View source for Georgian language

{{short description|Official language of the country of Georgia}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Georgian
| altname          = 
| nativename       = ''kartuli ena''
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|ka|ˈkʰäɾt̪ʰuli ˈe̞n̪ä|}}
| states           = [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| region           = [[South Caucasus]]
| speakers         = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|3.760570|3}} million
| ethnicity        = [[Georgians]]
| date             = 2020
| ref              = e27
| speakers2        = [[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|154,000|2}} (2014)<ref name=e27/>
| speakers_label   = speakers
| familycolor      = Caucasian
| fam1             = [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]]
| fam2             = [[Karto-Zan languages|Karto-Zan]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Georgian]]
| dia1             = [[Georgian dialects]]
| dia2             = [[Judaeo-Georgian|Qivruli]]
| script           = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Georgian scripts|Georgian script]]
* [[Georgian Braille]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| nation           = {{flag|Georgia}}
| agency           = [[Cabinet of Georgia]]
| iso1             = ka
| iso2b            = geo
| iso2t            = kat
| iso3             = kat
| lingua           = 42-CAB-baa – bac
| image            = Kartuli Georgian Sample3.svg
| imagescale       = 1.2
| imagecaption     = {{transliteration|ka|Kartuli}} written in [[Georgian scripts|Georgian script]]
| map              = Kartvelian_languages.svg
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = nucl1302
| glottorefname    = Georgian
}}
{{Contains special characters|Georgian}}

'''Georgian''' ({{langx|ka|ქართული ენა|translit=kartuli ena|label=none}}, {{IPA|ka|ˈkʰäɾt̪ʰuli ˈe̞n̪ä|pron}}) is the most widely spoken [[Kartvelian language]]. It is the [[official language]] of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and the native or primary language of 88% of its population.<ref>Central Intelligence Agency. (2016). "[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/ Georgia]". In ''The World Factbook''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222544/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/ |date=2021-02-04 }}.</ref> It also serves as the [[literary language]] or [[lingua franca]] for speakers of related languages.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Hiller|1994|p=1}}</ref> Its speakers today amount to approximately 3.8 million. Georgian is written with its own unique [[Georgian scripts]], [[alphabet|alphabetical systems]] of unclear origin.<ref name=e27/>

Georgian is most closely related to the Zan languages ([[Megrelian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]]) and more distantly to [[Svan language|Svan]]. Georgian has various [[dialect]]s, with standard Georgian based on the Kartlian dialect, and all dialects are mutually intelligible. The history of Georgian spans from Early Old Georgian in the 5th century, to Modern Georgian today. Its development as a written language began with the [[Christianization of Georgia]] in the 4th century.

Georgian phonology features a rich [[consonant]] system, including aspirated, voiced, and [[ejective stop]]s, [[affricate]]s, and [[fricative]]s. Its [[vowel system]] consists of five vowels with varying realizations. Georgian [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] involves weak stress, with disagreements among linguists on its placement. The language's [[phonotactics]] include complex [[consonant cluster]]s and harmonic clusters. The [[Mkhedruli script]], dominant in modern usage, corresponds closely to Georgian phonemes and has no case distinction, though it employs a capital-like effect called Mtavruli for titles and inscriptions. Georgian is an agglutinative language with a complex verb structure that can include up to eight [[morpheme]]s, exhibiting [[polypersonalism]]. The language has seven noun cases and employs a left-branching structure with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions instead of prepositions. Georgian lacks grammatical gender and articles, with definite meanings established through context. Georgian's rich derivation system allows for extensive noun and verb formation from roots, with many words featuring initial consonant clusters.

The Georgian writing system has evolved from ancient scripts to the current Mkhedruli, used for most purposes. The language has a robust grammatical framework with unique features such as syncope in [[morphophonology]] and a [[left-branching language|left-branching syntax.]] Georgian's vocabulary is highly derivational, allowing for diverse word formations, while its numeric system is [[vigesimal]], based on 20, as opposed to a Base 10  (decimal) system.

==Classification==
No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in the world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called [[Zan languages]] ([[Megrelian language|Megrelian]] and [[Laz language|Laz]]); [[Glottochronology|glottochronological]] studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. [[Svan language|Svan]] is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago.<ref name=":4">{{Harvcoltxt|Hiller|1994|p=2}}</ref>

==Dialects==
{{Main|Georgian dialects}}
Standard Georgian is largely based on the [[Kartli]]an dialect.<ref name="ARMAZI">[http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm ''Georgian Dialects'']{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002101/http://www.armazi.demon.co.uk/georgian/unicode/georgian_dialects.htm |date=2016-03-04 }}, The ARMAZI project. Retrieved on March 28, 2007</ref> Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another.<ref>Manana Kock Kobaidze (2004-02-11) [http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html ''From the history of Standard Georgian''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927075905/http://webzone.imer.mah.se/projects/georgianV04/DEMO/Lect04/StandGe.html|date=September 27, 2007}}</ref>

==History==
{{further|Kartvelian languages|Proto-Kartvelian language|Proto-Georgian–Zan language|Old Georgian}}{{Georgians}}
The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases:<ref name="woodard"/>
* Early [[Old Georgian language|Old Georgian]]: 5th–8th centuries
* Classical Old Georgian: 9th–11th centuries
* Middle Georgian: 11th/12th–17th/18th centuries
* Modern Georgian: 17th/18th century–present

The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of [[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]], a Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD.<ref>Braund, David (1994), ''Georgia in Antiquity; a History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 B.C.&nbsp;– A.D. 562'', p. 216. [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|0-19-814473-3}}</ref> The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and [[palimpsest]]s dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century ''[[Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik]]'' by [[Iakob Tsurtaveli]].

The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the [[Christianization of Georgia]] in the mid-4th century, which led to the replacement of [[Aramaic]] as the [[literary language]].<ref name="woodard">[[Kevin Tuite|Tuite, Kevin]], "Early Georgian", pp. 145–6, in: Woodard, Roger D. (2008), ''The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor''. [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-68496-X}}</ref>

By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the [[National epic|epic poem]] ''[[The Knight in the Panther's Skin]],'' written by [[Shota Rustaveli]] in the 12th century.

In 1629, a certain [[Nikoloz Cholokashvili]] authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the ''[[Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione]]'' and the ''[[Dittionario giorgiano e italiano]]''. These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for [[Evangelism|evangelical]] purposes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Georgian and Italian Dictionary|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/321/|publisher=World Digital Library|accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref>

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
On the left are [[Help:IPA|IPA]] symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian [[alphabet]], which is essentially phonemic.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants<ref name="ipashosted">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=263}}</ref><ref name="GMU">{{cite web |title=Native Phonetic Inventory: georgian |url=http://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=23 |access-date=24 August 2019 |website=gmu.edu |publisher=George Mason University}}</ref>
! colspan="2" | &nbsp;
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br/>[[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|მ}}
| {{IPA link|n}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ნ}}
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ფ}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|თ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ქ}}
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ბ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
| {{IPA link|d}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|დ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|გ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|პ}}
| {{IPA link|tʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ტ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|კ}}
| {{IPA link|qʼ}}<sup>3</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ყ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>(aspirated)</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡sʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ც}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჩ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced</small>
|
| {{IPA link|d͡z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ძ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჯ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>ejective</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡sʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|წ}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჭ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| {{IPA link|s}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ს}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|შ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|x}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ხ}}
| {{IPA link|h}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჰ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced </small>
| {{IPA link|v}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ვ}}<sup>6</sup>
| {{IPA link|z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ზ}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჟ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɣ}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ღ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Vibrant]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|რ}}<sup>4,9</sup>
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ლ}}<sup>5</sup>
|
|
|
|
|}

# Opinions differ on the aspiration of {{IPA|/t͡sʰ, t͡ʃʰ/}}, as it is non-contrastive.{{cn|date=April 2017}}
# Opinions differ on how to classify {{IPAslink|x}} and {{IPAslink|ɣ}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990}} classifies them as post-velar, {{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995}} argues that they range from velar to uvular according to context.
# The uvular ejective stop is commonly realized as a uvular ejective fricative {{IPAblink|χʼ}} but it can also be {{IPAblink|qʼ}}, {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, or {{IPAblink|qχʼ}}, they are in free variation.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=256}}</ref>
# {{IPAslink|r}} is realized as an alveolar tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} <ref name=":0">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=261}}</ref> though {{IPAblink|r}} occurs in free variation.
# {{IPAslink|l}} is pronounced as a velarized {{IPAblink|ɫ}} before back vowels; it is pronounced as {{IPAblink|l}} in the environment of front vowels.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|pp=17–18}}</ref>
# {{IPAslink|v}} is realized in most contexts as a bilabial fricative {{IPAblink|β}} or {{IPAblink|v}},<ref name=":1">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995|p=21}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> but has the following allophones.<ref name=":0" />
## before voiceless consonants, it is realized as {{IPAblink|f}} or {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.
## after voiceless consonants it is also voiceless and has been interpreted either as labialization of the preceding consonant {{IPAblink|ʷ}} or simply as {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.
## whether it is realized as labialization after voiced consonants is debated.
## word-initially before the vowel /u/ and sometimes before other consonants it may be deleted entirely.
#In initial positions, {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} are pronounced as a weakly voiced {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊]}}.<ref name=":2">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=15}}</ref>
#In word-final positions, {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} may be devoiced and aspirated to {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> 
#/r/ may be dropped in CrC contexts in colloquial speech.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312661766_r_drop_in_Colloquial_Georgian /r/ drop in Colloquial Georgian]</ref> 
#Word-final /b, d, ɡ/ may be realized as unreleased stops [b̚, d̚, ɡ̚] before another obstruent at word boundaries.<ref name=":8" />

Former {{IPA|/qʰ/}} ({{lang|ka|ჴ}}) has merged with {{IPA|/x/}} ({{lang|ka|ხ}}), leaving only the latter.

The glottalization of the ejectives is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the [[tenuis consonant|tenuis stops]] in foreign words and names with the ejectives.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

The coronal occlusives ({{IPA|/tʰ tʼ d n/}}, not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental".<ref name="ipashosted"/>

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes<ref name=":5">{{Harvcoltxt|Testelets|2020|p=497}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Harvcoltxt|Putkaradze|Mikautadze|2014|p=53}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1987|p=19}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ი}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|უ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ე}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ო}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ა}}
|
|}Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [{{IPA link|i}}], [{{IPA link|e̞}}], [{{IPA link|ä}}], [{{IPA link|o̞}}], [{{IPA link|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Canepari|2007|p=385}}</ref>

Aronson describes their realizations as [{{IPA link|i̞}}], [{{IPA link|e̞}}], [{{IPA link|ä}}] (but "slightly fronted"), [{{IPA link|o̞}}], [{{IPA link|u̞}}].<ref name=":3">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=18}}</ref>

Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [{{IPA link|i}}], [{{IPA link|ɛ}}], [{{IPA link|ɑ}}], [{{IPA link|ɔ}}], [{{IPA link|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=262}}</ref>

Allophonically, [{{IPA link|ə}}] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in {{IPA|/dɡas/}} {{IPA|[dəɡäs]}}.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=McCoy |first=Priscilla |date=1999 |title=Harmony and Sonority in Georgian |url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS1999/papers/p14_0447.pdf |conference=14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences}}</ref> 

In casual speech, /i/ preceded or followed by a vowel may be realized as [{{IPA link|i̯}}]~[{{IPA link|j}}].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Აკადემია |first1=Საქართველოს Მეცნიერებათა Ეროვნული |url=https://iverieli.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/436653 |title=ქართული ენა : ენციკლოპედია |last2=Რედაქცია |first2=Ქართული Ენციკლოპედიის Ირაკლი Აბაშიძის Სახელობის Მთავარი Სამეცნიერო |last3=Ინსტიტუტი |first3=Არნოლდ Ჩიქობავას Სახელობის Ენათმეცნიერების |date=2008 |publisher=თბილისი |isbn=978-99928-20-34-6 |pages=151–173 |language=ka}}</ref> 

Phrase-final unstressed vowels are sometimes partially reduced.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=Gamq'relidze |first1=Nana |url=https://www.tsu.ge/data/file_db/faculty_humanities/fonetika%201.pdf |title=ქართული ნორმატიული და დიალექტური მეტყველების ფონეტიკური ანალიზი |last2=K'ot'et'ishvili |first2=Shota |last3=Lezhava |first3=Ivane |last4=Lortkipanidze |first4=Luiza |last5=Javakhidze |first5=L |date=2006 |publisher=Nek'eri |location=Tbilisi |pages=6 |language=ka |trans-title=A phonetic analysis of Georgian normative and dialectal speech}}</ref>

===Prosody===
[[Prosody (linguistics)|Prosody]] in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words.<ref name=":3"/> Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of [[pitch accent]]s on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jun|Vicenik|Lofstedt|2007}}</ref>

According to Borise,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Borise |first1=Lena |last2=Zientarski |first2=Xavier |chapter=Word Stress and Phrase Accent in Georgian |date=2018-06-18 |title=6th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2018) |chapter-url=https://www.isca-speech.org/archive/tal_2018/borise18_tal.html |language=en |pages=207–211 |doi=10.21437/TAL.2018-42}}</ref> Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of a word.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borise |first=Lena |date=2023-02-13 |title=Disentangling word stress and phrasal prosody: A view from Georgian |url=https://www.phondata.org/index.php/pda/article/view/43 |journal=Phonological Data and Analysis |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.3765/pda.v5art1.43 |issn=2642-1828 |s2cid=256858909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kwon |first1=Harim |last2=Chitoran |first2=Ioana |date=2023-11-29 |title=Perception of illusory clusters: the role of native timing |journal=Phonetica |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=153–184 |language=en |doi=10.1515/phon-2023-2005 |issn=1423-0321|doi-access=free |pmid=38012049 }}</ref> long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The consonant phonotactics of Georgian |url=https://www.lotpublications.nl/the-consonant-phonotactics-of-georgian-the-consonant-phonotactics-of-georgian}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Gamq'relidze |first1=Nana |url=https://www.tsu.ge/data/file_db/faculty_humanities/fonetika%201.pdf |title=ქართული ნორმატიული და დიალექტური მეტყველების ფონეტიკური ანალიზი |last2=K'ot'et'ishvili |first2=Shota |last3=Lezhava |first3=Ivane |last4=Lortkipanidze |first4=Luiza |last5=Javakhidze |first5=L |publisher=Nek'eri |year=2006 |location=Tbilisi |pages=7 |language=ka |trans-title=A phonetic analysis of Georgian normative and dialectical speech}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lomashvili |first=Leila A. |date=2015-03-20 |title=Acquiring verbal morphology in Georgian |url=https://www.academia.edu/109476032 |journal=Language Typology and Universals|volume=68 |pages=87–105 |doi=10.1515/stuf-2015-0005 }}</ref> 

According to Gamq'relidze et al, quadrisyllabic words may be exceptionally stressed on their second syllable.<ref name=":9" /> Stressed vowels in Georgian have slightly longer duration, more intensity, and higher pitch compared to unstressed vowels.<ref name=":9" /> 

Some Georgian dialects have distinctive stress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stress in the dialects |url=https://georgian.se/kartuli/GeoGrammar/PHON/11StressDia.html |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=georgian.se}}</ref>

===Phonotactics===
Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. {{lang|ka|'''ბგ'''ერა}} ''bgera'' 'sound', {{lang|ka|'''ცხ'''ოვრება}} ''tskhovreba'' 'life', and {{lang|ka|[[wikt:წყალი|'''წყ'''ალი]]}} ''ts’q’ali'' 'water'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=33}}</ref> There are also frequent [[consonant cluster]]s, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like {{lang|ka|[[wikt:გვფრცქვნი|'''გვფრცქვნ'''ი]]}} ''gvprtskvni'' 'you peel us' and {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მწვრთნელი|'''მწვრთნ'''ელი]]}} ''mts’vrtneli'' 'trainer'.

Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have [[creaky voice]] and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Vicenik|2010|p=87}}</ref>

== Writing system ==
{{Calligraphy}}
{{Main|Georgian scripts|Georgian Braille}}
[[File:AmCyc Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia) - Georgian language alphabet.png|thumb|Georgian alphabet from ''The American Cyclopædia'', 1879]]
[[File:Street sign in Georgian and Latin alphabets.jpg|thumb|Road sign in Mtavruli and Latin scripts]]
[[File:Vani Guram Bzvaneli MusSchool.jpg|thumb|A music school sign using a [[sans-serif]] Mtavruli script in the upper part, a serif Mkhedruli script in the middle and a serif Mtavruli script in the lower part]]
{{CSS image crop
|Image = Tengiz Gurjidze memorial plaque.jpg
|bSize = 300
|cWidth = 250
|cHeight = 280
|oTop = 60
|oLeft = 25
|Location = right
|Description = A commemorative plaque using Mkhedruli for the upper four lines and Mtavruli for the lower two (the name of the person), with each line written in a different typeface
}}
Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently the ''[[Mkhedruli]]'' script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture.

''Mkhedruli'' has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of ''Mkhedruli'' correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language.

According to the traditional account written down by [[Leonti Mroveli]] in the 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Iberia]], [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia|Pharnavaz]], in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called ''[[Asomtavruli]]'' 'capitals', ''[[Nuskhuri]]'' 'small letters', and ''Mkhedruli''. The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] and together are called ''Khutsuri'' 'priest alphabet'.

In ''Mkhedruli'', there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called ''Mtavruli'' ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and the like.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Modern Georgian alphabet
! Letter
! {{nowrap|National transcription}} !! {{nowrap|IPA transcription}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ა}}
| ''a'' || {{IPA|[ä]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ბ}}
| ''b'' || {{IPA|[b]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|გ}}
| ''g'' || {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|დ}}
| ''d'' || {{IPA|[d]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ე}}
| ''e'' || {{IPA|[e̞]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ვ}}
| ''v'' || {{IPA|[v~w]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ზ}}
| ''z'' || {{IPA|[z]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|თ}}
| ''t'' || {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ი}}
| ''i'' || {{IPA|[i]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|კ}}
| ''k’'' || {{IPA|[kʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ლ}}
| ''l'' || {{IPA|[l]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|მ}}
| ''m'' || {{IPA|[m]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ნ}}
| ''n'' || {{IPA|[n]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ო}}
| ''o'' || {{IPA|[o̞]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|პ}}
| ''p’'' || {{IPA|[pʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჟ}}
| ''zh'' || {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|რ}}
| ''r'' || {{IPA|[r]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ს}}
| ''s'' || {{IPA|[s]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ტ}}
| ''t’'' || {{IPA|[tʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|უ}}
| ''u'' || {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ფ}}
| ''p'' || {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ქ}}
| ''k'' || {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ღ}}
| ''gh'' || {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ყ}}
| ''q’'' || {{IPA|[qʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|შ}}
| ''sh'' || {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჩ}}
| ''ch'' || {{IPA|[t͡ʃʰ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ც}}
| ''ts'' || {{IPA|[t͡sʰ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ძ}}
| ''dz'' || {{IPA|[d͡z]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|წ}}
| ''ts’'' || {{IPA|[t͡sʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჭ}}
| ''ch’'' || {{IPA|[t͡ʃʼ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ხ}}
| ''kh'' || {{IPA|[x]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჯ}}
| ''j'' || {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}
|-
! {{lang|ka|ჰ}}
| ''h'' || {{IPA|[h]}}
|}

=== Keyboard layout ===
{{main|Georgian keyboard layout}}
This is the Georgian standard<ref>[https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/keyboards/kbdgeome Georgian Keyboard Layout] Microsoft</ref> keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual [[typewriter]]s.

{{Georgian standard keyboard}}

==Grammar==
{{Main|Georgian grammar|Georgian verb paradigm}}

===Morphology===
Georgian is an [[agglutinative language]]. Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ''ageshenebinat'' ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: ''a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t''. Each morpheme here contributes to the meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits [[polypersonalism]]; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object.

====Morphophonology====
In Georgian [[morphophonology]], [[syncope (phonetics)|syncope]] is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix -''eb''-) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels ''a'' or ''e'' in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, ''megob'''a'''ri'' means 'friend'; ''megobrebi'' (''megob'''Ø'''rebi'') means 'friends', with the loss of ''a'' in the last syllable of the word stem.

====Inflection====
Georgian has seven noun cases: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[ergative case|ergative]], [[dative case|dative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], [[adverbial case|adverbial]] and [[vocative case|vocative]]. An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the [[accusative case]] (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on the character of the verb). This is called the [[dative construction]]. In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case.

===Syntax===
* Georgian is a [[left-branching]] language, in which adjectives precede nouns, [[Possession (linguistics)|possessors]] precede possessions, objects normally precede verbs, and [[postpositions]] are used instead of [[prepositions]].
* Each postposition (whether a suffix or a separate word) requires the modified noun to be in a specific case. This is similar to the way prepositions govern specific cases in many [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[German language|German]], [[Latin language|Latin]], or [[Russian language|Russian]].
* Georgian is a [[pro-drop]] language; both subject and object pronouns are frequently omitted except for emphasis or to resolve ambiguity.
* A study by Skopeteas ''et al.'' concluded that Georgian word order tends to place the [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]] of a sentence immediately before the verb, and the [[Topic (linguistics)|topic]] before the focus.  A subject–object–verb ([[subject–object–verb|SOV]]) word order is common in idiomatic expressions and when the focus of a sentence is on the object.  A subject–verb–object ([[subject–verb–object|SVO]]) word order is common when the focus is on the subject, or in longer sentences.  Object-initial word orders ([[Object–subject–verb|OSV]] or [[Object–verb–subject|OVS]]) are also possible, but less common.  Verb-initial word orders including both subject and object ([[verb–subject–object|VSO]] or [[verb–object–subject|VOS]]) are extremely rare.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Skopeteas|Féry|Asatiani|2009|pp=2–5}}</ref>
* Georgian has no [[grammatical gender]]; even the pronouns are ungendered.
* Georgian has no [[Article (grammar)|article]]s. Therefore, for example, "guest", "a guest" and "the guest" are said in the same way. In [[relative clause]]s, however, it is possible to establish the meaning of the definite article through use of some particles.{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}}

==Vocabulary==
[[File:AmCyc Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia) - Georgian language - Tariel (last verse).png|thumb|The last verse of [[Shota Rustaveli]]'s romance ''[[The Knight in the Panther's Skin]]'' illustrating the appearance of the Georgian script.]]
Georgian has a rich [[derivation (linguistics)|word-derivation]] system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root -''kart''-, the following words can be derived: ''Kart'''veli''''' ('a Georgian person'), ''Kart'''uli''''' ('the Georgian language') and '''''Sa'''kart'''velo''''' ('the country of Georgia').

Most [[Georgian surnames]] end in -''dze'' 'son' (Western Georgia), -''shvili'' 'child' (Eastern Georgia), -''ia'' (Western Georgia, [[Samegrelo]]), -''ani'' (Western Georgia, [[Svaneti]]), -''uri'' (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending -''eli'' is a particle of nobility, comparable to French ''de'', Dutch ''van'', German ''von'' or Polish -''ski''.

Georgian has a [[vigesimal]] numeric system like [[Basque language|Basque]] and (partially) [[French language|French]]. Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' ({{lang|ka|ოთხმოცდაცამეტი}}, ''otkhmotsdatsamet’i'').

One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the ''[[Explanatory dictionary of the Georgian language]]'' ({{lang|ka|ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი}}). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of [[Arnold Chikobava]].

==Examples==

===Word formations===
Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example:

* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|ts’er}}- 'write', the words {{transliteration|ka|'''ts’er'''ili}} 'letter' and ''m'''ts’er'''ali'' 'writer' are derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|tsa}}- 'give', the word {{transliteration|ka|gada'''ts'''ema}} 'broadcast' is derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|tsda}}- 'try', the word {{transliteration|ka|gamo'''tsd'''a}} 'exam' is derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|gav}}- 'resemble', the words {{transliteration|ka|ms'''gav'''si}} 'similar' and ''ms'''gav'''seba'' 'similarity' are derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|shen}}- 'build', the word {{transliteration|ka|'''shen'''oba}} 'building' is derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|tskh}}- 'bake', the word {{transliteration|ka|nam'''tskh'''vari}} 'cake' is derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|tsiv}}- 'cold', the word {{transliteration|ka|ma'''tsiv'''ari}} 'refrigerator' is derived.
* From the root -{{transliteration|ka|pr}}- 'fly', the words {{transliteration|ka|tvitm'''pr'''inavi}} 'airplane' and {{transliteration|ka|a'''pr'''ena}} 'takeoff' are derived.

It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns:

* From the noun -{{transliteration|ka|omi}}- 'war', the verb {{transliteration|ka|'''om'''ob}} 'you wage/are waging war' is derived.
* From the noun -{{transliteration|ka|sadili}}- 'lunch', the verb {{transliteration|ka|'''sadil'''ob}} 'you eat/are eating lunch' is derived.
* From the noun -{{transliteration|ka|sauzme}} 'breakfast', the verb {{transliteration|ka|ts’a'''sauzm'''eba}} 'eating a little breakfast' is derived; the preverb ''ts’a''- in Georgian adds the meaning 'a little'.
* From the noun -{{transliteration|ka|sakhli}}- 'home', the verb {{transliteration|ka|gada'''sakhl'''eba}} 'relocating, moving' is derived.

Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example:

* From the adjective -{{transliteration|ka|ts’iteli}}- 'red', the verb {{transliteration|ka|ga'''ts’itl'''eba}} 'blushing, making one blush' is derived. This kind of derivation can be done with many adjectives in Georgian.
* From the adjective -{{transliteration|ka|brma}} 'blind', the verbs {{transliteration|ka|da'''brma'''veba}} 'becoming blind, blinding someone' are derived.
* From the adjective -{{transliteration|ka|lamazi}}- 'beautiful', the verb {{transliteration|ka|ga'''lamaz'''eba}} 'becoming beautiful' is derived.

===Words that begin with multiple consonants===
In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below.
*Some examples of words that begin with two consonants are:
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:წყალი#Georgian|'''წყ'''ალი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''ts’q’'''ali}}), 'water'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:სწორი#Georgian|'''სწ'''ორი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''sts’'''ori}}), 'correct'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:რძე#Georgian|'''რძ'''ე]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''rdz'''e}}), 'milk'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:თმა#Georgian|'''თმ'''ა]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''tm'''a}}), 'hair'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მთა#Georgian|'''მთ'''ა]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mt'''a}}), 'mountain'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:ცხენი#Georgian|'''ცხ'''ენი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''tskh'''eni}}), 'horse'
* Many words begin with three contiguous consonants:
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:თქვენ#Georgian|'''თქვ'''ენ]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''tkv'''en}}), 'you {{small|(pl.)}}'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მწვანე#Georgian|'''მწვ'''ანე]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mts’v'''ane}}), 'green'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:ცხვირი#Georgian|'''ცხვ'''ირი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''tskhv'''iri}}), 'nose'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:ტკბილი#Georgian|'''ტკბ'''ილი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''t’k’b'''ili}}), 'sweet'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მტკივნეული#Georgian|'''მტკ'''ივნეული]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mt’k’'''ivneuli}}), 'painful'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:ჩრდილოეთი#Georgian|'''ჩრდ'''ილოეთი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''chrd'''iloeti}}), 'north'
* A few words in Georgian that begin with four contiguous consonants. Examples are:
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მკვლელი#Georgian|'''მკვლ'''ელი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mk’vl'''eli}}), 'murderer'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მკვდარი#Georgian|'''მკვდ'''არი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mk’vd'''ari}}), 'dead'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მთვრალი#Georgian|'''მთვრ'''ალი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mtvr'''ali}}), 'drunk'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მწკრივი#Georgian|'''მწკრ'''ივი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mts’k’r'''ivi}}), 'row, [[screeve]]'
* Some extreme cases also exist in Georgian. For example, the following word begins with six contiguous consonants:
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მწვრთნელი#Georgian|'''მწვრთნ'''ელი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''mts’vrtn'''eli}}), 'trainer'
*While the following word begins with seven:
**{{lang|ka|[[wikt:გვწვრთნი#Georgian|'''გვწვრთნ'''ი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''gvts’vrtn'''i}}), 'you train us'
* And the following words begin with eight:
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:გვფრცქვნი#Georgian|'''გვფრცქვნ'''ი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''gvprtskvn'''i}}), 'you peel us'
** {{lang|ka|[[wikt:გვბრდღვნი#Georgian|'''გვბრდღვნ'''ი]]}} ({{transliteration|ka|'''gvbrdghvn'''i}}), 'you tear us'

==Sample text==
[[File:Ka-UDHR-Nicodene-dad.ogg|thumb|Recording of a middle-aged male speaker reading Article 1.]]
Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]:<ref name="About Georgia: Georgian Alphabet">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/alphabet.html |title=About Georgia: Georgian Alphabet |access-date=2010-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202041609/http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/alphabet.html |archive-date=2010-12-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
![[Georgian alphabet]]!![[Romanization of Georgian|Latin alphabet]]!![[International Phonetic Alphabet]]!!English translation
|- style="text-align:center"
| {{lang|ka|ყველა ადამიანი იბადება თავისუფალი და თანასწორი თავისი ღირსებითა და უფლებებით. მათ მინიჭებული აქვთ გონება და სინდისი და ერთმანეთის მიმართ უნდა იქცეოდნენ ძმობის სულისკვეთებით.}}
| {{lang|ka|italic=no|Qvela adamiani ibadeba tavisupali da tanasc’ori tavisi ghirsebita da uplebebit. Mat minich’ebuli akvt goneba da sindisi da ertmanetis mimart unda iktseodnen dzmobis sulisk’vetebit.}} 
| {{lang|ka|[qʼʷe̞ɫä‿ädämiäni‿ibäde̞bä tʰäβisupʰäli d̥ä tʰänäst͡sʼo̞ɾi tʰäβisi ʁiɾse̞bitʰä d̥ä‿upʰle̞be̞bitʰ ‖ mätʰ minit͡ʃ’e̞buli‿äkʰʷtʰ ɡ̊o̞ne̞bä d̥ä sindisi d̥ä‿e̞ɾtʰmäne̞tʰis mimäɾtʰ undä‿ikʰt͡sʰe̞o̞dne̞n d͡zmo̞bis sulisk’ʷe̞tʰe̞bitʰ ‖]}}
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
|}

==See also==
* [[Old Georgian]]
* [[Georgian dialects]]
* [[Georgian alphabet]]
* [[Georgian calligraphy]]
* [[Georgian calendar]]
* [[Georgian grammar]]
* [[Georgian numerals]]
* [[Georgian profanity]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Abuladze, Lia; Ludden, Andreas (2011). ''Lehrbuch der georgischen Sprache'' [Textbook of the Georgian language]. Second edition. Hamburg: Buske, {{ISBN|978-3-87548-620-9}} (in German).
* Zaza Aleksidze. ''Epistoleta Tsigni'', Tbilisi, 1968, 150 pp (in Georgian)
* {{Citation
|last=Aronson
|first=Howard I.
|year=1990
|title=Georgian: a reading grammar
|edition=second
|publisher=Slavica
|place=Columbus, OH
}}
* Butskhrikidze, Marika (2002). [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-consonant-phonotactics-of-Georgian-Butskhrikidze/afc8d8e1541b130db3f375d8a2f38d8997187057 The consonant phonotactics of Georgian]
* {{Citation |last=Canepari |first=Luciano |year=2007 |title=Natural phonetics and tonetics: Articulatory, auditory, & functional |location=München |publisher=Lincom Europa}}
* Fähnrich, Heinz (2013). ''Die ältesten georgischen Inschriften'' [The oldest Georgian inscriptions]. Leiden: Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-24921-9}} (in German).
* [[Farshid Delshad]]. ''Georgica et Irano-Semitica'' Studies on Iranian, Semitic and Georgian Linguistics, Wiesbaden 2010 (in German, English, Russian and Georgian summary)
* "Great discovery" (about the expedition of Academician Levan Chilashvili).- Newspaper ''Kviris Palitra'', Tbilisi, April 21–27, 2003 (in Georgian)
* {{Citation |last=Hewitt |first=Brian G. |year=1987 |title=The typology of subordination in Georgian and Abkhaz |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter}}
* {{Citation
|last=Hewitt
|first=B. G.
|year=1995
|title=Georgian: a structural reference grammar
|publisher=John Benjamins
|place=Amsterdam
}}
* {{Citation |last=Hewitt |first=B. G. |year=1996 |title=Georgian: a Learner's Grammar |publisher=Routledge |place=London }}
*{{Cite book|last=Hiller|first=P. J.|title=Georgian: The Kartvelian Literary Language|publisher=Language Information Centre|year=1994|location=Pontypridd, Wales}}
* [[Pavle Ingorokva]]. Georgian inscriptions of antique.- Bulletin of ENIMK, vol. X, Tbilisi, 1941, pp.&nbsp;411–427 (in Georgian)
* [[Ivane Javakhishvili]]. ''Georgian Paleography'', Tbilisi, 1949, 500 pp (in Georgian)
* {{Citation |last1=Jun |first1=Sun-Ah |last2=Vicenik |first2=Chad |last3=Lofstedt |first3=Ingvar |title=Intonational Phonology of Georgian |journal=UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics |issue=106 |pages=41–57 |year=2007 |url=http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/grads/lofstedt/Georgian-intonation-WPP-106.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616101948/http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/grads/lofstedt/Georgian-intonation-WPP-106.pdf |archive-date=2012-06-16 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Citation |last=Kiziria |first=Dodona |year=2009 |title=Beginner's Georgian with 2 Audio CDs
|publisher=Hippocrene |place=New York |isbn = 978-0-7818-1230-6}}
* Korneli Danelia, Zurab Sarjveladze. ''Questions of Georgian Paleography'', Tbilisi, 1997, 150 pp (in Georgian, English summary)
* {{Citation |last=Kraveishvili |first=M. & Nakhutsrishvili, G. |year=1972 |title=Teach Yourself Georgian for English Speaking Georgians |publisher=The Georgian Society for Cultural Relations with Compatriots Abroad |place=Tbilisi }}
* Elene Machavariani. ''The graphical basis of the Georgian Alphabet'', Tbilisi, 1982, 107 pp (in Georgian, French summary)
* {{Citation
|last=Price
|first=Glanville
|title=An Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe
|year=1998
|publisher=Blackwell
}}
* {{Citation |last1=Putkaradze |first1=Tariel |last2=Mikautadze |first2=Maia |year=2014 |title=Phonetics of the Georgian literary language |location=Tbilisi}}
* Ramaz Pataridze. ''The Georgian Asomtavruli'', Tbilisi, 1980, 600 pp. (in Georgian).
* {{citation
|doi = 10.1017/S0025100306002659
|last1 = Shosted
|first1 = Ryan K.
|last2 = Chikovani
|first2 = Vakhtang
|year= 2006
|title=Standard Georgian
|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume=36
|issue=2
|pages=255–264
|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf
|doi-access=free
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}}
* {{citation |last1=Skopeteas |first1=Stavros |last2=Féry |first2=Caroline |last3=Asatiani |first3=Rusudan |title=Word order and intonation in Georgian |publisher=University of Potsdam |year=2009}}
* {{Citation |last=Testelets |first=Yakov G. |year=2020 |chapter=Kartvelian (South Caucasian) Languages |editor-last=Polinsky |editor-first=Maria |title=The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus |pages=491–528}}
* {{citation
|last = Vicenik
|first = Chad
|year = 2010
|title=An acoustic study of Georgian stop consonants
|journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association
|volume = 40
|issue = 1
|pages = 59–92
|doi=10.1017/s0025100309990302
|s2cid = 143120834
|url = https://zenodo.org/record/890293
}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=y}}
{{InterWiki|code=ka}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Georgia (Russian Transcaucasia)|Georgian language}}
* {{WALS|geo}}
* {{UDHR|geo}}

===Grammars===
* [http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_georgian.pdf Reference grammar of Georgian by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)]
* [http://learn101.org/georgian.php Georgian Grammar]

===Dictionaries===
* [http://www.translate.ge Georgian English, English Georgian online dictionary]
* [http://czudovo.info/list.php?what=1&ln=ka&in=from_en English-Georgian, German-Georgian and Russian-Georgian dictionaries]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070122120120/http://www.georgianweb.com/language/dictionary/index.html English-Georgian HTML Dictionary]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Georgian_Swadesh_list Georgian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
*[https://lingua.ge/verbs-all/ Georgian Verb Conjugator/Dictionary]

===Software===
* [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/unicode/tituut.asp Georgian fonts, compliant with Unicode 4.0, also available for MAC OS 9 or X]
* [https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/addon/10573 A keyboard for typing Georgian characters for firefox]{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://apps.apple.com/us/app/learn-georgian-alphabet-now/id1182898652 Learn Georgian Alphabet Now app] Gives the name, pronunciation of each letter, and example words. Shows the stroke order of each letter. Permits drawing practice and has a quiz to learn the letters.

===Literature and culture===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120227084408/http://www.aboutgeorgia.ge/language/ About Georgia – Language and Alphabet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020817/http://www.kartvfund.org.ge/page3.html Summer School of Georgian at Tbilisi State University]
* [http://georgian-language.com/learn_georgian/write.php Learn how to write Georgian hand-written letters correctly]

{{Georgian language}}
{{Languages of Georgia (country)}}
{{Languages of the Caucasus}}
{{Georgia (country) topics}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Georgian Language}}
[[Category:Georgian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 5th century]]
[[Category:Kartvelian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Languages of Abkhazia]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Languages of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Georgian-Zan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of South Ossetia]]