |language=en |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=447–476 |doi=10.1093/jts/fly113|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the immediate aftermath of Jesus' death, his followers expected [[Second Coming|his return]] within their own lifetimes, and in consequence there was little motivation to write anything down for future generations, but as eyewitnesses began to die, and as the missionary needs of the church grew, there was an increasing need for written versions of the founder's life and teachings.{{sfn|Reddish|2011|p=17}} According to Allison and Hays, the gospels present the timing of the [[Parousia]] as imminent but not fixed, being dependent on the repentance of Israel.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=Dale |title=Interpreting Jesus |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2025 |isbn=978-0802879196 |pages=60–71, 92}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hays |first=Christopher |title=When the Son of Man Didn't Come: A Constructive Proposal on the Dealy of the Parousia |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1451465549 |pages=80–110}}</ref> Burkett argues the emergence of the gospels can be summarized by oral traditions passed on as unordered units, written collections of miracle stories and sayings, and proto-gospels preceding and serving as sources for the gospels, which combined proto-gospels, written collections, and oral tradition.{{sfn|Burkett|2002|pp=124–125}} The dedicatory preface of Luke testifies to the existence of previous accounts of the life of Jesus.{{sfn|Martens|2004|p=100}} According to Chris Keith, there is no incontrovertible evidence the gospel traditions circulated as written narratives, testimonia, or notes prior to Mark.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Chris |title=The Gospel as Manuscript: An Early History of the Jesus Tradition as Material Artifact |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0199384372 |pages=77}}</ref>

Mark is generally agreed to be the first gospel.{{sfn|Goodacre|2001|p=56}} According to Boring, Mark uses a variety of sources, including conflict stories (Mark 2:1–3:6), [[apocalyptic literature|apocalyptic]] discourse (4:1–35), and collections of sayings, although not the sayings gospel known as the [[Gospel of Thomas]], and probably not the hypothesized [[Q&nbsp;source]] used by Matthew and Luke.{{sfn|Boring|2006|pp=13–14}} However, Helen Bond writes that [[Source criticism (biblical studies)|source criticism]] largely fallen out of favor in gospels scholarship, though some elements remain.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Bond |first=Helen |title=The First Biography of Jesus |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2020 |isbn=978-0802874603 |pages=620}}</ref> Most scholars believe the authors of Matthew and Luke, acting independently, used Mark for their narrative of Jesus' career, supplementing it with the hypothesized collection of sayings called the Q&nbsp;source and additional material unique to each called the [[M&nbsp;source]] (Matthew) and the [[L&nbsp;source]] (Luke), though alternative hypotheses that posit the direct use of Matthew by Luke or vice versa without Q are increasing in popularity within scholarship.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Runesson |first=Anders |title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins |date=2021 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference |publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers |year=2023 |isbn=9789042950344}}</ref>{{sfn|Levine|2009|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|name="Markan priority"|The priority of Mark is accepted by most scholars, but there are important dissenting opinions: see the article [[Synoptic problem]].}} The Gospels represent a Jesus tradition and were enveloped by oral storytelling and performances during the early years of Christianity, rather than being redactions or literary responses to each other.<ref>{{cite book |last= Rodriguez |first= Rafael |title= Structuring Early Christian Memory: Jesus in Tradition, Performance and Text |year= 2010 |publisher= T&T Clark |page= 5 |isbn= 978-0567264206}}</ref> Mark, Matthew, and Luke are called the [[synoptic gospels]] because of their close similarities of content, arrangement, and language.{{sfn|Goodacre|2001|p=1}} Alan Kirk praises Matthew in particular for his "scribal memory competence" and "his high esteem for and careful handling of both Mark and Q", which makes claims the latter two works are significantly theologically or historically different dubious.<ref>{{cite book |last= Kirk |first= Alan |year= 2019 |title= Q in Matthew: Ancient Media, Memory, and Early Scribal Transmission of the Jesus Tradition |publisher= T&T Clark |pages= 298–306 |isbn=  978-0567686541}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Rodriguez |first= Rafael |year= 2017 |title= Matthew as Performer, Tradent, Scribe |journal= Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |volume= 15 |issue= 2–3 |page= 203 |doi= 10.1163/17455197-01502003}}</ref> The author of John may have known the synoptics, but did not use them in the way that Matthew and Luke used Mark.{{sfn|Perkins|2012|p={{page needed|date=July 2021}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mendez |first=Hugo |title=The Gospel of John: A New History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2025 |isbn=978-0197686126 |pages=3–6}}</ref> The increase in support for John’s knowledge of the Synoptics is correlated with the decline of the signs source hypothesis,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frey |first=Jorg |title=The Glory of the Crucified One: Theology and Christology in the Fourth Gospel |publisher=Baylor University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1481309097 |pages=355}}</ref> and there is currently considerable debate over the gospel's social, religious and historical context.{{sfn|Bynum|2012|pp=7, 12}}{{sfn|Burge|2014|p=309}}{{refn|group=note |name="John"|The debate over the composition of John is too complex to be treated adequately in a single paragraph; for a more nuanced view see {{harvp|Aune|1987|loc="Gospel of John"}}.{{sfn|Aune|1987|pp=243–245}}}}

All four also use the Jewish scriptures, by quoting or referencing passages, interpreting texts, or alluding to or echoing biblical themes.{{sfn|Allen|2013|pp=43–44}} Such use can be extensive: Mark's description of the [[Parousia]] (second coming) is made up almost entirely of quotations from scripture.{{sfn|Edwards|2002|p=403}} Matthew is full of quotations and [[allusion]]s,{{sfn|Beaton|2005|p=122}} and although John uses scripture in a far less explicit manner, its influence is still pervasive.{{sfn|Lieu|2005|p=175}} According to Wesley Allen, their source was the Greek version of the scriptures, called the [[Septuagint]] and they do not seem familiar with the original Hebrew,{{sfn|Allen|2013|p=45}} though other scholars point out that Matthew in particular has quotations closer to the [[Masoretic]] and could understand [[Hebrew]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barber |first=Michael Patrick |year=2023 |title=The Historical Jesus and the Temple: Memory, Methodology and the Gospel of Matthew |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page= 243 |isbn=978-1-009-21085-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Ferda |first= Tucker |year= 2020 |title= Doubling Down: Zechariah's Oracle, Judah's Blessing, and the Triumphal Entry in Matthew |journal= The Journal of Theological Studies |series=New Series |volume= 71 |issue= 2 |pages= 466–512 |doi= 10.1093/jts/flaa088}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Ferda: "I have no doubt that the First Evangelist could read Hebrew, and here I stand with a host of other interpreters."}}

===Genre and historical reliability===
{{main|Historical reliability of the Gospels|Quest for the historical Jesus}}

The consensus among modern scholars is that the gospels are a subset of the ancient genre of ''bios'', or [[ancient biography]].{{sfn|Lincoln|2004|p=133}} Ancient biographies were concerned with providing examples for readers to emulate while preserving and promoting the subject's reputation and memory; the gospels were never simply biographical, they were [[propaganda]] and ''[[kerygma]]'' (preaching),{{sfn|Dunn|2005|p=174}} meant to convince people that Jesus was a charismatic miracle-working holy man.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=52}}{{sfn|Vermes|2013|p=32}} As such, they present the Christian message of the second half of the first century AD,{{sfn|Keith|Le Donne|2012|p={{page needed|date=July 2021}}}} and modern [[Biblical studies|biblical scholars]] are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically as historical documents,{{sfn|Schoeps|1968|p=261–262}}{{sfn|Sanders|2010}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=53}}{{refn|group=note|name="a-historical"}}{{refn|group=note|name="nativity"}} though they provide a good idea of the public career of Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1995b|p=4-5}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_public_career"}} Bond states that many [[chreia]] found in the gospels are literary creations composed by the evangelists rather than reservoirs of oral tradition; while many are rooted in actual history, they have been reshaped to emphasize various aspects of Jesus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bond |first=Helen |title=The Next Quest for the Historical Jesus |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2024 |isbn=978-0802882707 |pages=121–122}}</ref>

Most scholars since the 19th century have viewed the gospel of John as less reliable than the Synoptic gospels.{{sfn|Tuckett|2000|p=523}}{{sfn|Sanders|1995|pp=57, 70–71}} Since the third quest, however, John's gospel is seen as having more reliability than previously thought or sometimes even more reliable than the synoptics.<ref name="john JH">{{cite book |title=The Jesus Handbook |date=2022 |publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=9780802876928 |pages=138–140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blomberg |first1=Craig |title=The Historical Reliability of John's Gospel: Issues and Commentary |date=2011 |publisher=IVP Academic |isbn=978-0830838714}}</ref> The John, Jesus, and History Seminar has contributed to the overthrow of the previous consensus that John was of no historical value, and many scholars now see it as a source for the [[Historical Jesus]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Massey |first=Brandon |title=The Quest for the Historical Jesus, 2000-2023 |journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |volume=21 |issue=1–2 |pages=64}}</ref> In addition, the gospels read today have been edited and corrupted over time, leading [[Origen]] to complain in the 3rd century that "the differences among manuscripts have become great [...] [because copyists] either neglect to check over what they have transcribed, or, in the process of checking, they make additions or deletions as they please."{{sfn|Ehrman|2005a|pp=7, 52}} Most of these are insignificant, but some are significant,{{sfn|Ehrman|2005a|p=69}} an example being Matthew 1:18, altered to imply the pre-existence of Jesus.{{sfn|Ehrman|1996|pp=75-76}} For these reasons, modern scholars are cautious of relying on the gospels uncritically, and critical study can attempt to distinguish the original ideas of Jesus from those of later authors.{{sfn|Reddish|2011|pp=21–22}}

Scholars usually agree that John is not without historical value: certain of its sayings are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, and its representation of the [[topography]] around [[Jerusalem]] is often superior to that of the synoptics. Its testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and its presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=36–37}} Commentators disagree on whether the beloved disciple is presented as the author or an authority behind the gospel.{{sfn|Lincoln|2005|p=26}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Marianne |title=John: A Commentary |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0664221119 |pages=432 |quote=Commentators who think the beloved disciple is here presented as the author of the Gospel include Barrett 587; Carson 1991, 685; Lindars 641; Michaels 1054-56; Ridderbos 671. Among those reckoning him as the authority somehow responsible for the Gospel are Beasley-Murray 415; Lincoln, 2005,523; O'Day 863; Schnackenburg 3:373; Talbert 263.}}</ref> The Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources for Christ's ministry.{{sfn|Sanders|2010}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_primary_sources"}}

Assessments of the reliability of the [[Gospels]] involve not just the texts but studying the long oral and written transmission behind them using methods like memory studies and [[form criticism]], with different scholars coming to different conclusions. There have been different views on the transmission of material that lead to the [[synoptic gospels]], with various scholars arguing memory and orality reliably preserved traditions that ultimately go back to the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|1995}}<ref name="Wright 1998"/><ref name="Bockmuehl 2006 166–178"/><ref name="McIver 2011"/> Other scholars have been more skeptical and see more changes in the traditions prior to the written Gospels.{{sfn|Ehrman|1997}}{{sfn|Valantasis|Bleyle|Haugh|2009}} Jeffrey Tripp observes a scholarly trend advocating for the reliability of memory and the oral gospel traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tripp |first=Jeffrey |title=The Eyewitnesses in their Own Words |journal=Journal for the Study of the New Testament |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=411–12 |doi=10.1177/0142064X211051299 }}</ref>

[[James D.G. Dunn]] believed that
{{blockquote|the earliest tradents within the Christian churches [were] preservers more than innovators [...] seeking to transmit, retell, explain, interpret, elaborate, but not create ''de novo'' [...] Through the main body of the Synoptic tradition [...] we have in most cases direct access to the teaching and ministry of Jesus as it was remembered from the beginning of the transmission process [...] and so fairly direct access to the ministry and teaching of Jesus through the eyes and ears of those who went about with him.{{sfn|Dunn|1995|pp=371–372}}}}
Anthony Le Donne, a leading memory researcher in Jesus studies, elaborated on Dunn's thesis, basing "his historiography squarely on Dunn’s thesis that the historical Jesus is the memory of Jesus recalled by the earliest disciples."<ref name="Simpson">{{cite web |first=Benjamin I. |last=Simpson |date=April 1, 2014 |title=review of ''The Historiographical Jesus. Memory, Typology, and the Son of David'' |url=https://voice.dts.edu/review/historiographical-jesus-le-donne/ |website=The Voice |publisher=Dallas Theological Seminary}}</ref> According to Le Donne as explained by his reviewer, Benjamin Simpson, memories are fractured, and not exact recalls of the past. Le Donne further argues that the remembrance of events is facilitated by relating it to a common story, or "type." This means the Jesus-tradition is not a theological invention of the early Church, but rather a tradition shaped and refracted through such memory "type." Le Donne too supports a conservative view on typology compared to some other scholars, transmissions involving eyewitnesses, and ultimately a stable tradition resulting in little invention in the Gospels.<ref name="Simpson"/> Le Donne expressed himself thusly vis-a-vis more skeptical scholars, "He (Dale Allison) does not read the gospels as fiction, but even if these early stories derive from memory, memory can be frail and often misleading. While I do not share Allison's point of departure (i.e. I am more optimistic), I am compelled by the method that came from it."<ref>{{cite book |last= Le Donne |first= Anthony |year= 2018 |title= Jesus: A Beginner's Guide |publisher= Oneworld Publications |page= 212 |isbn= 978-1786071446}}</ref>

[[Dale Allison]] emphasizes the weakness of human memory, referring to its 'many sins' and how it frequently misguides people. He expresses skepticism at other scholars' endeavors to identify authentic sayings of Jesus. Instead of isolating and authenticating individual pericopae, Allison advocates for a methodology focused on identifying patterns and finding what he calls 'recurrent [[attestation]]'. Allison argues that the general impressions left by the Gospels should be trusted, though he is more skeptical on the details; if they are broadly unreliable, then our sources almost certainly cannot have preserved any of the particulars. Opposing preceding approaches where the Gospels are historically questionable and must be rigorously sifted through by competent scholars for nuggets of information, Allison argues that the Gospels are generally accurate and often 'got Jesus right'. Dale Allison finds apocalypticism to be recurrently attested, among various other themes.<ref>{{cite book |last= Allison |first= Dale |author-link= Dale Allison |year= 2010 |title= Constructing Jesus: Memory, Imagination, and History |publisher= Baker Academic |page=2-8, 8-9, 16-18, 20, 23-26, 33-43|isbn= 978-0801048753}}</ref> Reviewing his work, Rafael Rodriguez largely agrees with Allison's methodology and conclusions while arguing that Allison's discussion on memory is too one-sided, noting that memory "is nevertheless sufficiently stable to authentically bring the past to bear on the present" and that people are beholden to memory's successes in everyday life.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Rodriguez |first= Rafael |year= 2014 |title= Jesus as his Friends Remembered Him |journal= Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |volume= 12 |issue= 3 |pages= 224–244 |doi= 10.1163/17455197-01203004}}</ref>

[[Craig Keener]], drawing on the works of previous studies by Dunn, Alan Kirk, [[Kenneth E. Bailey|Kenneth Bailey]], and Robert McIver, among many others, utilizes memory theory and oral tradition to argue that the Gospels are in many ways historically accurate.<ref name="Keener 2019">{{cite book |last= Keener |first= Craig |author-link= Craig Keener |year= 2019 |title= Christobiography: Memory, History, and the Reliability of the Gospels |publisher= Eerdmans |isbn= 978-0802876751}}</ref> His work has been endorsed by [[Markus Bockmuehl]], [[James Charlesworth]], and [[David Aune]], among others.<ref name="Keener 2019"/> 
According to [[Bruce Chilton]] and [[Craig A. Evans|Craig Evans]], "...the Judaism of the period treated such traditions very carefully, and the New Testament writers in numerous passages applied to apostolic traditions the same technical terminology found elsewhere in Judaism [...] In this way they both identified their traditions as 'holy word' and showed their concern for a careful and ordered transmission of it."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chilton |first1=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Chilton |last2=Evans |first2=Craig |author-link2=Craig A. Evans |year=1998 |title=Authenticating the Words of Jesus & Authenticating the Activities of Jesus, Volume 2 Authenticating the Activities of Jesus |publisher=Brill |pages=53–55 |isbn=978-9004113022}}</ref> [[NT Wright]] also argued for a stable oral tradition, stating "Communities that live in an oral culture tend to be story-telling communities [...] Such stories [...] acquire a fairly fixed form, down to precise phraseology [...] they retain that form, and phraseology, as long as they are told [...] The storyteller in such a culture has no license to invent or adapt at will. The less important the story, the more the entire community, in a process that is informal but very effective, will keep a close watch on the precise form and wording with which the story is told.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=NT |author-link=NT Wright |chapter=Five Gospels But No Gospel |title=Authenticating the Activities of Jesus|series=
New Testament Tools, Studies and Documents |publisher=Brill |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=112–113 |doi=10.1163/9789004421295_009|editor1=Craig A. Evans |editor2= Bruce Chilton }}</ref>

Other scholars are less sanguine about oral tradition, and Valantasis, Bleyle, and Hough argue that the early traditions were fluid and subject to alteration, sometimes transmitted by those who had known Jesus personally, but more often by wandering prophets and teachers like the [[Apostle Paul]], who did not know him personally.{{sfn|Valantasis|Bleyle|Haugh|2009|pp=7, 10, 14}} Ehrman explains how the tradition developed as it was transmitted:
{{blockquote|You are probably familiar with the old birthday party game "[[Telephone game|telephone]]." A group of kids sits in a circle, the first tells a brief story to the one sitting next to her, who tells it to the next, and to the next, and so on, until it comes back full circle to the one who started it. Invariably, the story has changed so much in the process of retelling that everyone gets a good laugh. Imagine this same activity taking place, not in a solitary living room with ten kids on one afternoon, but over the expanse of the Roman Empire (some 2,500 miles across), with thousands of participants—from different backgrounds, with different concerns, and in different contexts—some of whom have to translate the stories into different languages.{{sfn|Ehrman|1997|p=44}}}}

While multiple quests have been undertaken to reconstruct the historical Jesus, since the late 1990s concerns have been growing about the possibility to reconstruct a historical Jesus from the Gospel-texts.{{sfn|Keith|2016}} According to Dunn, "What we actually have in the earliest retellings of what is now the Synoptic tradition...are the memories of the first disciples-not Jesus himself, but the remembered Jesus. The idea that we can get back to an objective historical reality, which we can wholly separate and disentangle from the disciples' memories...is simply unrealistic."{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=130-131}}{{sfn|Dunn|2003}}{{refn|group=note|name="Dunn_2003_back_to_Jesus"}} These memories can contradict and are not always historically correct, as the Gospels display. Chris Keith argues that the [[Historical Jesus]] was the one who could create these memories, both true or not. For instance, Mark and Luke disagree on how Jesus came back to the synagogue, with the likely more accurate Mark arguing he was rejected for being an artisan, while Luke portrays Jesus as literate and his refusal to heal in [[Nazareth]] as cause of his dismissal. Keith does not view Luke's account as a fabrication since different eyewitnesses would have perceived and remembered differently.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Keith |first= Chris |year= 2011 |title= Memory and Authenticity: Jesus Tradition and What Really Happened |journal= Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und Kunde der Älteren Kirche |volume= 102 |issue= 2 |pages= 172, 176 |doi= 10.1515/zntw.2011.011}}</ref> According to Chris Keith, a historical Jesus is "ultimately unattainable, but can be hypothesized on the basis of the interpretations of the [[early Christians]], and as part of a larger process of accounting for how and why early Christians came to view Jesus in the ways that they did." According to Keith, "these two models are methodologically and epistemologically incompatible," calling into question the methods and aim of the first model.{{sfn|Keith|2016}} Keith argues that criticism of the criteria of authenticity does not mean scholars cannot research the [[Historical Jesus]], but rather that scholarship should seek to understand the Gospels rather than trying to sift through them for nuggets of history.{{sfn|Keith|2012}} Regardless of the methodological challenges [[historical Jesus]] studies have flowered in recent years; Dale Allison laments, "The publication of academic books about the historical Jesus continues apace, so much so that no one can any longer keep up; we are all overwhelmed."<ref>{{cite book |last=Barber |first=Michael |year=2023 |title=The Historical Jesus and the Temple: Memory, Methodology and the Gospel of Matthew- Foreword by Dale C. Allison, Jr. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=ix |isbn=978-1009210850}}</ref>

===Textual history and canonisation===
{{Main|Development of the New Testament canon}}

The oldest gospel text known is {{Papyrus link|52}}, a fragment of John dating from the first half of the 2nd century.{{sfn|Fant|Reddish|2008|p=415}} The creation of a Christian canon was probably a response to the career of the heretic [[Marcion]] ({{circa|85}}–160), who established a canon of his own with just one gospel, the [[Gospel of Marcion]], similar to the Gospel of Luke.{{sfn|Ehrman|2005a|p=34|ps=: "Marcion included a Gospel in his canon, a form of what is now the Gospel of Luke"}} The [[Muratorian canon]], the earliest surviving list of books considered (by its own author at least) to form Christian scripture, included Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] went further, stating that there must be four gospels and only four because there were [[Four corners of the world|four corners of the Earth]] and thus the Church should have four pillars.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=697}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2005a|p=35}} He referred to the four collectively as the "fourfold gospel" (''euangelion tetramorphon'').{{sfn|Watson|2016|p=15}}

==Non-canonical (apocryphal) gospels==
{{main|New Testament apocrypha}}

[[File:El Evangelio de Tomás-Gospel of Thomas- Codex II Manuscritos de Nag Hammadi-The Nag Hammadi manuscripts.png|thumb|The Gospel of Thomas]]

The many [[Apocryphal prayer|apocryphal]] gospels arose from the 1st century onward, frequently under assumed names to enhance their credibility and authority, and often from within branches of Christianity that were eventually branded heretical.{{sfn|Aune|2003|pp=199-200}} They can be broadly organised into the following categories:{{sfn|Ehrman|Plese|2011|p=passim}}
* [[Infancy gospels]]: arose in the 2nd century, including the [[Gospel of James]], also called the Protoevangelium, which was the first to introduce the concept of the [[Perpetual Virginity]] of Mary, and the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]] (not to be confused with the unrelated Coptic [[Gospel of Thomas]]), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels.
* [[Ministry]] gospels
* Sayings gospels and agrapha
* Passion, resurrection and post-resurrection gospels
* Gospel harmonies: in which the four canonical gospels are combined into a single narrative, either to present a consistent text or to produce a more accessible account of Jesus' life.

The apocryphal gospels can also be seen in terms of the communities which produced them:
* The [[Jewish-Christian]] gospels are the products of Christians of Jewish origin who had not given up their Jewish identity: they regarded Jesus as the messiah of the Jewish scripture but did not agree that he was God, an idea which, although central to Christianity as it eventually developed, is contrary to Jewish beliefs.
* [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] gospels uphold the idea that the universe is the product of a hierarchy of gods, of whom the [[God in Judaism|Jewish god]] is a rather low-ranking member. Gnosticism holds that Jesus was entirely "spirit", and that his earthly life and death were therefore only an appearance, not a reality. Many Gnostic texts deal not in concepts of [[sin]] and [[repentance]], but with [[illusion]] and [[Divine illumination|enlightenment]].{{sfn|Pagels|1989|p=xx}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ The major apocryphal gospels (after Bart Ehrman, "Lost Christianities" – comments on content are by Ehrman unless otherwise noted){{Sfn|Ehrman|2005b|pp=xi–xii}}
|-
! width=120px | Title !! Probable&nbsp;date !! Content
|-
| [[Epistle of the Apostles]] || Mid 2nd c. || Anti-gnostic dialogue between Jesus and the [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] after the resurrection, emphasising the reality of the flesh and of Jesus' fleshly resurrection
|-
| [[Gospel According to the Hebrews]] || Early 2nd c. || Events in the life of Jesus; Jewish-Christian, with possible gnostic overtones
|-
| [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] || Early 2nd c. || Jewish-Christian, embodying anti-sacrificial concerns
|-
| [[Greek Gospel of the Egyptians|Gospel of the Egyptians]] || Early 2nd c. || "Salome" figures prominently; Jewish-Christian stressing asceticism
|-
| [[Gospel of Mary]] || 2nd c. || Dialogue of Mary Magdalene with the apostles, and her vision of Jesus' secret teachings.
It was originally written in Greek and is often interpreted as a Gnostic text. It is typically not considered a gospel by scholars since it does not focus on the life of Jesus.{{sfn|Bernhard|2006|p=2}}
|-
| [[Gospel of the Nazareans]] || Early 2nd c. || Aramaic version of Matthew, possibly lacking the first two chapters; Jewish-Christian
|-
| [[Gospel of Nicodemus]] || 5th c. || Jesus' trial, crucifixion and descent into Hell
|-
| [[Gospel of Peter]] || Early 2nd c. || Fragmentary narrative of Jesus' trial, death and emergence from the tomb. It seems to be hostile toward Jews and includes [[docetic]] elements.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of St. Peter"}} It is a narrative gospel and is notable for asserting that [[Herod Antipas|Herod]], not [[Pontius Pilate]], ordered the crucifixion of Jesus. It had been lost but was rediscovered in the 19th century.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of St. Peter"}}
|-
| [[Gospel of Philip]] || 3rd c. || Mystical reflections of the disciple Philip
|-
| [[Gospel of the Saviour]] || Late 2nd c. || Fragmentary account of Jesus' last hours
|-
| [[Coptic Gospel of Thomas]] || Early 2nd c. || The ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' says that the original may date from c. 150.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of Thomas"}} Some scholars believe that it may represent a tradition independent from the canonical gospels, but that developed over a long time and was influenced by Matthew and Luke;{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of Thomas"}} other scholars believe it is a later text, dependent from the canonical gospels.{{sfn|Casey|2010|p={{page needed|date=July 2021}}}}{{sfn|Meier|1991|p={{page needed|date=July 2021}}}} While it can be understood in [[Gnostic]] terms, it lacks the characteristic features of Gnostic doctrine.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of Thomas"}} It includes two unique parables, the [[parable of the empty jar]] and the [[parable of the assassin]].{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|Jesus Seminar|1993|loc="The Gospel of Thomas"}} It had been lost but was discovered, in a Coptic version dating from c. 350, at [[Nag Hammadi]] in 1945–46, and three papyri, dated to c. 200, which contain fragments of a Greek text similar to but not identical with that in the Coptic language, have also been found.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel of Thomas"}}
|-
| [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]]|| Early 2nd c. || Miraculous deeds of Jesus between the ages of five and twelve
|-
| [[Gospel of Truth]] || Mid 2nd c. || Joys of Salvation
|-
| [[Egerton Gospel|Papyrus Egerton 2]] || Early 2nd c. || Fragmentary, four episodes from the life of Jesus
|-
| [[Diatessaron]] || Late 2nd c. || Gospel harmony (and the first such gospel harmony) composed by [[Tatian]]; may have been intended to replace the separate gospels as an authoritative text. It was accepted for liturgical purposes for as much as two centuries in [[Syria]], but was eventually suppressed.{{sfn|Metzger|2003|p=117}}{{sfn|Gamble|1985|pp=30–35}}
|-
| [[Protoevangelium of James]] || Mid 2nd c. || Birth and early life of Mary, and birth of Jesus
|-
| [[Gospel of Marcion]] || Mid 2nd c. || [[Marcion of Sinope]], c. 150, had a much shorter version of the gospel of Luke, differing substantially from what has now become the standard text of the gospel and far less oriented towards the Jewish scriptures. Marcion's critics said that he had edited out the portions of Luke he did not like, though Marcion argued that his was the more genuinely original text. He is said to have rejected all other gospels, including those of Matthew, Mark and especially John, which he alleged had been forged by [[Irenaeus]].
|-
| [[Secret Gospel of Mark]] || Uncertain || Allegedly a longer version of Mark written for an elect audience
|-
| [[Gospel of Judas]] || Late 2nd c. || Purports to tell the story of the gospel from the perspective of Judas, the disciple who is usually said to have betrayed Jesus. It paints an unusual picture of the relationship between Jesus and Judas, in that it appears to interpret Judas's act not as betrayal, but rather as an act of obedience to the instructions of Jesus. The text was recovered from a cave in Egypt by a thief and thereafter sold on the black market until it was finally discovered by a collector who, with the help of academics from Yale and Princeton, was able to verify its authenticity. The document itself does not claim to have been authored by Judas (it is, rather, a gospel about Judas), and is known to date to at least 180 AD.{{sfn|Ehrman|2006|p=passim}}
|-
| [[Gospel of Barnabas]] || 14th–16th c. || Contradicts the ministry of Jesus in canonical New Testament and strongly denies [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline]] doctrine, but has clear parallels with Islam, mentioning Muhammad as Messenger of God. Jesus identifies himself as a prophet, not the son of God.{{sfn|Wiegers|1995}}
|}

== In Islam ==
{{Main|Gospel in Islam}}

In [[Islam]], the '''[[Injil]]''' (Arabic: {{lang|ar|الإنجيل}}) is considered one of the four major divine scriptures revealed by God, alongside the '''[[Tawrat]]''' (Torah), '''[[Zabur]]''' (Psalms), and the '''[[Quran]]'''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Esposito|first=John L.|title=Islam: The Straight Path|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0190632151|pages=93–95}}</ref> The term ''Injīl'' is derived from the Syriac {{lang|syr|ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ}} (''awongelion''), ultimately from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|εὐαγγέλιον}} (''euangelion''; ''lit.'' ''good news'' or ''glad tidings'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Injil|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|publisher=Brill}}</ref>

According to the [[Quran]], the Injil was a divine revelation given to '''[[Jesus in Islam|ʿĪsā (Jesus)]]''', whom Islam regards as a prophet and messenger, not the Son of God.<ref>{{cite quran|5|46}}</ref> It is described as containing guidance and light for the [[Children of Israel]] and as confirming the scriptures that came before it.<ref>{{cite quran|3|3}}</ref>

Mainstream Islamic belief holds that the '''original Injil has been lost or altered''' (''[[Tahrif|taḥrīf]]'') over time,<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=The Study Quran|publisher=HarperOne|year=2015|isbn=978-0061125867|pages=1163–1165}}</ref> and that the four canonical Gospels—[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]—do not represent this original text, although they may contain elements of Jesus’s authentic teachings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rahman|first=Fazlur|title=Islam|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1979|isbn=978-0226702810|pages=169–170}}</ref> Some classical and contemporary scholars argue that the Injil was primarily an '''oral revelation''' given to Jesus, similar to the Qur’an revealed to [[Muhammad]], rather than a written text authored by him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder |first=Geoffrey |title=Jesus in the Qurʹān |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |year=1995 |isbn=9781851680948 |location=Oxford |oclc=33950383}}</ref>

While the Injil holds a position of respect in Islam, it is considered '''superseded by the Qur’an''',<ref>{{cite quran|5|48}}</ref> which Muslims believe to be the final, complete, and preserved word of God. Islamic theology emphasizes that Muslims are instructed to believe in all previous scriptures in their original form, but the Qur’an is seen as the ultimate criterion (''[[Al-Furqan|al-Furqān]]'') over them.<ref>{{cite quran|2|285}}</ref>

=== Criticism ===
Some modern Christian scholars and apologists have criticized the Islamic view of the Injil as historically and textually problematic, arguing that there is no manuscript evidence for a distinct, lost Gospel that matches the Qur’anic description.<ref>{{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Gabriel Said |title=The Qur'an and Its Biblical Subtext |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=9780415778930 |location=London |oclc=436358419}}</ref> Others contend that the charge of ''taḥrīf'' ([[corruption]]) is a later theological development rather than a contemporaneous claim from the time of Jesus.<ref>{{cite book|last=Neuwirth|first=Angelika|title=Scripture, Poetry, and the Making of a Community: Reading the Qur'an as a Literary Text|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0199359363}}</ref> 

Muslim scholars generally respond that the Qur’an does not require the original Injil to survive in full form, only that its essential message was revealed to Jesus and has since been superseded by the Qur’an.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|title=The Study Quran|publisher=HarperOne|year=2015|isbn=978-0061125867|pages=1164}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Agrapha]]
* [[Apocalyptic literature]]
* ''[[The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ]]''
* [[Authorship of the Bible]]
* [[Bodmer Papyri]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Fifth gospel (genre)]]
* [[The gospel]]
* [[Gospel (liturgy)]]
* [[L'Évangile du serpent]]
* [[Gospel harmony]]
* [[Gospel in Islam]]
* [[Gospel of Marcion]]
* [[Jesusism]]
* [[Jewish-Christian gospels]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=
<!-- A -->
<!-- "a-historical" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="a-historical"|The Gospels are a-historical documents:
* {{harvtxt|Schoeps|1968|pp=261–262}}: "The Gospels cannot be equated with [...] biographies [...] [Their] primary purpose was not to present a detailed historical picture of the life of Jesus. And the non-Christian materials [...] provide us with no essential new knowledge beyond the accounts of the Gospels [...] [Thus] the situation in regard to sources is highly unsatisfactory; legendary and historical accounts are hopelessly intertwined. The historian must recognize that the materials available to us do not enable us to reconstruct Jesus as he really was. [They have] only the Jesus the early disciples saw, the Christ who has survived in the beliefs of the Christian community.
* {{harvtxt|Sanders|2010}}: "John, however, is so different that it cannot be reconciled with the Synoptics except in very general ways [...] Scholars have unanimously chosen the Synoptic Gospels’ version of Jesus’ teaching [...] The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus. They are not, however, the equivalent of an academic biography of a recent historical figure. Instead, the Synoptic Gospels are theological documents that provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked."
* {{harvtxt|Ehrman|1999|p=53}}: "... early Christians who passed along the traditions sometimes found it legitimate and necessary to change a historical fact in order to make a historical point [...] since the Gospels preserve traditions that have been modified over time in their retelling, it is impossible simply to take these stories at face value and uncritically assume that they represent historically accurate information."}}
<!-- D -->
<!-- "Dunn_1995_teachings_as remembered" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Dunn_1995_teachings_as remembered"|{{harvtxt|Dunn|1995|pp=371–372}}: "Through the main body of the Synoptic tradition, I believe, we have in most cases direct access to the teaching and ministry of Jesus as it was remembered from the beginning of the transmission process (which often predates Easter) and so fairly direct access to the ministry and teaching of Jesus through the eyes and ears of those who went about with him."}}
<!-- "Dunn_2003_back_to_Jesus" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Dunn_2003_back_to_Jesus"|In "Jesus Remembered (2003), Dunn asesses "what 'goes back to Jesus'." {{harvtxt|Dunn|2003|p=329}}: "I emphasize again that I do not envisage 'getting back to Jesus' himself. All we have are the impressions which Jesus made, the remembered Jesus."}}
<!-- N -->
<!-- "nativity" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="nativity"|As Luke's attempt to link the birth of Jesus to the [[census of Quirinius]] demonstrates, there is no guarantee that the gospels are historically accurate. {{harv|Reddish|2011|p=22}} Indeed, most critical scholars view the nativity of Jesus as a theological, rather than historical, narrative.See: W. D. Davies and E. P. Sanders, "Jesus from the Jewish point of view", in William Horbury (ed.), ''The Cambridge History of Judaism'', vol 3: the Early Roman Period, 1984; ''The [[New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible]]: Volume 3'' Abingdon Press, 2008. pp. 42, 269–70.}}
<!-- S -->
<!-- "Sanders_primary_sources" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_primary_sources"|{{harvtxt|Sanders|2010}}: "John, however, is so different that it cannot be reconciled with the Synoptics except in very general ways [...] Scholars have unanimously chosen the Synoptic Gospels’ version of Jesus’ teaching [...] The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus. They are not, however, the equivalent of an academic biography of a recent historical figure. Instead, the Synoptic Gospels are theological documents that provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked."}}
<!-- "Sanders_public_career" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_public_career"|{{harvtxt|Sanders|1995|p=5}}: "The main sources for our knowledge about Jesus himself, the gospels in the New Testament, are, from the point of view of the historian, tainted by the fact that they were written by people who intended to glorify their hero [...] Despite this [...] we have a good idea of the external course of his life, especially his public career."}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
<!-- A -->
* {{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=Loveday |year=2006 |chapter=What is a Gospel? |editor1-last=Barton |editor1-first=Stephen C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521807661 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lX16qfiZkOoC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=O. Wesley |year=2013 |title=Reading the Synoptic Gospels |publisher=Chalice Press |isbn=978-0827232273 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ag2AQAAQBAJ&q=%22present+the+characters+in+their+narratives+as+using+scripture%22&pg=PA43}}
* {{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Paul N. |year=2011 |title=The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-1451415551 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keBlpFgg4fAC&q=%22John+and+the+synoptics%3A+why+such+different+introductions+and+conclusions%3F%22&pg=PR8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aune |first=David E. |year=1987 |title=The New Testament in its literary environment |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25018-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XdSto1nkx9AC&q=The+New+Testament+in+its+literary+environment}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aune |first=David E. |year=2003 |title=The Westminster Dictionary of New Testament and Early Christian Literature and Rhetoric |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhhdJ-fkywYC |isbn=978-0-664-25018-8}}
<!-- B -->
* {{Cite book |last=Beaton |first=Richard C. |chapter=How Matthew Writes |editor1-last=Bockmuehl |editor1-first=Markus |editor2-last=Hagner |editor2-first=Donald A. |title=The Written Gospel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAZxCMRztQ4C&q=Chapter+6+Richard+C.+Beaton&pg=PA116 |isbn=978-0-521-83285-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Bernhard |first=Andrew E. |title=Other Early Christian Gospels: A Critical Edition of the Surviving Greek Manuscripts |series=Library of New Testament Studies |volume=315 |place=London; New York |publisher=T & T Clark |year=2006 |isbn=0-567-04204-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Boring |first=M. Eugene |title=Mark: A Commentary |publisher=Presbyterian Publishing Corp |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmP5-Jp8VzsC |isbn=978-0-664-22107-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burge |first=Gary M. |chapter=Gospel of John |editor1-last=Evans |editor1-first=Craig A. |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StasAgAAQBAJ&q=%22The+gospel+of+john+has+been+both+esteemed+as+a+valid+source%22&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-1317722243}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burkett |first=Delbert |title=An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC |isbn=978-0-521-00720-7}}
<!-- C -->
* {{Cite book |last=Casey |first=Maurice |year=2010 |title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=978-0-567-64517-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Frank Leslie |last2=Livingstone |first2=Elizabeth A. |year=2005 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0192802903 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Culpepper |first=R. Alan |chapter=The Christology of the Johannine Writings |editor1-last=Kingsbury |editor1-first=Jack Dean |editor2-last=Powell |editor2-first=Mark Allan Powell |editor3-last=Bauer |editor3-first=David R. |title=Who Do You Say that I Am?: Essays on Christology |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1999 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn6wk-ipDVQC |isbn=9780664257521}}
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D.G. |year=1995 |chapter=Messianic Ideas and Their Influence on the Jesus of History |editor-last=Charlesworth |editor-first=James H. |title=The Messiah}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D.G |year=2003 |title=Christianity in the making Volume 1. Jesus Remembered |publisher=William B. Eerdmans}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D.G. |year=2005 |chapter=The Tradition |editor1-last=Dunn |editor1-first=James D.G. |editor2-last=McKnight |editor2-first=Scot |title=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1575061009 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&q=%22the+gospels+were+never+simply+biographical%3B+they+were+propaganda%3B+they+were+kerygma%22&pg=PA174}}
<!-- E -->
* {{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=James R. |year=2002 |title=The Gospel according to Mark |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0851117782 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0MjWS_4La_EC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=1996 |title=The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture: The Effect of Early Christological Controversies on the Text of the New Testament |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976357-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGpL9x19GaEC}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=1997 |title=The New Testament. A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=1999 |author-link=Bart D Ehrman |title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199839438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9K_6NN3llcC&q=Q}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=2005a |author-link=Bart D Ehrman |title=Misquoting Jesus |publisher=Harper Collins |url=https://archive.org/stream/Prof.BartEhrman-MisquotingJesus/BartD.Ehrman-MisquotingJesus_djvu.txt}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |year=2005b |author-link=Bart D Ehrman |title=Lost Christianities |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195182491 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart |year=2006 |title=The Lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199831289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScMTDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart |last2=Plese |first2=Zlatko |year=2011 |title=The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqQ9LSzs8hgC |isbn=9780199831289}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eve |first=Eric |title=Solving the Synoptic Puzzle: Introducing the Case for the Farrer Hypothesis |publisher=Wipf and Stock |year=2021 |isbn=9781725283886 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnZKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT29}}
<!-- F -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Fant |first1=Clyde E. |last2=Reddish |first2=Mitchell E. |title=Lost Treasures of the Bible |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dj6zVQJz7zYC |isbn=9780802828811}}
* {{cite book |last1=Funk |first1=Robert W. |author-link1=Robert W. Funk |last2=Hoover |first2=Roy W. |author3=Jesus Seminar |author-link3=Jesus Seminar |year=1993 |title=The five gospels |chapter=The Gospel of Thomas |pages=471–532 |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco}}
<!-- G -->
* {{cite book |last=Gamble |first=Harry |title=The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning |publisher=Fortress Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8006-0470-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodacre |first=Mark |title=The Synoptic Problem: A Way Through the Maze |publisher=A&C Black |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iV05Mv-hbMAC |isbn=978-0567080561}}
<!-- H -->
* {{cite journal |last=Honoré |first=A.M. |title=A statistical study of the synoptic problem |journal=Novum Testamentum |volume=10 |issue=2/3 |pages=95–147 |year=1986 |jstor=1560364 |doi=10.2307/1560364}}
<!-- J -->
* {{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Luke Timothy |year=2010a |title=The Writings of the New Testament – An Interpretation |edition=3rd |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=978-1451413281}}
<!-- K -->
* {{cite book |last=Keith |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Keith |year=2012 |title="The Indebtedness of the criteria Approach to Form Criticism and Recent Attempts to Rehabilitate the Search for an Authentic Jesus", in Jesus, Criteria, and the Demise of Authenticity |publisher=T&T Clark |page=25-48 at 39-40 |isbn=978-0567377234}}
* {{cite journal |last=Keith |first=Chris |year=2016 |title=The Narratives of the Gospels and the Historical Jesus: Current Debates, Prior Debates and the Goal of Historical Jesus Research |journal=Journal for the Study of the New Testament |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=426–455 |doi=10.1177/0142064X16637777 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0142064X16637777|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Keith |editor-first1=Chris |editor-last2=Le Donne |editor-first2=Anthony |year=2012 |title=Jesus, Criteria, and the Demise of Authenticity |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn=9780567691200}}
<!-- L -->
* {{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Amy-Jill |year=2009 |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Levine |editor1-first=Amy-Jill |editor2-last=Allison |editor2-first=Dale C. Jr. |editor3-last=Crossan |editor3-first=John Dominic |title=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HIp_0N3uPPcC&q=%22held+by+the+majority+of+scholars+today%22%22four-source+theory%22&pg=PA6 |isbn=978-1400827374}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lieu |first=Judith |chapter=How John Writes |editor1-last=Bockmuehl |editor1-first=Markus |editor2-last=Hagner |editor2-first=Donald A. |title=The Written Gospel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAZxCMRztQ4C&q=%22John+uses+far+fewer+explicit+citations%22&pg=PA175 |isbn=978-0-521-83285-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew |chapter=Reading John |editor1-last=Porter |editor1-first=Stanley E. |title=Reading the Gospels Today |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2004 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsPYJZCToq4C&q=%22gospels+are+a+subset+of+the+genre+of+bios%22&pg=PA133 |isbn=978-0802805171}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew |year=2005 |title=Gospel According to St John |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYmxAwAAQBAJ&q=%22final+form%22%22some+time+between+90+and+110+ce%22&pg=PA18 |isbn=978-1441188229}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lindars |first1=Barnabas |last2=Edwards |first2=Ruth |last3=Court |first3=John M. |year=2000 |title=The Johannine Literature |publisher=A&C Black |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVOD0PhayhsC |isbn=978-1-84127-081-4}}
<!-- M -->
* {{Cite book |last=Martens |first=Allan |chapter=Salvation Today: Reading Luke's Message for a Gentile Audience |editor1-last=Porter |editor1-first=Stanley E. |title=Reading the Gospels Today |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2004 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsPYJZCToq4C&q=%22reading+Luke%27s+message+for+a+gentile+audience%22&pg=PA100 |isbn=978-0802805171}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |year=1991 |title=A Marginal Jew. Volume 1: The roots of the problem and the person |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-26425-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zODYAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce |title=The New Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content |publisher=Abingdon |year=2003 |isbn=978-068-705-2639}}
* {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Leon |title=New Testament Theology |publisher=Zondervan |year=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6D3o6fZd67EC&q=Morris+New+Testament+Theology |isbn=978-0-310-45571-4}}
<!-- N -->
* {{Cite book |last=Nolland |first=John |title=The Gospel of Matthew: A Commentary on the Greek Text |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2005}}
<!-- O -->
<!-- P -->
* {{cite book |last1=Pagels |first1=Elaine |title=The Gnostic Gospels |date=1989 |publisher=Random House |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/52cdf95ae4b0c18dd2d0316a/t/53e074cee4b0ea4fa48a5704/1407218894673/Pagels%2C+Elaine+-+The+Gnostic+Gospels.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parker |first=D.C. |title=The Living Text of the Gospels |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYkvZR-oWVwC&q=Parker+the+living+text+of+the+gospels |isbn=978-0521599511}}
* {{Cite book |last=Perkins |first=Pheme |author-link=Pheme Perkins |editor1-last=Barton |editor1-first=John |title=The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation |chapter=The Synoptic Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles: Telling the Christian Story |year=1998 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC |isbn=978-0-521-48593-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Perkins |first=Pheme |title=Reading the New Testament: An Introduction |publisher=Paulist Press |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=It58APyHyPsC |isbn=978-0809147861}}
* {{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=William L. |chapter=The Diatessaron and the Fourfold Gospel |editor1-last=Horton |editor1-first=Charles |title=The Earliest Gospels |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eYRBwAAQBAJ |isbn=9780567000972}}
* {{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |chapter=Language and Translation of the New Testament |editor1-last=Rogerson |editor1-first=J.W. |editor2-last=Lieu |editor2-first=Judith M. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC&q=%22written+virtually+entirely+in+a+form+of+ancient+Greek%22&pg=PA185 |isbn=978-0199254255}}
<!-- R -->
* {{Cite book |last=Reddish |first=Mitchell |title=An Introduction to The Gospels |year=2011 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1426750083 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hliGUOv18cQC}}
<!-- S -->
* {{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=E. P. |year=1995 |author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780141928227 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=E. P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |year=1995b |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0140144994}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Sanders |first=E. P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |year=2010 |title=Jesus Christ |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ |access-date=27 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ |archive-date=3 May 2015}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schoeps |first=Hans-Joachim |year=1968 |title=The Religions of Mankind |publisher=[[Anchor Books]] |isbn=978-0-385-04080-8 |location=Garden City, NY |translator-last=Winston |translator-first=Richard |orig-date=1961 |translator-last2=Winston |translator-first2=Clara |url=https://archive.org/details/religionsofmanki00scho/page/261/}}
* {{Cite book |last=Scholz |first=Daniel J. |title=Jesus in the Gospels and Acts: Introducing the New Testament |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=royKA4FeMB4C |isbn=9780884899556}}
<!-- T -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Telford |first1=W.R. |title=The Theology of the Gospel of Mark |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9saA_qL4iMC&q=%22Luke%22%22alters+the+reference+to+Galilee%22&pg=PA148 |isbn=978-0521439770}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide |last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |last2=Merz |first2=Annette |year=1998 |orig-year=1996 |publisher=Fortress Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Marianne |chapter=Gospel of John |editor1-last=Barton |editor1-first=Stephen C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTorEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 |isbn=9780521807661}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tuckett |first=Christopher |chapter=Gospel, Gospels |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=David Noel |editor2-last=Myers |editor2-first=Allen C. |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year=2000 |publisher=Eerdmans |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA523 |isbn=978-9053565032}}
<!-- V -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Valantasis |first1=Richard |last2=Bleyle |first2=Douglas K. |last3=Haugh |first3=Dennis C. |title=The Gospels and Christian Life in History and Practice |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7425-7069-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |year=2013 |orig-year=2012 |title=Christian Beginnings |publisher=Penguin}}
<!-- W -->
*{{Cite book |first=Francis |last=Watson |title=The Fourfold Gospel: A Theological Reading of the New Testament Portraits of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/fourfoldgospelth0000wats |year=2016 |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=9780801095450}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wiegers |first=G. |year=1995 |title=Muhammad as the Messiah: A comparison of the polemical works of Juan Alonso with the Gospel of Barnabas |journal=Biblitheca Orientalis |pages=245–291}}
* {{cite book |title=Christianity: A Very Short Introduction |last=Woodhead |first=Linda |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0dFLBAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0199687749}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{NIE Poster|year=1905}}
* {{wikiquote-inline|Gospel}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080608014638/http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/index.html A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the gospels]&nbsp;– covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages (archived 8 June 2008)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080619001437/http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/GNT/books.html Greek New Testament]&nbsp;– the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants (archived 19 June 2008).

{{Books of the Bible}}
{{History of Christianity}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{Jesus footer}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gospels| ]]
[[Category:Books of Christian biography]]
[[Category:Christian genres]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Greek-language books]]