View source for Geography of New Zealand

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=September 2024}}
{{Country geography
| name = New Zealand
| image name = Satellite image of New Zealand in December 2002.jpg
| image caption = New Zealand in the [[South Pacific Ocean]]
| image alt = Satellite image of New Zealand
| continent = 
| region = [[Oceania]]
| coordinates = {{coord|42|S|174|E|scale:5000000_source:GNS|display=title, inline}}
| area ranking = 75th
| km area = 268,680
| percent land = 97.9
| km coastline = 15,134
| borders = 0&nbsp;km
| highest point = [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]]<br /> {{convert|3724|m|abbr=on}}
| lowest point = [[Taieri Plain]]<br /> −2&nbsp;m
| longest river = [[Waikato River]]<br /> {{convert|425|km|abbr=on}}
| largest lake= [[Lake Taupō]]<br /> {{convert|3487|km2|abbr=on}}
| climate = Mostly [[temperate]], with some areas being [[tundra]] and [[Subantarctic climate|subantarctic]]
| terrain = Mostly mountainous or steep hills, volcanic peaks in the central North Island, and fiords in the far south west.
| natural resources = [[Natural gas]], [[iron]], [[sand]], [[coal]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]], [[gold]], [[limestone]]<ref name="World Factbook"/>
| natural hazards = [[Floods]], [[List of earthquakes in New Zealand|earthquakes]], [[Volcanology of New Zealand|volcanic&nbsp;activity]], [[List of tsunamis affecting New Zealand|tsunamis]], [[cyclones]], [[droughts]], [[landslides]]
| exclusive economic zone= {{convert|4083744|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}}}

[[New Zealand]] ({{langx|mi|[[Aotearoa]]}}) is an [[island country]] located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, near the centre of the [[water hemisphere]]. It consists of a [[List of islands of New Zealand|large number of islands]], estimated around 700, mainly remnants of a [[Zealandia|larger landmass]] now beneath the sea. The land masses by size are the [[South Island]] ({{lang|mi|Te Waipounamu}}) and the [[North Island]] ({{lang|mi|Te Ika-a-Māui}}), separated by the [[Cook Strait]]. The third-largest is [[Stewart Island]] ({{lang|mi|Rakiura}}), located {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=off}} off the tip of the South Island across [[Foveaux Strait]]. Other islands are significantly smaller in area. The three largest islands stretch {{convert|1600|km|mi|abbr=off}} across latitudes 35° to 47° south.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Walrond|first1=Carl|title=Natural environment – Geography and geology|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-1|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]|access-date=17 February 2019|date=8 February 2005}}</ref> New Zealand is the [[List of island countries|sixth-largest island country]] in the world, with a land size of {{convert|268680|km²|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="world-atlas"/>

New Zealand's landscapes range from the <!--Don't change spelling-->[[fiord]]<!--New Zealand spelling-->-like [[Sound (geography)|sounds]] of the southwest to the sandy beaches of the subtropical [[Far North District|Far North]]. The South Island is dominated by the [[Southern Alps]] while a [[North Island Volcanic Plateau|volcanic plateau]] covers much of the central North Island. Temperatures commonly fall below {{convert|0|C}} and rise above {{convert|30|C}} then conditions vary from wet and cold on the South Island's [[West Coast Region|west coast]] to dry and continental a short distance away across the mountains and to the tundra like climate in the Deep South of [[Southland Region|Southland]].

About two-thirds of the land is economically useful, with the remainder being mountainous. The [[North Island]] is the most populous island in [[New Zealand]] with over 4 million residents and [[South Island]] is the second-most populated home to over 1.2 million residents.

New Zealand is situated on the boundary of the [[Pacific plate|Pacific]] and [[Australian plate|Australian]] [[tectonic plates]], making it one of the most active earthquake and volcanic regions in the world. The country has experienced [[List of earthquakes in New Zealand|several devastating earthquakes]] throughout its history.

The New Zealand mainland is about {{convert|2000|km|mi|abbr=off}} east of the Australian mainland across the [[Tasman Sea]], the closest foreign neighbour to its main islands being [[Norfolk Island]] (Australia) about {{convert|750|km|mi|abbr=off}} to the north west. Other island groups to the north are [[New Caledonia]], [[Tonga]] and [[Fiji]]. It is the southernmost nation in [[Oceania]]. The relative close proximity of New Zealand to [[Antarctica]] has made the South Island a major gateway for scientific expeditions to the continent.

==Physical geography==
{{Hatnote|[[File:commons-logo.svg|12px|link=|alt=]] See also: [[commons:Atlas of New Zealand|Atlas of New Zealand]] at [[Wikimedia Commons]]}}

===Overview===
[[File:Map New Zealand-en.svg|thumb|left|An annotated relief map]]
New Zealand is located in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific Ocean]] at {{coord|41|S|174|E|type:country}}, near the centre of the [[water hemisphere]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hobbs|first1=Joseph J.|title=World Regional Geography|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0495389507|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAgGHnENHjoC&pg=PA9|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> It is a long and narrow country, extending {{convert|1600|km|mi}} along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of {{convert|400|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Heinemann New Zealand atlas|publisher=[[Heinemann (publisher)|Heinemann Publishers]]|first=D. W.|last=McKenzie|year=1987|isbn=978-0-7900-0187-6}}</ref> The land size of {{convert|268680|km²|sqmi|abbr=on}} makes it the sixth-largest island country.<ref name="world-atlas">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html|title=Island Countries of the World|publisher=WorldAtlas.com|access-date=10 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207094959/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-are-the-island-countries-of-the-world.html|archive-date=7 December 2017}}</ref> New Zealand consists of a [[List of islands of New Zealand|large number of islands]], estimated around 600.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/nearshore-islands|title=Nearshore islands|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |first=Eileen|last=McSaveney|date=24 September 2007}}</ref> The islands give it {{convert|15134|km|mi|abbr=on}} of [[coastline of New Zealand|coastline]] and extensive marine resources. New Zealand claims the ninth largest [[Exclusive economic zone of New Zealand|exclusive economic zone]] in the world, covering {{convert|4083744|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}, more than 15 times its land area.<ref>Ministry for the Environment. 2005. Offshore Options: Managing Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone. [http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/oceans/offshore-options-jun05/html/page3.html Introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105225150/http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/oceans/offshore-options-jun05/html/page3.html |date=5 November 2013 }}</ref>

The [[South Island]] is the largest land mass of New Zealand, and is the [[List of islands by area|12th-largest island]] in the world. The island is divided along its length by the [[Southern Alps]]. The east side of the island has the [[Canterbury Plains]] while the [[West Coast Region|West Coast]] is famous for its rough coastlines, high rainfall, very high proportion of native [[The bush#New Zealand|bush]] (forest), and [[Glaciers of New Zealand|glaciers]].<ref name="McSaveney">{{cite encyclopedia|last1=McSaveney|first1=Eileen|title=Landscapes – overview|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/landscapes-overview|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref>

The [[North Island]] is the second-largest island, and the 14th-largest in the world. It is separated from the South Island by the [[Cook Strait]], with the shortest distance being {{convert|23|km}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=McLintock|editor-first=A. H.|editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock|title=Cook Strait – The Sea Floor|date=1966|encyclopedia=[[An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand]]|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/cook-strait|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author=((Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica ))|title=Cook Strait, New Zealand|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Cook-Strait|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 October 2018}}</ref> The North Island is less mountainous than the South Island,<ref name="McSaveney"/> although a series of narrow mountain ranges form a roughly north-east belt that rises up to {{convert|1700|m}}. Much of the surviving forest is located in this belt, and in other mountain areas and rolling hills.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Walrond|first1=Carl|title=Natural environment – The bush and its plants|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/page-4|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=15 August 2017|date=February 2005}}</ref> The North Island has many isolated volcanic peaks.

Besides the North and South Islands, the five largest inhabited islands are [[Stewart Island]] ({{convert|30|km}} due south of the South Island), [[Chatham Island]] (''Wharekauri'' in [[Māori language|Māori]] or ''Rēkohu'' in [[Moriori language|Moriori]]) (some {{convert|800|km}} east of the South Island),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Richards|first1=Rhys|title=Chatham Islands|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/chatham-islands|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 May 2019|date=12 September 2012|quote=They are to the east of New Zealand – 862 kilometres from Christchurch but only 772 kilometres from Napier.}}</ref> [[Great Barrier Island]] (in the [[Hauraki Gulf]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp|title=Hauraki Gulf islands|publisher=[[Auckland City Council]]|access-date=13 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225020855/http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/hauraki/default.asp|archive-date=25 December 2010}}</ref> [[D'Urville Island (New Zealand)|Rangitoto ki te Tonga / D'Urville Island]] (in the [[Marlborough Sounds]])<ref>{{cite web|last=Hindmarsh|year=2006|url=http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx|title=Discovering D'Urville|publisher=[[Heritage New Zealand]] |access-date=13 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511071150/http://www.historic.org.nz/en/Publications/HeritageNZMagazine/HeritageNz2006/HNZ06-DiscoveringDUrville.aspx|archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref> and [[Waiheke Island]] (about {{convert|22|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from central [[Auckland]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance+Tables.html|title=Distance tables|publisher=Auckland Coastguard|access-date=2 March 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123074649/http://www.auckland-coastguard.org.nz/Information/Distance+Tables.html|archive-date=23 January 2011}}</ref>

====Extreme points====
{{main|Extreme points of New Zealand}}
[[File:Forty-Fours or Motuhara Islands.jpg|thumb|The Forty-Fours viewed from the north; the leftmost islet is the easternmost point of New Zealand.]]

The phrase "From Cape Reinga to The Bluff" is frequently used within New Zealand to refer to the extent of the whole country.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bb2Q2uO-FbEC&pg=PA59|title=A Land of Two-Halves|last1=Bennett|first1=Joe|date=2005|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9780743263573|page=59}}</ref> [[Cape Reinga / Te Rerenga Wairua]] is the northwesternmost tip of the [[Aupōuri Peninsula]], at the northern end of the North Island. [[Bluff, New Zealand|Bluff]] is [[Invercargill]]'s port, located near the southern tip of the South Island, below the [[46th parallel south]]. However, the extreme points of New Zealand are in fact located in several [[New Zealand outlying islands|outlying islands]].<ref name="extreme points">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-extreme-points-of-new-zealand.html|title=The Extreme Points of New Zealand|work=WorldAtlas|date=29 March 2018|access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref>

The points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location in New Zealand are as follows:<ref name="extreme points" />

*The northernmost point is in [[Nugent Island]] in the [[Kermadec Islands]] ({{coord|-29.231667|-177.869167}}).
*The southernmost point is [[Jacquemart Island]] in the [[Campbell Island group]] ({{coord|-52.619444|169.125833}}).
*The easternmost point is situated in a group of islands within the Chatham Islands called the [[Forty-Fours]] ({{coord|-43.963306|-175.831410}}).
*The westernmost point is [[Cape Lovitt]] on [[Auckland Island]] ({{coord|-50.799838|165.870128}}).

====Antipodes====
{{see also|Antipodes#Cities}}
[[File:Antipodes Europe New Zealand.svg|thumb|New Zealand is [[Antipodes#Geography|antipodal]] to points of the North Atlantic, the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco.|alt=|right]]
New Zealand is largely antipodal to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] of Europe.<ref name="antipodes">{{cite web|url=https://www.antipodesmap.com|title=Antipodes Map – Tunnel to the other side of the world|website=antipodesmap.com|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> The northern half of the South Island corresponds to [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and northern Portugal.<ref name="antipodes" />{{Better source needed|date=November 2018}} Most of the North Island corresponds to central and southern Spain, from [[Valladolid]] (opposite the southern point of the North Island, [[Cape Palliser]]), through [[Madrid]] and [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] to [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] (directly antipodal to [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]]), [[Lorca, Spain|Lorca]] (opposite East Cape), [[Málaga]] (Cape Colville), and [[Gibraltar]]. Parts of the [[Northland Peninsula]] oppose [[Morocco]], with [[Whangārei]] nearly coincident with [[Tangiers]]. The antipodes of the Chatham Islands lie in France, just north of the city of [[Montpellier]].<ref name="antipodes" /> The [[Antipodes Islands]] were named for their supposed antipodal position to Britain; although they are the closest land to the true antipodes of Britain, their location 49°41′S 178°48′E is directly antipodal to a point a few kilometres to the east of [[Cherbourg]] on the north coast of France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.howderfamily.com/blog/antipodes-islands/|title=Antipodes Islands|work=Twelve Mile Circle|access-date=6 January 2011}}</ref>

In Europe the term "Antipodes" is often used to refer to New Zealand and Australia (and sometimes other South Pacific areas),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1eOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|title=The Idea of the Antipodes: Place, People, and Voices|last1=Goldie|first1=Matthew Boyd|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135272180|page=165}}</ref> and "[[wikt:antipodean#Noun|Antipodeans]]" to their inhabitants.

===Geology===
{{main|Geology of New Zealand|Volcanism of New Zealand}}
[[File:New Zealand geology map with key.png|thumb|upright=1.3]]
[[File:Zealandia-Continent map en.svg|thumb|left|Topography of [[Zealandia (continent)|Zealandia]], the submerged continent, and the two tectonic plates]]

New Zealand is part of [[Zealandia]], a [[microcontinent]] nearly half the size of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]] that gradually submerged after breaking away from the [[Gondwana]] supercontinent.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wallis|first1=G. P.|last2=Trewick|first2=S. A.|year=2009|title=New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=18|issue=17|pages=3548–3580|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x|pmid=19674312|doi-access=free}}</ref> Zealandia extends a significant distance east into the Pacific Ocean and south towards Antarctica. It also extends towards Australia in the north-west. This submerged continent is dotted with topographic highs that sometimes form islands. Some of these, such as the main islands (North and South), Stewart Island, New Caledonia, and the Chatham Islands, are settled. Other smaller islands are eco-sanctuaries with carefully controlled access.

[[File:Lake taupo landsat.jpg|thumb|right|The scalloped bays indenting Lake Taupō's northern and western coasts are typical of large volcanic [[caldera]] margins. The caldera they surround was formed during the huge [[Oruanui eruption]].]]
The New Zealand land mass has been [[tectonic uplift|uplifted]] due to [[transpression]]al [[plate tectonics|tectonics]] between the [[Indo-Australian plate]] and [[Pacific plate|Pacific]] plates (these two plates are grinding together with one riding up and over the other).<ref name="Keith 2009">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/sea-floor-geology/2|title=Sea floor geology – Active plate boundaries|last1=Lewis|first1=Keith|last2=Nodder|first2=Scott|date=March 2009|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=14 August 2017|last3=Carter|first3=Lionel}}</ref> This is the cause of New Zealand's numerous earthquakes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tectonic Uplift|url=https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Landforms/Mountains-and-Uplift/Tectonic-uplift|website=gns.cri.nz|publisher=[[GNS Science]]|access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref>
To the east of the North Island the Pacific plate is forced under the Indo-Australian plate. The North Island of New Zealand has widespread back-arc volcanism as a result of this [[subduction]]. There are many large volcanoes with relatively frequent eruptions. There are also several very large [[caldera]]s, with the most obvious forming [[Lake Taupō]]. Taupō has a history of incredibly powerful eruptions, with the [[Oruanui eruption]] {{abbr|approx.|approximately}} 26,500 years ago ejecting {{convert|1170|km3|abbr=off}} of material and causing the downward collapse of several hundred square kilometres to form the lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/the-power-of-taupo/|title=The Power of Taupo|website=nzgeo.com|publisher=New Zealand Geographic|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> The [[Hatepe eruption|most recent eruption]] occurred {{circa|180 CE}} and ejected at least {{convert|100|km3|abbr=off}} of material, and has been correlated with red skies seen at the time in [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and [[Han dynasty|China]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wilson|first=C. J. N.|author-link=Colin J. N. Wilson|author2=Ambraseys, N. N.|author3=Bradley, J.|author4=Walker, G. P. L.|year=1980|title=A new date for the Taupo eruption, New Zealand|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=288|issue=5788|pages=252–253|bibcode=1980Natur.288..252W|doi=10.1038/288252a0|s2cid=4309536}}</ref> The associated geothermal energy from this volcanic area is used in numerous [[hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal power plants]].<ref>Hall, Matthew (2004) [http://www.med.govt.nz/upload/24445/geothermal.pdf Existing and Potential Geothermal Resource for Electricity Generation]. Ministry for Economic Development. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927124755/http://www.med.govt.nz/upload/24445/geothermal.pdf |date=27 September 2007}}.</ref> Some volcanic places are also famous tourist destinations, such as the [[Rotorua]] [[geyser]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rotorua.nz.com/geothermal.aspx|title=Rotorua Geothermal Sites – Geothermal Sites in Rotorua New Zealand|publisher=New Zealand on the Web|access-date=15 August 2017|archive-date=6 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206200834/http://www.rotorua.nz.com/geothermal.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The subduction direction is reversed through the South Island, with the Indo-Australian plate forced under the Pacific plate. The transition between these two different styles of continental collision occurs through the top of the South Island. This area has significant uplift and many [[active fault]]s; large earthquakes are frequent occurrences here. The most powerful in recent history, the M8.3 [[1855 Wairarapa earthquake|Wairarapa earthquake]], occurred in 1855. This earthquake generated more than {{convert|6|m}} of vertical uplift in places, and caused a localised tsunami. Fortunately casualties were low due to the sparse settlement of the region. In 2013, the area was rattled by the M6.5 [[Seddon earthquake]], but this caused little damage and no injuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geonet.org.nz/earthquake/2013p543824|title=M 6.5 Cook Strait Sun, Jul 21 2013|publisher=[[GeoNet (New Zealand)|GeoNet]]|access-date=15 August 2017|quote=A magnitude 6.5 earthquake occurred 20&nbsp;km east of Seddon, New Zealand on Sun Jul 21 2013 5:09 PM}}</ref> New Zealand's [[Capital of New Zealand|capital city]], [[Wellington]] is situated in the centre of this region.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Langridge|first=R.M.|author2=Berryman, K.R.|author3=van Dissen, R.J.|year=2005|title=Defining the geometric segmentation and Holocene slip rate of the Wellington Fault, New Zealand: the Pahiatua section|journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics|volume=48|issue=4|pages=591–607|doi=10.1080/00288306.2005.9515136|s2cid=128429946|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The subduction of the Indo-Australian plate drives rapid uplift in the centre of the South Island (approx. {{convert|10|mm}} per year). This uplift forms the Southern Alps. These roughly divide the island, with a narrow wet strip to the west and wide and dry plains to the east. The resulting [[orographic]] rainfall enables the [[Hydroelectric power in New Zealand|hydroelectric generation of most]] of the electricity in New Zealand.<ref name="Meduna" /> A significant amount of the movement between the two plates is accommodated by lateral sliding of the Indo-Australian plate north relative to the Pacific plate. The plate boundary forms the nearly {{convert|800|km}} long [[Alpine Fault]]. This fault has an estimated rupture reoccurrence interval of ~330 years, and last ruptured in 1717 along {{convert|400|km}} of its length. It passes directly under many settlements on the West Coast of the South Island and shaking from a rupture would likely affect many cities and towns throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alpine Fault|series=Major Faults in New Zealand|url=https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Major-Faults-in-New-Zealand/Alpine-Fault|website=gns.cri.nz|publisher=GNS Science|access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref>

The rapid uplift and high [[erosion]] rates within the Southern Alps combine to expose high grade [[greenschist]] to [[amphibolite]] [[facies]] rocks, including the gemstone [[pounamu]]. Geologists visiting the West Coast can easily access high-grade [[metamorphic rock]]s and [[mylonite]]s associated with the Alpine Fault, and in certain places can stand astride the fault trace of an active plate boundary.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Progressive Metamorphism of Metabasic Rocks from the Haast Schist Group of Southern New Zealand|last1=Cooper|first1=A. F.|date=1 October 1972|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=13|issue=3|pages=457–492|bibcode=1972JPet...13..457C|doi=10.1093/petrology/13.3.457}}</ref> The South Island also has two major [[gold]]fields in [[Otago gold rush|Otago]] and the [[West Coast gold rush|West Coast]].<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand's goldfields|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/map/8458/new-zealands-goldfields|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=21 April 2022|date=12 June 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Milford Sound in Fiordland National Park 17.jpg|thumb|[[Fiordland]] is dominated by steep, glacier-carved valleys.]]
To the south of New Zealand the Indo-Australian plate is subducting under the Pacific plate, and this is beginning to result in [[back-arc basin|back-arc]] volcanism. The youngest (geologically speaking) volcanism in the South Island occurred in this region, forming the [[Solander Islands]] (<2 million years old).<ref name="HarringtonWood1958">{{cite journal|last1=Harrington|first1=H. J.|last2=Wood|first2=B. L.|year=1958|title=Quaternary andesitic volcanism at the Solander Islands|journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics|volume=1|issue=3|pages=419–431|doi=10.1080/00288306.1958.10422772|issn=0028-8306|doi-access=free}}</ref> This region is dominated by the rugged and relatively untouched [[Fiordland]], an area of flooded glacially carved valleys with little human settlement.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Grant|first1=David|title=Southland region – Geology and landforms|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/southland-region/page-2|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=24 February 2019|date=May 2015}}</ref>

===Mountains, volcanoes and glaciers===
{{See also|List of mountains of New Zealand|List of volcanoes in New Zealand|List of glaciers in New Zealand}}
[[File:Mt Cook LC0247.jpg|thumb|[[Aoraki / Mount Cook]], as seen from [[Hooker Valley Track|Hooker Valley]]]]
The South Island is much more mountainous than the North, but shows fewer manifestations of recent volcanic activity. There are 18 peaks of more than {{convert|3000|m|ft|abbr=off}} in the Southern Alps, which stretch for {{convert|500|km}} down the South Island.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kisch|first1=Conrad|title=Destination. New Zealand|date=2009|publisher=Gyldendal Uddannelse|isbn=9788702075847|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ne1Gh4nEkM0C&pg=PA11}}</ref> The closest mountains surpassing it in elevation are found not in Australia, but in [[New Guinea]] and Antarctica. As well as the towering peaks, the Southern Alps include huge glaciers such as [[Franz Josef Glacier / Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere|Franz Josef]] and [[Fox Glacier / Te Moeka o Tuawe|Fox]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=McSaveney|first1=Eileen|title=Glaciers and glaciation|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/glaciers-and-glaciation|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|date=24 September 2007}}</ref> The country's highest mountain is [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]]; its height since 2014 is listed as {{convert|3724|m|ft|abbr=off}} (down from {{convert|3764|m|ft|abbr=on}} before December 1991, due to a rockslide and subsequent erosion).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/9616590/Aoraki-Mt-Cook-shrinks-by-30m|title=Aoraki/Mt Cook shrinks by 30m|publisher=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |location=New Zealand|date=16 January 2014}}</ref> The second highest peak is [[Mount Tasman]], with a height of {{convert|3497|m}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Dennis|first1=Andy|title=Mountains – South Island mountains|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/14299/highest-peaks-of-the-southern-alps|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|date=2 February 2017}}</ref>
The [[North Island Volcanic Plateau]] covers much of central North Island with volcanoes, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[volcanic crater lake|crater lake]]s. The three highest volcanoes are [[Mount Ruapehu]] ({{convert|2797|m}}), [[Mount Taranaki]] ({{convert|2518|m}}) and [[Mount Ngauruhoe]] ({{convert|2287|m}}). Ruapehu's major eruptions have historically been about 50&nbsp;years apart,<ref name="crlk">{{cite web|title=Crater&nbsp;Lake|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/tracks-and-walks/central-north-island/ruapehu/mount-ruapehu-crater-climb/|author=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=23 October 2006}}</ref> in 1895, 1945 and 1995–1996. The [[1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera]], located near [[Rotorua]], was New Zealand's largest and deadliest eruption in the last 200 years, killing over 100 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eruption of Mt Tarawera|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/eruption-of-mt-tarawera|publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage|access-date=21 August 2017}}</ref> Another long chain of mountains runs through the North Island, from Wellington to East Cape. The ranges include [[Tararua Range|Tararua]] and [[Kaimanawa Range|Kaimanawa]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Dennis|first1=Andy|title=Mountains|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/mountains|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|date=2 February 2017}}</ref>

The lower mountain slopes are covered in native forest. Above this are shrubs, and then [[Tussock grasslands of New Zealand|tussock grasses]]. [[Alpine tundra]] consists of cushion plants and [[herbfield]]s; many of these plants have white and yellow flowers.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Dennis|first1=Andy|title=Mountains – Alpine plants and animals|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/mountains/page-4|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|date=2 February 2017}}</ref>
{{clear}}
{{wide image|Southern Alps from Hamilton Peak.jpg|1000px|A portion of the Southern Alps mountain chain, as viewed from Hamilton Peak}}
{{wide image|CentralPlateauNZ.jpg|1000px|View of the Central Plateau from the Desert Road showing the three active peaks: Snow-capped Ruapehu (left), conical Ngauruhoe (centre) and broad-domed Tongariro (right)}}

===Caves===
{{See also|List of caves in New Zealand|Caving in New Zealand}}

New Zealand's cave systems have three main origins, the chemical weathering of limestone by water ([[karst]]), [[lava cave]]s and erosion by waves ([[sea cave]]s). Therefore, the distribution of limestone, marble ([[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] limestone) and volcanoes defines the location of caves in inland New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwOqDQAAQBAJ&q=Geomorphology+of+New+Zealand|title=New Zealand Landscape: Behind the Scene|last=Williams|first=Paul|date=18 May 2017|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=9780128125656}}</ref> The main regions of karst topography are the [[Waitomo District]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzealand.com/au/waitomo-caves/|title=Things to see and do in Waitomo Caves, New Zealand|website=newzealand.com|publisher=Tourism New Zealand|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> and [[Takaka Hill]] in the [[Tasman District]]. Other notable locations are on the [[West Coast Region|West Coast]] ([[Punakaiki]]), [[Hawke's Bay Region|Hawke's Bay]] and [[Fiordland]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.realjourneys.co.nz/en/experiences/glowworm-caves/te-anau-glowworm-caves/|title=Te Anau Glowworm Caves: Explore Te Anau's unique glowworm caves|access-date=28 November 2018|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427184802/https://www.realjourneys.co.nz/en/experiences/glowworm-caves/te-anau-glowworm-caves/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Lava caves ([[lava tube]]s) usually form in [[pāhoehoe]] lava flows, which are less viscous and typical formed from [[basalt]]. When an eruption occurs the outer layer of the lava flow hardens, while the interior remains liquid. The liquid lava flows out as it is insulated by the hardened crust above. These caves are found where there are relatively recent basaltic volcanoes in New Zealand, such as the [[Auckland volcanic field]] particularly on [[Rangitoto Island|Rangitoto]], [[Mount Eden]] and [[Matukutūruru]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/secret-passages/|title=The lava caves hidden beneath suburban Auckland|work=New Zealand Geographic|access-date=1 December 2018}}</ref>

The distribution of sea caves is more sporadic, with their location and orientation being controlled by weakness in the underlying rock. As cave systems take many thousands of years to develop they can not be isolated from the water that formed them, whether through change in sea level or groundwater flow.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XrtVlwEACAAJ&q=west+coast+walking|title=West Coast Walking: A Naturalist's Guide|last=Wilson|first=Kerry-Jayne|date=2013|publisher=Canterbury University Press|isbn=9781927145425|pages=137}}</ref> If as a cave grows it breaks through to the surface somewhere else it becomes a [[natural arch]], like the [[Ōpārara Basin Arches]] near [[Karamea]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Williams|first1=Paul|title=Limestone country – Other karst features|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/12405/oparara-arch|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 March 2020|date=2007}}</ref>

===Rivers and lakes===
{{main|Rivers of New Zealand|Lakes of New Zealand|Water in New Zealand}}

The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding [[estuaries]]) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database, is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216) = 1.6%.<ref name="mfe1">{{cite web|title=Historical environmental reporting|url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/more/environmental-reporting/reporting-act/about-reporting-act|publisher=Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand|access-date=21 November 2016|date=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715184105/https://www.mfe.govt.nz/more/environmental-reporting/historical-environmental-reporting|archive-date=15 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> If estuarine open water, mangroves, and [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.<ref name="mfe1"/>

[[File:Lake Taupo and Waikato River aerial view.jpg|thumb|The Waikato River flowing out of Lake Taupō]]
The mountainous areas of the North Island are cut by many rivers, many of which are swift and unnavigable. The east of the South Island is marked by wide [[braided river]]s, such as the [[Wairau River|Wairau]], [[Waimakariri River|Waimakariri]] and [[Rangitata River|Rangitata]]; formed from glaciers, they fan out into many strands on gravel plains. The total length of the country's rivers is over {{convert|180000|km|mi}}. The [[Waikato River|Waikato]], flowing through the North Island, is the longest, with a length of {{convert|425|km|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Young|first1=David|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/rivers|title=Rivers|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=16 August 2017|date=24 September 2007}}</ref> New Zealand's rivers feature [[List of waterfalls of New Zealand|hundreds of waterfalls]]; the most visited set of waterfalls are the [[Huka Falls]] that drain Lake Taupō.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/waterfalls|last1=Phillips|first1=Jock|title=Waterfalls|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|date=24 September 2007}}</ref>
Lake Taupō, located near the centre of the North Island, is the largest lake by surface area in the country. It lies in a [[caldera]] created by the [[Oruanui eruption]], the largest eruption in the world in the past 70,000 years. There are 3,820 lakes with a surface area larger than one [[hectare]].<ref>{{cite web|title=List of lakes of New Zealand|url=http://thegrid.co.nz/list-of-lakes-of-new-zealand/|website=TheGrid|access-date=21 November 2016|date=12 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517064701/http://thegrid.co.nz/list-of-lakes-of-new-zealand/|archive-date=17 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many lakes have been used as reservoirs for [[hydroelectric]] projects.<ref name="Meduna">About 58&nbsp;percent of New Zealand's electricity was hydroelectric in 2002. [[Veronika Meduna]]. '[http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/ClimateAndAtmosphere/WindAndSolarPower/en Wind and solar power] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819125921/http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/ClimateAndAtmosphere/WindAndSolarPower/en|date=19 August 2007}}', ''Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand'', updated 21 September 2007.</ref>

===Coastal wetlands===
Wetlands support the greatest concentration of wildlife out of any other habitat. New Zealand has six sites covering almost {{convert|551|km2}} that are included in the [[List of Wetlands of International Importance]] ([[Ramsar site]]s), including the [[Whangamarino Wetland]].<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand wetlands of International Importance|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/international-agreements/ramsar-convention-on-wetlands/nz-wetlands-of-international-importance/|website=doc.govt.nz|publisher=[[New Zealand Department of Conservation]]|access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref>

A 2016 global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were {{convert|1191|km²}} of [[tidal flat]]s in New Zealand, making it the 29th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=N.J.|last2=Phinn|first2=S.R.|last3=DeWitt|first3=M.|last4=Ferrari|first4=R.|last5=Johnston|first5=R.|last6=Lyons|first6=M.B.|last7=Clinton|first7=N.|last8=Thau|first8=D.|last9=Fuller|first9=R.A.|title=The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats|journal=Nature|date=2019|volume=565|issue=7738|pages=222–225|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0805-8|pmid=30568300|s2cid=56481043|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0805-8|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Climate===
{{main|Climate of New Zealand}}
[[File:New Zealand snow.jpg|thumb|left|Central Plateau in winter]]
The main geographic factors that influence New Zealand's climate are the temperate [[latitude]], with [[prevailing winds|prevailing westerly winds]]; the [[Oceanic climate|oceanic]] environment; and the mountains, especially the Southern Alps. The climate is mostly temperate with mean temperatures ranging from {{convert|8|C}} in the South Island to {{convert|16|C}} in the North Island.<ref>From NIWA Science [http://www.niwascience.co.nz/edu/resources/climate/overview/ climate overview].</ref> January and February are the warmest months, July the coldest. New Zealand does not have a large temperature range, apart from central Otago, but the weather can change rapidly and unexpectedly. Near [[subtropical]] conditions are experienced in [[Northland Peninsula|Northland]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Mullan|first1=Brett|last2=Tait|first2=Andrew|last3=Thompson|first3=Craig|title=Climate|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/climate|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=20 December 2018|date=12 September 2006}}</ref>
Most settled, lowland areas of the country have between {{convert|600|and|1600|mm|abbr=on}} of [[precipitation|rainfall]], with the most rain along the west coast of the South Island and the least on the east coast of the South Island and interior basins, predominantly on the [[Canterbury Plains]] and the Central Otago Basin (about {{convert|350|mm|in|abbr=on}} {{abbreviation|PA|per annum; annually}}). [[Christchurch]] is the driest city, receiving about {{convert|640|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain PA, while [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]] is the wettest, receiving more than twice that amount at {{convert|1325|mm|in|abbr=on}} PA, followed closely by Auckland. The wettest area by far is the rugged Fiordland region, in the south-west of the South Island, which has between {{convert|5000|and|8000|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain PA, with up to 15,000&nbsp;mm in isolated valleys, amongst the highest recorded rainfalls in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls|title=Mean monthly rainfall|publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|format=XLS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503221956/http://www.niwa.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44268/rain.xls|archive-date=3 May 2011|access-date=4 February 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Scorching Bay.jpg|thumb|right|[[Scorching Bay]], Wellington, in summer]]
The [[UV index]] can be very high and extreme in the hottest times of the year in the north of the North Island. This is partly due to the country's relatively little [[air pollution]] compared to many other countries and the high [[sunshine hours]]. New Zealand has very high sunshine hours with most areas receiving over 2000 hours per year. The sunniest areas are Nelson/Marlborough and the Bay of Plenty with 2,400 hours per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls|title=Mean monthly sunshine hours|publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|format=XLS|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015102420/http://www.niwascience.co.nz/__data/assets/file/0006/44655/sunshine.xls|archive-date=15 October 2008|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref>
The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest months in New Zealand's six largest cities. North Island cities are generally warmest in February. South Island cities are warmest in January.

{| class="wikitable collapsible sortable" style="margin:auto; width:50%;"
|+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for the six largest cities<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate|title=Climate data and activities|publisher=National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|access-date=11 February 2016|date=28 February 2007}}</ref>
|-
!Location
!Jan/Feb (°C)
!Jan/Feb (°F)
!July (°C)
!July (°F)
|-
|[[Auckland]] || 23/16 || 74/60 || 14/7 || 58/45
|-
|[[Wellington]] || 20/13 || 68/56 || 11/6 || 52/42
|-
|[[Christchurch]] || 22/12 || 72/53 || 10/0 || 51/33
|-
|[[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]] || 24/13 || 75/56 || 14/4 || 57/39
|-
|[[Tauranga]] || 24/15 || 75/59 || 14/6 || 58/42
|-
|[[Dunedin]] || 19/11 || 66/53 || 10/3 || 50/37
|}
{{clear}}

The combined [[effects of climate change|effects]] of [[climate change in New Zealand]] will result in a multitude of irreversible impacts; by the end of this century New Zealand will experience higher rainfalls, more frequent extreme weather events and higher temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Climate change scenarios for New Zealand|url=https://niwa.co.nz/our-science/climate/information-and-resources/clivar/scenarios|publisher=[[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]]|access-date=7 April 2022|date=28 February 2007}}</ref> In 2021, the [[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)|Ministry for the Environment]] estimated that New Zealand's gross emissions were 0.17% of the world's total gross [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. However, on a per capita basis, New Zealand is a significant emitter, the sixth highest within the [[Kyoto Protocol#Annex I countries|Annex I countries]], whereas on absolute gross emissions New Zealand is ranked as the 24th highest emitter.<ref name="MFEcompare">{{cite web|url=https://environment.govt.nz/publications/new-zealands-greenhouse-gas-inventory-1990-2019-snapshot/how-new-zealand-compares-to-other-countries/|title=Snapshot How New Zealand compares to other countries|date=15 April 2021|publisher=New Zealand Ministry for the Environment|access-date=3 April 2022|archive-date=2 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002154536/https://environment.govt.nz/publications/new-zealands-greenhouse-gas-inventory-1990-2019-snapshot/how-new-zealand-compares-to-other-countries/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/climate-news/109053475/new-zealands-outsized-climate-change-contribution|title=New Zealand's out-sized climate change contribution|work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=8 December 2018|access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref>

==Human geography==
{{ Location map+ | New Zealand| width=330 | float=right | AlternativeMap = New Zealand relief map.jpg | caption=Annotated map displaying regional boundaries, major urban areas, and geographic features |alt=Annotated relief map of New Zealand  |places=
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=right | lat_deg=35 |lat_min=43 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=174 |lon_min=18 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label=[[Whangārei]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=right | lat_deg=36 |lat_min=51 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=174 |lon_min=47 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label=[[Auckland]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=bottom| lat_deg=37 |lat_min=47 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=175 |lon_min=17 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label=[[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=top | lat_deg=37 |lat_min=59 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=177 |lon_min=00 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Whakatāne]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=top | lat_deg=38 |lat_min=39 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=178 |lon_min=00 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Gisborne, New Zealand|Gisborne]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=right | lat_deg=39 |lat_min=29 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=176 |lon_min=54 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Napier, New Zealand|Napier]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=left | lat_deg=39 |lat_min=04 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=174 |lon_min=05 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[New Plymouth]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=right | lat_deg=40 |lat_min=21 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=175 |lon_min=37 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label=[[Palmerston North|Palmerston&nbsp;N.]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=right | lat_deg=41 |lat_min=17 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=174 |lon_min=46 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ |label= '''[[Wellington]]'''}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=left | lat_deg=41 |lat_min=16 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=173 |lon_min=17 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Nelson, New Zealand|Nelson]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | position=bottom| lat_deg=41 |lat_min=31 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=173 |lon_min=58 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Blenheim, New Zealand|Blenheim]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=top | lat_deg=42 |lat_min=28 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=171 |lon_min=12 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Greymouth]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=top | lat_deg=43 |lat_min=32 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=172 |lon_min=38 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Christchurch]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=left | lat_deg=45 |lat_min=03 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=168 |lon_min=39 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | label= [[Queenstown, New Zealand|Queenstown]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=right | lat_deg=45 |lat_min=53 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=170 |lon_min=30 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ| label= [[Dunedin]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=left | lat_deg=46 |lat_min=24 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=168 |lon_min=21 | lon_dir=E |region=NZ| label= [[Invercargill]] |label_size=85}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand| position=left| lat_deg=43 |lat_min=35 |lat_sec=42 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=170 |lon_min=08 |lon_sec=30 | lon_dir=E | region=NZ | mark=RedMountain.svg | marksize=20 | label= [[Aoraki / Mount Cook]] |label_size=90}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=36 |lat_min=50 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=168 |lon_min=00 | lon_dir=E | label=[[Tasman Sea|'''''{{allcaps|Tasman&nbsp;Sea}}''''']]}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=45 |lat_min=00 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=175 |lon_min=00 | lon_dir=E | label=[[Pacific Ocean|'''''{{allcaps|South Pacific Ocean}}''''']] |label_size=105}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=37 |lat_min=30 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=171 |lon_min=30 | lon_dir=E | label=[[North Island|''North Island / Te Ika-a-Māui'']] }}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=40 |lat_min=50 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=167 |lon_min=50 | lon_dir=E | label=[[South Island|''South Island / Te&nbsp;Waipounamu'']] }}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=47 |lat_min=00 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=167 |lon_min=50 | lon_dir=E | label=[[Stewart Island]]}}
   {{ Location map~ | New Zealand | marksize=0| lat_deg=38 |lat_min=48 |lat_sec=25 | lat_dir=S |lon_deg=176 |lon_min=00 |lon_sec=28 | lon_dir=E | label=''[[Lake Taupō]]'' |label_size=80}}
}}

===Political geography===
New Zealand has no land [[border]]s.<ref name="World Factbook">{{cite book|chapter=New Zealand|title=The World Factbook|date=2015|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|isbn=9780160925535|pages=537–542|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-4ZxpxT3GAC&pg=PA540}}</ref> However, the [[Ross Dependency]], its claim in Antarctica, notionally borders the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]] to the west and [[Marie Byrd Land|unclaimed territory]] to the east. Most other countries do not recognise [[territorial claims in Antarctica]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Who owns Antarctica?|url=http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/people-in-antarctica/who-owns-antarctica|publisher=Australian [[Department of the Environment and Energy]]|access-date=10 October 2018|date=8 September 2017}}</ref>

New Zealand [[wikt:proper|proper]] is divided administratively into [[regions of New Zealand|sixteen regions]]: seven in the South Island and nine in the North.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand – A regional profile|url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/migration/nz-a-regional-profile.aspx|publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]]|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> There is a physical geographical link, with regional boundaries being based largely on [[drainage basin]]s.<ref name="OECD">{{cite book|title=OECD Territorial Reviews OECD Territorial Reviews: The Metropolitan Region of Rotterdam-The Hague, Netherlands|date=2016|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=9789264249387|page=169|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkR_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169}}</ref> Among the regions, eleven are administered by regional authorities (top tier of [[local government in New Zealand|local government]]), while five are [[unitary authorities]] that combine the functions of regional authorities and those of [[territorial authorities]] (second tier). Regional authorities are primarily responsible for [[environmental resource management]], [[land management]], regional [[transport in New Zealand|transport]], and [[Biosecurity in New Zealand|biosecurity]] and pest management. Territorial authorities administer local roading and reserves, [[Waste in New Zealand|waste management]], building consents, the land use and subdivision aspects of resource management, and other local matters.<ref name="OECD"/>

The [[Chatham Islands]] is not a region, although its council operates as a region under the [[Resource Management Act 1991|Resource Management Act]]. There are a number of [[New Zealand outlying islands|outlying islands]] that are not included within regional boundaries. The [[Kermadec Islands|Kermadecs]] and the [[New Zealand Subantarctic Islands|Subantarctic Islands]] are inhabited only by a small number of [[New Zealand Department of Conservation|Department of Conservation]] staff.<ref>{{cite web|title=NZ Outlying Islands Regional Information & Travel Information|url=http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/about-new-zealand/regions/nz-outlying-islands/regional-information.html|website=tourism.net.nz|publisher=New Zealand Tourism Guide|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref>

===Population geography===
{{see also|Demographics of New Zealand}}

[[File:Aerial view of Auckland.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of the [[Auckland]] urban area, showing its location on the [[Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana]]]]

Over the course of the 20th century, the [[population centre]] of New Zealand [[Drift to the north|drifted to the north]]. Today the South Island contains a little under one-quarter of the population. Over three-quarters of New Zealand's population live in the North Island, with half living north of [[Lake Rotorua]],<ref>{{Cite press release|date=26 October 2017|title=Three in four New Zealanders live in the North Island|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/three-in-four-new-zealanders-live-in-the-north-island|access-date=11 October 2021|website=stats.govt.nz |publisher=Statistics New Zealand}}</ref> and one-third of the total population living in the [[Auckland Region]].<ref name="NZ_population_data_2018"/> Auckland is the fastest-growing region and is projected to account for half of New Zealand's [[population growth]] by 2050.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Auckland population may hit 2 million in early 2030s {{!}} Stats NZ |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/auckland-population-may-hit-2-million-in-early-2030s/ |website=stats.govt.nz |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |access-date=17 December 2024 |date=31 March 2021}}</ref> The majority of the indigenous [[Māori people]] live in the North Island (87%), although a little under a quarter (24%) live in Auckland. New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with {{Decimals|({{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Major urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Large urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Medium urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Small urban area|y}}|R}})/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% of the population living in an [[urban areas of New Zealand|urban area]]. About {{Decimals|({{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Major urban area|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Large urban area|y}}|R}})/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% of the population live in the 20 main urban areas (population of 30,000 or more) and {{Decimals|({{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Auckland|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Wellington|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Christchurch|y}}|R}}+{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|Hamilton|y}}|R}})/{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}*100|1}}% live in the four largest cities of [[Auckland]], [[Christchurch]], [[Wellington]], and [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]].{{NZ population data 2018||||y}} (Other major urban areas include [[Tauranga]], [[Dunedin]], and [[Palmerston North]].) New Zealand's [[population density]] of around {{Decimals|{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}/268710|0}} inhabitants per square kilometre (or {{Decimals|{{formatnum:{{NZ population data 2018|New Zealand|y}}|R}}/103750|0}} per {{abbr|sq mi||square miles}})<ref name="NZ_population_data_2018"/> is [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|among the lowest in the world]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Population density – Country Comparison|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?v=21000|website=indexmundi.com|access-date=17 February 2019}}</ref>

New Zealand's peoples have been defined by their immigrant origin, the ongoing process of adaptation to a new land, being changed and changing those who came before. This process has led to a distinct distribution of culture across New Zealand. Here language and religion are used as markers for the far richer concept of culture. These metrics unfortunately exclude the political rural-urban divide<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/97283075/election-shows-ruralurban-divide-shrinking-not-growing.html|title=Election shows rural-urban divide shrinking, not growing|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=27 September 2017|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> and also the full effects of the [[Christchurch earthquakes]] on New Zealand's cultural distribution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/7783450/10-600-people-leave-Christchurch|title=10,600 people leave Christchurch|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=8 October 2012|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nfu9CwAAQBAJ&q=christchurch+ruptures|title=Christchurch Ruptures|last=Pickles|first=Katie|date=15 March 2016|publisher=Bridget Williams Books|isbn=9780908321308}}</ref>

New Zealand's most widely spoken language is English (89.8%); however, language, dialect and accent vary spatially both within and between [[List of ethnic origins of New Zealanders|ethnic groups]]. The [[Māori language]] (3.5%)<ref name="World Factbook"/> is spoken more commonly in areas with large Māori populations ([[Gisborne District|Gisborne]], [[Bay of Plenty Region|Bay of Plenty]] and [[Northland Peninsula|Northland]]).<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://socialreport.msd.govt.nz/cultural-identity/maori-language-speakers.html#regional-differences|section=Māori language speakers|title=The Social Report 2016 – Te pūrongo oranga tangata|website=socialreport.msd.govt.nz|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> There are many sub dialects of Māori, the most pronounced division being between the northern and southern [[iwi|tribes]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/250479/warning-minority-dialects-could-be-lost|title=Warning minority dialects could be lost|date=24 July 2014|work=[[Radio New Zealand]] |access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> While migration (typically from north to south) was constant throughout the 16–18th centuries, the south maintained a distinct culture largely due to lack of cultivation possible at that latitude. English is spoken with regional [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accents]] relating to the origin of immigrants; for example Scottish and English 19th century immigration in [[Southland, New Zealand|Southland]] and [[Canterbury Region|Canterbury]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.canterbury.ac.nz/insiders/2016/11/10/what-is-the-southland-accent/|title=What is the Southland accent? – The Insider's Guide to UC {{!}} Tūpono|date=9 November 2016|work=The Insider's Guide to UC {{!}} Tūpono|access-date=28 November 2018|archive-date=28 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128164643/https://blogs.canterbury.ac.nz/insiders/2016/11/10/what-is-the-southland-accent/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=McLintock|editor-first=A. H.|editor-link=Alexander Hare McLintock|last1=Wall|first1=Arnold|title=The Southland Dialect|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/new-zealand-speech/page-11|encyclopedia=[[An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand]]|date=1966|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> This has also occurred with more recent immigration, with a wide variety of accents being common in larger cities where immigrant groups have preferentially settled. These immigrant groups change location with time and accents fade over generations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11886666|title=When does Asian come to mean Kiwi?|last=Tan Lincoln|first=Tan|date=8 July 2017|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=28 November 2018|issn=1170-0777}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1ArDwAAQBAJ&q=old+asian+new+asian|title=Old Asian, New Asian|last=Ng|first=K. Emma|date=10 July 2017|publisher=Bridget Williams Books|isbn=9780947518516}}</ref>

A wide variety of other languages make up the remaining approximately 6 percent of New Zealanders—with [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[Hindi]], French and various Chinese dialects being the most common.<ref name="World Factbook"/> These minority foreign languages are concentrated in the main cities, particularly Auckland where recent immigration groups have settled.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVlug5Vn2eUC&pg=PA271|title=Languages of New Zealand|last1=Bell|first1=Allan|last2=Harlow|first2=Ray|last3=Starks|first3=Donna|date=2005|publisher=Victoria University Press|isbn=978-0-86473-490-7|page=271}}</ref>

=== Agricultural geography ===
{{See also|Agriculture in New Zealand}}

A relatively small proportion of New Zealand's land is [[arable land|arable]] (1.76 percent), and permanent crops cover 0.27 percent of the land. {{convert|7210|km2}} of the land is [[irrigation|irrigated]].<ref name="World Factbook"/> As the world's largest exporter of sheep, New Zealand's agricultural industry focuses primarily on [[pastoral farming]], particularly dairy and beef, as well as lambs. Dairy, specifically, is the top export.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newzealandnow.govt.nz/resources/working-in-dairy-farming|title=Working in Dairy Farming {{!}} Guide for Migrants {{!}} New Zealand Now|website=newzealandnow.govt.nz|access-date=22 November 2018}}</ref> In addition to pastoral farming, fisherman harvest mussels, oysters and salmon, and horticulture farmers grow [[kiwifruit]], as well as peaches, nectarines and other fruits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newzealand.com/sg/article/not-just-sheep-all-about-farming-in-new-zealand/|title=Not just sheep! All about farming in New Zealand|publisher=Tourism New Zealand|website=newzealand.com|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref> New Zealand's distance from world markets and spatial variation in rainfall, elevation and soil quality have defined the geography of its agriculture industry.

As of 2007, almost 55 percent of New Zealand's total land area was being used for farming, which is standard compared to most developed countries. Three-fourths of it was pastoral land using for raising sheep, cows, deer and other animals. The amount of farmland has decreased since 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/snapshots-of-nz/Measuring-NZ-progress-sustainable-dev-%20approach/sustainable-development/land-use.aspx|title=Measuring New Zealand's Progress Using a Sustainable Development Approach: 2008|website=archive.stats.govt.nz|access-date=13 November 2018|archive-date=13 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113165819/http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/snapshots-of-nz/Measuring-NZ-progress-sustainable-dev-%20approach/sustainable-development/land-use.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

New Zealand's isolated location has simultaneously led to fewer [[Pest (organism)|pests]] and an agriculture industry with a greater susceptibility to introduced diseases and pests.<ref name="GoldsonBourdôt2015">{{cite journal|last1=Goldson|first1=SL|last2=Bourdôt|first2=GW|last3=Brockerhoff|first3=EG|last4=Byrom|first4=AE|last5=Clout|first5=MN|last6=McGlone|first6=MS|last7=Nelson|first7=WA|last8=Popay|first8=AJ|last9=Suckling|first9=DM|last10=Templeton|first10=MD|title=New Zealand pest management: current and future challenges|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand|volume=45|issue=1|year=2015|pages=31–58|issn=0303-6758|doi=10.1080/03036758.2014.1000343|s2cid=84250306|doi-access=free}}</ref> A major concern for New Zealand farmers is the rapidly growing wild rabbit population. Wild rabbits have been an agricultural nuisance since their introduction to the country in the 1930s. They cause significant damage to farm lands: eating the grass, crops, and causing [[soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]]. Many farmers are worried about their livelihoods and the effects that the rabbits will have on food supply and trade, as their numbers are quickly growing out of control. An illegal rabbit-killing virus called the [[rabbit haemorrhagic disease]] virus (RHDV) was released in 1997 by a group of vigilante farmers, and was very effective initially.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/101797178/hopes-nationwide-release-of-k5-rabbit-virus-will-kill-more-than-40-of-the-population.html|title=Hopes nationwide release of K5 rabbit virus will kill more than 40% of the population|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=27 February 2018|access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref> After twenty years, however, the rabbits became immune to it. A new strain of the virus was released in March 2018, a Korean form of the strain called the K5 virus, or RHDV1-K5. This virus was introduced with the goal of exterminating 40 percent of the rabbit population. The new virus works much faster than the last one, expected to kill rabbits within two to four days of exposure. The virus has become a subject of debate among animal rights activists, due to the inhumane manner in which it kills the rabbits. However, farmers unanimously seem to be very grateful for the release of the virus.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-43221704|title=Why NZ is releasing a rabbit-killing virus|date=28 February 2018|publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref>

[[File:New Zealand - Landscape - 8674.jpg|thumb|Rural landscape close to Mt Ruapehu]]

Almost half of New Zealand's climate change emissions are generated by [[greenhouse gas]]es, mainly methane and nitrous oxide, which come from farming and agriculture. Organisms that grow inside of grazing animals' stomachs turn New Zealand's grass into methane. The increase of carbon dioxide in the air helps the plants to grow faster, but the long-term effects of climate change threaten farmers with the likelihood of more frequent and severe floods and droughts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/the-country/news/article.cfm?c_id=16&objectid=11751990|title=Farmers react to climate change|last=Stowell|first=Laurel|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=13 November 2018|issn=1170-0777}}</ref> [[Kiwifruit industry in New Zealand|Growers of kiwifruit]], a major export in the horticulture industry of New Zealand, have experienced difficulties as a result of climate change. In the 2010s, warm winters did not provide the adequate cool temperatures needed for the flowering of kiwifruit, and this resulted in a reduction of the yield sizes. Droughts have also decreased apple production by causing sunburns and a lack of water available for irrigation. In contrast, the [[Dairy farming in New Zealand|dairy industry]] has not been affected, and has adjusted well to the effects of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kenny|first=Gavin|date=September 2001|title=Climate Change: Likely Impacts on New Zealand Agriculture|url=https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/impacts-agriculture-sep01.pdf|journal=Ministry for the Environment|access-date=13 November 2018|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927221538/https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/impacts-agriculture-sep01.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Natural hazards==
Flooding is the most regular natural hazard.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=McSaveney|first1=Eileen|title=Floods – New Zealand's number one hazard|url=https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/floods/page-1|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=16 August 2017|date=1 August 2017}}</ref> New Zealand is swept by weather systems that bring heavy rain; settlements are usually close to hill-country areas which experience much higher rainfall than the lowlands due to the [[Orographic precipitation|orographic]] effect. Mountain streams which feed the major rivers rise rapidly and frequently break their banks covering farms with water and silt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Causes of flooding|url=https://www.ecan.govt.nz/your-region/your-environment/natural-hazards/floods/causes-of-flooding/|website=Environment Canterbury|access-date=23 March 2020|archive-date=26 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526031021/https://www.ecan.govt.nz/your-region/your-environment/natural-hazards/floods/causes-of-flooding/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Close monitoring, weather forecasting, [[wikt:stopbank|stopbanks]], dams, and reafforestation programmes in hill country have ameliorated the worst effects.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=McSaveney|first1=Eileen|title=Floods – New Zealand's number one hazard|url=https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/floods|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 March 2020|date=1 August 2017}}</ref>

New Zealand [[List of earthquakes in New Zealand|experiences around 14,000 earthquakes a year]],<ref>[http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200712211308/building_checks_continue_after_gisborne_earthquake Radio NZ news] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127063516/http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/latest/200712211308/building_checks_continue_after_gisborne_earthquake |date=27 January 2012 }} report on [[2007 Gisborne earthquake]]</ref> some in excess of [[earthquake magnitude|magnitude]] 7 (M7). Since 2010, several large (M7, M6.3, M6.4, M6.2) and shallow (all <7&nbsp;km) earthquakes have occurred immediately beneath Christchurch.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nicholls|first1=Paul|title=Christchurch Quake Map – Earthquakes since September 4 2010|url=http://www.christchurchquakemap.co.nz/all|website=christchurchquakemap.co.nz|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> These have resulted in 185 deaths, widespread destruction of buildings and significant liquefaction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christchurch earthquake kills 185: 22 February 2011|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/page/christchurch-earthquake-kills-185|publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage|access-date=15 August 2017|date=12 April 2017}}</ref> These earthquakes are releasing distributed stress in the Pacific plate from the ongoing collision with the Indo-Australian plate to the west and north of the city. Volcanic activity is most common on the central North Island Volcanic Plateau. [[Tsunamis affecting New Zealand]] are associated with the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Volcanoes – Pacific Ring of Fire|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/interactive/8692/the-pacific-ring-of-fire|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=11 June 2018|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612135920/https://teara.govt.nz/en/interactive/8692/the-pacific-ring-of-fire|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Droughts are not regular and occur mainly in Otago and the Canterbury Plains and less frequently over much of the North Island between January and April. Forest fires were rare in New Zealand before the arrival of humans.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dennys Guild|author2=Murray Dudfield|title=A history of fire in the forest and rural landscape in New Zealand Part 1, pre-''Maori and pre-European influences''|url=http://nzjf.org.nz/free_issues/NZJF54_1_2009/5C127D1A-CDFF-4cde-B272-23362D00A078.pdf|publisher=New Zealand Institute of Forestry|date=2009|access-date=16 August 2017|archive-date=24 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124194804/http://nzjf.org.nz/free_issues/NZJF54_1_2009/5C127D1A-CDFF-4cde-B272-23362D00A078.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> During a designated summer season, lighting a fire in the open is banned on public conservation land.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fire management|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/our-work/fire-management/|website=doc.govt.nz|publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref>

==Environment and ecology==
{{main|Environment of New Zealand|Conservation in New Zealand}}
{{see also|Biodiversity of New Zealand|Fauna of New Zealand|Flora of New Zealand}}
[[File:Water pollution sign on the Waimakariri River.JPG|thumb|Water pollution sign on the [[Waimakariri River]]]]
New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=R.|last2=Millener|first2=P.|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9|title=The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume=8|issue=12|pages=429–33|year=1993|pmid=21236222}}</ref> and island [[biogeography]] has influenced evolution of the country's species of [[fauna|animals]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[flora|plants]]. Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation, and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.<ref>Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M. 2014. New Zealand Wild Life. Penguin, New Zealand. {{ISBN|9780143568896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lindsey|first1=Terence|last2=Morris|first2=Rod|title=Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife|publisher=[[HarperCollins]] (New Zealand) Limited|year=2000|page=14|isbn=978-1-86950-300-0}}</ref> There has been long-distance dispersal of plant life between mainland Australia and New Zealand, despite the {{convert|2000|km|mi|abbr=on}} separation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cox|first1=C. Barry|last2=Moore|first2=Peter D.|last3=Ladle|first3=Richard|title=Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach|date=2016|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118968581|page=238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBcWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238}}</ref> Evergreens such as the giant [[kauri]] and southern beech dominate the [[The bush#New Zealand|bush]] (native forests).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Orwin|first1=Joanna|title=Kauri forest|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kauri-forest|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=16 June 2022|date=24 September 2007}}</ref> The country also has a [[list of birds of New Zealand|diverse range of birds]], several of which are flightless such as the [[Kiwi (bird)|kiwi]] (a national symbol), the [[kākāpō]], the [[takahē]] and the [[weka]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Wilson|first1=Kerry-Jayne|title=Land birds – overview|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/land-birds-overview|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=24 September 2007|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> and several species of [[penguin]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Penguins|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/birds/birds-a-z/penguins/|website=doc.govt.nz|publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> Around 30 bird species are currently listed as endangered or [[critically endangered]].<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand's threatened birds|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/conservation-status/threatened-birds/|website=doc.govt.nz|publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> Conservationists recognised that threatened bird populations could be saved on offshore islands, where, once predators were exterminated, bird life flourished again.<ref>{{cite web|title=Offshore islands|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/habitats/offshore-islands/|website=doc.govt.nz|publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation|access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref>
Many bird species, including the giant [[moa]], became extinct after the arrival of Polynesians, who brought dogs and rats, and Europeans, who introduced additional dog and rat species, as well as cats, pigs, ferrets, and weasels.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Holdaway|first1=Richard|title=Extinctions – New Zealand extinctions since human arrival|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/extinctions/page-4|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=24 September 2007|access-date=16 August 2017}}</ref> Native flora and fauna continue to be hard-hit by [[Invasive species in New Zealand|invasive species]]. New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological [[island restoration|restoration of islands]] and [[ecological island|other selected areas]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of ecological restoration: Principles of Restoration|chapter=Reptiles and Amphibians|first=Carl|last=Jones|page=362|editor1-first=Martin|editor1-last=Perrow|editor2-last=Davy|editor2-first=Anthony|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-521-79128-1|volume=2}}</ref>

Massive [[Deforestation in New Zealand|deforestation]] occurred after humans arrived,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Swarbrick|first1=Nancy|title=Logging native forests'|url=https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/logging-native-forests|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=16 August 2017|date=24 September 2007}}</ref> with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.<ref>{{cite journal|author=McGlone, M.S.|year=1989|url=http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf|title=The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes|journal=New Zealand Journal of Ecology|volume=12(S)|pages=115–129|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717220413/http://nzes.org.nz/nzje/free_issues/NZJEcol12_s_115.pdf|archive-date=17 July 2014}}</ref> Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.<ref>Taylor, R. and Smith, I. (1997). [http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html The state of New Zealand's environment 1997] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122070627/http://mfe.govt.nz/publications/ser/ser1997/index.html |date=22 January 2015 }}. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.</ref> New Zealand had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.12/10, ranking it 55th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Pollution in New Zealand|Pollution]], particularly [[Water pollution in New Zealand|water pollution]], is one of New Zealand's most significant environmental issues. Fresh water quality is under pressure from agriculture, hydropower, urban development, pest invasions and climate change,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmcsa.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/PMCSA-Freshwater-Report.pdf|title=New Zealand's Fresh Waters|first=Sir Peter|last=Gluckman|date=12 April 2017|publisher=Prime Minister's Chief Science Advisor}}</ref> although much of the country's household and industrial waste is now increasingly filtered and sometimes recycled.

{{wide image|Remarkables view MC.jpg|1000px|View from [[The Remarkables]] near [[Queenstown, New Zealand|Queenstown]], [[Otago]], South Island}}

===Protected areas===
{{main|Protected areas of New Zealand}}

Some areas of land, the sea, rivers or lakes are [[protected area|protected]] by law, so their special plants, animals, landforms and other distinctive features are sheltered from harm. New Zealand has three [[List of World Heritage Sites in Oceania|World Heritage Sites]],<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/NZ/|website=whc.unesco.org|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref> 13 [[national parks of New Zealand|national parks]], 34 [[marine reserves of New Zealand|marine reserves]], and thousands of scenic, historic, recreation and other reserves.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Molloy|first1=Les|title=Protected areas|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/protected-areas|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 August 2017|date=September 2015}}</ref> The [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] is responsible for managing 8.5 million hectares of public land (approximately 30% of New Zealand's total land area).<ref>{{cite web|title=New Zealand – Country Profile|url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=nz|website=Convention on Biological Diversity|publisher=United Nations|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref>

===Environmental agreements===
New Zealand is party to several [[multilateral environmental agreement]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Multilateral environmental agreements|url=http://www.mfe.govt.nz/more/international-environmental-agreements/multilateral-environmental-agreements|website=mfe.govt.nz|publisher=Ministry for the Environment|access-date=24 August 2017|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307205412/https://www.mfe.govt.nz/more/international-environmental-agreements/multilateral-environmental-agreements|url-status=dead}}</ref> The major agreements are listed below.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
* [[Antarctic Treaty]]
* [[Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]]
* [[Basel Convention]]
* [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
* [[Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species]]
* [[Environmental Modification Convention]]
* [[International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships]]
* [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
* [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
{{col-break|width=50%}}

* [[London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter|London Dumping Convention]]
* [[Minamata Convention on Mercury]]
* [[Pacific Regional Environment Programme|Nouméa Convention]]
* [[Ramsar Convention]]
* [[Rotterdam Convention]]
* [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]]
* [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
* [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]
* [[Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer]]
* [[Waigani Convention]]
{{col-end}}

==Popular culture==
New Zealand's varied landscape has appeared in television shows, such as ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' and ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''. An increasing number of feature films have been shot on location in New Zealand for its scenery, including the [[The Lord of the Rings (film series)|''Lord of the Rings'' trilogy]].<ref>{{cite news|title=This Dreamy Destination Continues to Inspire Fantasy Writers|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/oceania/new-zealand/things-to-do-lord-of-the-rings-locations/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502022809/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/oceania/new-zealand/things-to-do-lord-of-the-rings-locations/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 May 2020|access-date=23 May 2019|work=[[National Geographic]]|date=3 January 2018}}</ref>

New Zealand is often mistakenly [[Omission of New Zealand from maps|omitted]] from [[world map]]s due to the country's physical geographic isolation, relatively small size (compared to Australia), and its positioning on the extreme bottom-right in many map projections such as the [[Mercator projection|Mercator]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Frost|first1=Natasha|title=Why Is New Zealand So Often Left Off World Maps?|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/new-zealand-left-off-world-map|access-date=18 February 2019|work=[[Atlas Obscura]]|date=2 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Morris">{{cite news|last1=Morris|first1=Hugh|title=New Zealand keeps getting left off world maps – and Kiwis aren't happy|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/new-zealand/articles/new-zealand-missed-forgotten-left-off-maps/|access-date=18 February 2019|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=13 November 2017}} {{closed access}}</ref> The phenomenon has been popularly referenced and has a dedicated [[Reddit]] community.<ref name="Morris"/><ref>{{cite news|title=The country that keeps getting left off maps|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/magazine-41905040/the-country-that-keeps-getting-left-off-maps|access-date=18 February 2019|publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=10 November 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|New Zealand}}
* {{anl|Australasian realm}}
* [[Geography of the South Island]]
* [[Geography of the North Island]]
* [[Natural history of New Zealand]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Geography of New Zealand}}
* [http://www.stats.govt.nz/ Statistics New Zealand]
* [https://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/oceania/nz2.htm New Zealand] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200605122109/https://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/oceania/nz2.htm |date=5 June 2020 }} profile at World Atlas
* [https://teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment Natural Environment] – Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
* [http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/G/GeologyNewZealandsGeologicalHistory/Introduction/en New Zealand's Geological History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427160454/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/G/GeologyNewZealandsGeologicalHistory/Introduction/en |date=27 April 2009 }} – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand

{{CIA World Factbook}}

{{New Zealand topics}}
{{Geography of Oceania}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geography of New Zealand}}
[[Category:Geography of New Zealand| ]]