View source for Geography of Europe

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{{for|the political geography of Europe|Politics of Europe|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|International organisations in Europe|Regions of Europe}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox Continent
|title = Geography of Europe
|image = [[Image:Northwestern Europe at Night.JPG|frameless|upright=1.15]]<br>Several of the oldest cities of [[Northwestern Europe]] are highlighted in this astronaut's photograph from 00:25 [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] on 10 August 2011.<br>
[[File:Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary (with borders).svg|frameless]]
|area = {{convert|10,180,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}{{cref2|n|1}} (6th)
|population = 742,452,000{{cref2|n|2}} (2013; [[List of continents by population|3rd]])
|density = 72.9/km<sup>2</sup> (188/sq mi) (2nd)
|demonym = [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]]
|countries = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|50 sovereign states]]<br>[[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#States with limited recognition|5 with limited recognition]]<!--Note: numbers are approximate, as indicated by the "~".-->
|dependencies = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#Dependent territories|4 dependencies]]<!--Gibraltar, Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey. Note: The Faroes and Aland are constituent parts of their states, not dependencies.-->
|languages = ~[[Languages of Europe|225 languages]]<ref>[http://edl.ecml.at/LanguageFun/LanguageFacts/tabid/1859/Default.aspx Language facts – European day of languages], Council of Europe. Retrieved 30 July 2015.</ref>
|time = [[UTC−01:00|UTC−1]]<!--Azores--> to [[UTC+05:00|UTC+5]]<!--Russia and Kazakhstan-->
}}

[[Europe]] is traditionally defined as one of seven [[continent]]s. [[Physical geography|Physiographically]], it is the northwestern [[peninsula]] of the larger landmass known as [[Eurasia]] (or the larger [[Afro-Eurasia]]); [[Asia]] occupies the centre and east of this continuous landmass. Europe's [[Borders of the continents#Asia and Europe|eastern frontier]] is usually delineated by the [[Ural Mountains]] in [[Russia]], which is the [[List of European countries by area|largest country by land area]] in the continent. The southeast [[boundary between Europe and Asia|boundary with Asia]] is not universally defined, but the modern definition is generally the [[Ural River]] or, less commonly, the [[Emba River]]. The boundary continues to the [[Caspian Sea]], the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] (or, less commonly, the river [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura]] in the [[Caucasus]]), and on to the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Bosporus]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], and the [[Dardanelles]] conclude the Asian boundary. The [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south separates Europe from Africa. The western boundary is the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Iceland]] is usually included in Europe because it is over twice as close to mainland Europe as mainland North America. There is ongoing debate on where the [[geographical centre of Europe]] falls.

[[File:Western to Eastern Europe.ogv|thumb|left|400px|This video was taken by the crew of [[Expedition 30]] on board the [[International Space Station|ISS]] on a pass over Europe. The two videos were shot simultaneously using different cameras: one pointing toward the northeast, and one pointing toward the east.]]
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==Overview==
[[Image:Europa-bei-nacht 1-1024x768.jpg|thumb|500px|Satellite image of Europe by night]]
[[File:1916 physical map Europe.jpg|thumb|500px|right|1916 physical map of Europe]]
[[File:Europe topography map en.png|thumb|500px|right|[[Topography]] of Europe]]

Some geographical texts refer to a Eurasian continent given that Europe is not surrounded by sea and its southeastern border has always been [[Boundaries between continents|variously defined]] for centuries.

In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected [[peninsula]]s and nearby islands. The two largest peninsulas are Europe itself and [[Scandinavia]] to the north, divided from each other by the [[Baltic Sea]]. Three smaller peninsulas—[[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], [[Italian Peninsula|Italy]], and the [[Balkans]]—emerge from the southern margin of the mainland. The Balkan peninsula is separated from Asia by the [[Black Sea|Black]] and Aegean Seas. Italy is separated from the Balkans by the Adriatic Sea, and from Iberia by the Mediterranean Sea, which also separates Europe from [[Africa]]. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the Ural Mountains and Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains.

Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are mountainous while moving north the terrain descends from the high [[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]], and [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]], through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. An arc of uplands also exists along the northwestern seaboard, beginning in southwestern [[Ireland]], continuing across through western and northern [[Great Britain]], and up along the mountainous, [[fjord]]-cut spine of [[Norway]].

This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex features, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys, and basins that complicate the general trend. [[Iceland]] and the [[British Isles]] are special cases. The former is of North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] volcanic formation, while the latter consist of upland areas once joined to the mainland until cut off by rising sea levels.

'''Partial list of European peninsulas'''
* [[Balkan Peninsula]]
** [[Peloponnese]]
** [[Chalkidiki]]
** [[Istria]]
** [[Gallipoli]]
* [[Brittany]]
* [[Cotentin Peninsula]]
* [[Crimea]]
* [[Fennoscandia|Fennoscandian Peninsula]]
** [[Kola Peninsula]]
** [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]
* [[Iberian Peninsula]]
* [[Italian Peninsula]]
* [[Jutland]]
* [[Kanin Peninsula]]

== Geology ==
{{Main|Geology of Europe}}
{{Expand section|date=March 2011}}
[[File:Vourvourou-Greece.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The coast of Europe is heavily indented with bays and gulfs, as here in [[Greece]].]]
Europe's most significant geological feature is the dichotomy between the highlands and mountains of [[Southern Europe]] and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Great Britain in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]]/[[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]]. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the [[Scandinavian Mountains]] and the mountainous parts of the [[British Isles]]. The major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the [[Celtic Sea]], the [[North Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]] complex, and the [[Barents Sea]].

The northern plain contains the old geological continent of [[Baltica]], and so may be regarded as the "main continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents.

The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the [[Scottish Highlands]] to the rolling [[plain]]s of [[Hungary]].

== Population ==
Throughout history, the population of Europe has been affected by migration into and out of the continent, disease and conflict. Figures for the population of Europe vary according to which definition of European boundaries is used. The population within the standard physical geographical boundaries was 701 million in 2005 according to the United Nations. In 2000 the population was 857 million, using a definition which includes the whole of the transcontinental countries of Russia and Turkey. Population growth is comparatively slow, and median age comparatively high in relation to the world's other continents.

== Rivers ==
{{Main|List of rivers of Europe}}
[[File:Саратовский мост.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Volga]], the longest river in Europe, in [[Saratov Oblast]], [[Russia]]]]
[[File:Buda Castle Hill and the Chain Bridge, 2013 Budapest city 09.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Danube]], Europe's second-longest river, in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]]]

The most important rivers in Europe are [[Danube]], [[Volga]], [[Rhine]], [[Elbe]], [[Oder (river)|Oder]] and [[Dnieper]], among others.{{explain|date=August 2019}} Europe's largest [[waterfall]] (by [[List of waterfalls by flow rate|flow rate]]) are the [[Rhine Falls]].

=== European rivers by length ===

The longest rivers in Europe, directly flowing into the [[World Ocean]] or [[Endorheic basins]], with their approximate lengths:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/euriv.htm |title=European Rivers |date=29 April 2021 |publisher=worldatlas.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rev.net/~aloe/river/ |title=River Systems of the World |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919123146/http://www.rev.net/~aloe/river/ |archive-date=2009-09-19 }}</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em}}
# [[Volga]]{{snd}}{{convert|3690|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Danube]]{{snd}}{{convert|2860|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Ural River|Ural]]{{snd}}{{convert|2428|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Dnieper]]{{snd}}{{convert|2290|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Don River (Russia)|Don]]{{snd}}{{convert|1950|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Pechora River|Pechora]]{{snd}}{{convert|1809|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Dniester]]{{snd}}{{convert|1352|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Rhine]]{{snd}}{{convert|1236|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Elbe]]{{snd}}{{convert|1091|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Vistula]]{{snd}}{{convert|1047|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Tagus]]{{snd}}{{convert|1038|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Daugava River|Daugava]]{{snd}}{{convert|1020|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Loire (river)|Loire]]{{snd}}{{convert|1012|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Ebro]]{{snd}}{{convert|960|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Prut]]{{snd}}{{convert|953|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Neman River|Neman]]{{snd}}{{convert|937|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Meuse]]{{snd}}{{convert|925|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Douro]]{{snd}}{{convert|897|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Kuban River]]{{snd}}{{convert|870|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Mezen River|Mezen]]{{snd}}{{convert|857|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="GSE">{{cite book|title=Мезень (река) |url=http://bse.sci-lib.com/article075120.html |publisher=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919015604/http://bse.sci-lib.com/article075120.html |archive-date=September 19, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
# [[Oder (river)|Oder]]{{snd}}{{convert|854|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Guadiana]]{{snd}}{{convert|829|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Rhône]]{{snd}}{{convert|815|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Southern Bug]]{{snd}}{{convert|806|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Kuma River (Russia)|Kuma]]{{snd}}{{convert|802|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Seine]]{{snd}}{{convert|776|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Mureș River|Mureș]]{{snd}}{{convert|761|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Northern Dvina]]{{snd}}{{convert|744|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Po (river)|Po]]{{snd}}{{convert|682|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Guadalquivir]]{{snd}}{{convert|657|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Bolshoy Uzen River|Bolshoy Uzen]]{{snd}}{{convert|650|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Siret River|Siret]]{{snd}}{{convert|647|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Terek River|Terek]]{{snd}}{{convert|623|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Glomma]]{{snd}}{{convert|604|km|mi|abbr=on}} (Norway's longest and most voluminous river)
# [[Garonne]]{{snd}}{{convert|602|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Kemijoki]]{{snd}}{{convert|550|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Main (river)|Main]]{{snd}}{{convert|525|km|mi|abbr=on}} (longest (right) [[tributary]] of Rhine)
# [[Torne (Finnish and Swedish river)|Torne]]{{snd}}{{convert|522|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Dalälven]]{{snd}}{{convert|520|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Maritsa]]{{snd}}{{convert|515|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Marne (river)|Marne]]{{snd}}{{convert|514|km|mi|abbr=on}} (major tributary of the Seine)
# [[Neris]]{{snd}}{{convert|510|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Júcar]]{{snd}}{{convert|509|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Dordogne (river)|Dordogne]]{{snd}}{{convert|483|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Ume River|Ume]]{{snd}}{{convert|470|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Ångerman]]{{snd}}{{convert|460|km|mi|abbr=on}} (Sweden's longest rivers)
# [[Lule River|Lule]]{{snd}}{{convert|460|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Gauja]]{{snd}}{{convert|452|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Weser]]{{snd}}{{convert|452|km|mi|abbr=on}}
# [[Kalix River|Kalix]]{{snd}}{{convert|450|km|mi|abbr=on}}

=== European rivers by discharge ===
[[File:Europe_as_viewed_from_the_USSR,_1944.jpg|thumb|Europe as viewed from the East]]
The 15 rivers of Europe by average discharge, including only rivers directly flowing into the [[World Ocean]] or [[Endorheic basins]]:
# [[Volga]]{{snd}}8,087 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in [[Eastern Europe]])
# [[Danube]]{{snd}}6,450 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in [[Central Europe]])
# [[Pechora River|Pechora]]{{snd}}4,380m³/s
# [[Northern Dvina]]{{snd}}3,330m³/s
# [[Neva River|Neva]]{{snd}}2,490 m<sup>3</sup>/s
# [[Rhine]]{{snd}}2,315 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in [[Western Europe]])
# [[Rhône]]{{snd}}1,900 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in [[France]])
# [[Dnieper]]{{snd}}1,700 m<sup>3</sup>/s
# [[Po (river)|Po]]{{snd}}1,460 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in Italy)
# [[Vistula]]{{snd}}1,080 m<sup>3</sup>/s (largest river in [[Poland]])
# [[Don River (Russia)|Don]]{{snd}}890 m<sup>3</sup>/s
# [[Mezen River|Mezen]]{{snd}}890 m<sup>3</sup>/s
# [[Loire (river)|Loire]]{{snd}}889 m<sup>3</sup>/s (longest river in France)
# [[Elbe]]{{snd}}860 m<sup>3</sup>/s
# [[Glomma]]{{snd}}709 m<sup>3</sup>/s (Norway's longest and most voluminous river)

==Lakes and inland seas==
[[File:Lake Seydozero, Sacred Sami Lake in Murmansk Oblast, Russia.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Seydozero]] in the [[Kola Peninsula]], one of Europe's largest peninsulas (Northern Russia)]]
{{Main|List of lakes#Europe}}
{{See also|List of largest lakes of Europe}}

==Major islands==
{{See also|List of European islands by area|List of European islands by population}}
[[Aegean Islands]], [[Åland]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[British Isles]], [[Corsica]], [[Crete]], [[Cyprus]] (Adjacent to [[Asia]]), [[Fyn]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Gotland]], [[Hinnøya]], [[Iceland]], [[Ionian Islands]], [[Malta]], [[North Jutlandic Island]], [[Saaremaa]], [[Sardinia]], [[Senja (island)|Senja]], [[Sicily]], [[Svalbard]] and [[Zealand (Denmark)|Zealand]].

==Plains and lowlands==
[[File:Stara planina2.JPG|300px|right|thumb|View across the Bulgarian section of the Lower Danubian Plain towards the central Balkan Mountains 90 km away]]
* [[Great European Plain]], the largest landscape feature of Europe
** [[East European Plain]]
*** Lower Danubian Plain, between Balkan Mountains and [[Southern Carpathians]]
**** [[Danubian Plain (Bulgaria)]]
**** [[Wallachian Plain]]
** [[North European Plain]]
*** [[North German Plain]] (German section)
** [[Beauce, France]]
* [[Baetic Depression]] ([[Andalusia]]n Plain), between Sierra Morena and Baetic System
* [[British Isles|British]] Lowlands
* [[Central Swedish lowland]]
* [[Ebro]] Basin (Ebro Depression), between Pyrenees and Sistema Ibérico
* [[Meseta Central]] is a high plain [[plateau]] in central Spain (occupies roughly 40% of the country), between Cantabrian Mountains and Sistema Central
* [[Pannonian Plain]], between Alps, Dinaric Mountains and Carpathian Mountains
* [[Po Valley]], also known as Padan Plain, between Alps and Apennines
* [[Swiss Central Plateau]], between the [[Jura Mountains]] and [[Swiss Alps]]
* [[Upper Rhine Plain]], between Vosges Mountains and Black Forest Mountains
* [[Upper Thracian Plain]], between Balkan Mountains (Sredna Gora) and Rila-Rhodope [[massif]]
* Other European coastal plains

==Mountain ranges==
{{Main|List of mountain ranges#Europe}}
[[File:Elbrus view on the mountains.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Elbrus]], located in [[Russia]], is the highest mountain in Europe.]]

Some of Europe's major [[mountain range]]s are:

* [[Alps]], in Central Western Europe
** [[Western Alps]]
** [[Eastern Alps]]
** [[Southern Limestone Alps|Southern Alps]]
** [[Northern Limestone Alps|Northern Alps]]
* [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]], which run through [[Italy]]
* [[Baetic System]], [[Spain]], Iberian Peninsula

[[File:Musala.JPG|thumb|[[Musala]], highest peak of the [[Balkans]] seen from Yastrebets. The chalet Musala and the Everest shelter can be seen as well.]]

* [[Balkan Mountains]], mainly [[Bulgaria]], central [[Balkan Peninsula]]
** [[Sredna Gora]] Mountain range in central Bulgaria, situated south of and parallel to the Balkan Mountains
* [[Bohemian Massif|Bohemian]] and other [[Variscan orogeny|Variscan]] [[massifs]] (pre-[[Alps|Alpine]] mountain ranges): [[Jura Mountains]], [[Vosges]], [[Palatinate Forest]], [[Black Forest]], [[Ore Mountains]], [[Sudetes]]
* [[Cantabrian Mountains]], which run across northern Spain
* [[Carpathian Mountains]], a major mountain range in Central and Southern Europe
** [[Southern Carpathians]], [[Romania]]
** [[Tatra Mountains]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Poland]]
* [[Caucasus Mountains]], which also separate Europe and Asia
* [[Crimean Mountains]]

[[File:Liqeni i Madh i Buni Jezerce.png|right|thumb|[[Maja Jezercë]] in [[Albania]] at 2,694 m high is the highest peak of the [[Dinaric Alps]].]]

* [[Dinaric Alps]], a mountain range in the [[Balkans]]
* [[Pindus]] Mountains, Albania and Greece
* [[Pyrenees]], the natural border between [[France]] and Spain
* [[Rila]]-[[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodope]] mountain system composed by [[massif]]s, including [[Pirin]] Mountain and [[Osogovo]]-[[Belasitsa]] [[mountain chain]], mainly Bulgaria
* [[Šar Mountains|Šar]]-[[Korab]]-[[Jakupica]]-[[Baba Mountain (North Macedonia)|Baba]]-[[Kajmakčalan]]-[[Mount Olympus|Olympus]], Albania, [[North Macedonia]] and Greece<ref>[https://www.peakbagger.com/range.aspx?rid=361 Greek-Albanian Ranges] peakbagger.com</ref>
* [[Scandinavian Mountains]], a mountain range which runs through the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]], includes the Kjølen mountains
* [[Scottish Highlands]] (including the [[Cairngorms]]) in the [[United Kingdom]].
* [[Sierra Morena]], Spain
* [[Sistema Ibérico]], Spain
* [[Sistema Central]], Spain
* [[Ural Mountains]], which form the boundary between Europe and [[Asia]]

'''Land area in different classes of European mountainous terrain'''

[[File:Olympus National Park 30.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mount Olympus]], legendary abode of the Greek gods]]

{| class="wikitable" ! '''Land area in different classes of European mountainous terrain'''
!Altitude!!Area (km<sup>2</sup>)!!% Area
|-
|≥4500 m
|1
|0.00%
|-
|3500–4500 m
|225
|0.00%
|-
|2500–3500 m
|497,886
|4.89%
|-
|1500–2500 m & slope ≥2°
|145,838
|1.43%
|-
|1000-1500m & slope ≥5° <br />or local elevation range &gt;300m
|345,255
|3.39%
|-
|300–1000 m<br>and local elevation range &gt;300m
|1,222,104
|12.00%
|-
|'''Mountainous total'''
|2,211,308
|21.72%
|-
|'''Europe total'''
|10,180,000
|100.00%
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | '''Source:'''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080510183742/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/habitats/mountains/eur.htm UNEP-WCMC]</ref>
|}

==Temperature and precipitation==
[[File:Another View to lake Iso-Vietonen from Liinankivaara Mountainside.jpg|thumb|The Arctic environment of [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]]]]
The high mountainous areas of Europe are colder and have higher precipitation than lower areas, as is true of mountainous areas in general. Europe has less precipitation in the east than in central and western Europe. The temperature difference between summer and winter gradually increases from coastal northwest Europe to southeast inland Europe, ranging from Ireland, with a temperature difference of only 10&nbsp;°C from the warmest to the coldest month, to the area north of the Caspian Sea, with a temperature difference of 40&nbsp;°C. January average range from 13&nbsp;°C in southern Spain and southern Greek islands to -20&nbsp;°C in the northeastern part of European [[Russia]]. Desert climates are found in the European portion of Kazakhstan and South Eastern Spain.

Western Europe and parts of Central Europe generally fall into the temperate maritime climate (Cfb), the southern part is mostly a Mediterranean climate (mostly Csa, smaller area with Csb), the north-central part and east into central Russia is mostly a humid continental climate (Dfb) and the northern part of the continent is a subarctic climate (Dfc). In the extreme northern part (northernmost Russia; Svalbard), bordering the Arctic Ocean, is tundra climate (Et). Mountain ranges, such as the Alps and the Carpathian mountains, have a highland climate with large variations according to altitude and latitude.

==Climate==
{{main|Climate of Europe}}
{{See also|List of European tornadoes and tornado outbreaks|List of European windstorms|List of floods in Europe}}
[[File:Europe Köppen Map.png|thumb|upright=1.4|European climate. The [[Köppen-Geiger climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climates]] map is presented by the [[Climatic Research Unit]] of the [[University of East Anglia]] and the Global Precipitation Climatology Center of the [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]].]]
Europe's climate is diverse due to its extensive range from the [[Arctic Ocean]] in the north to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south, and from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. Several [[climatic zone]]s intersect the continent, influenced by factors such as [[latitude]], proximity to [[Body of water|water bodies]], [[elevation]], and [[prevailing wind]] patterns.

The [[North Atlantic Drift]], a warm ocean current, significantly moderates temperatures across much of Western Europe, resulting in relatively mild winters for regions at similar latitudes elsewhere. This effect is particularly evident in countries such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and coastal [[Norway]], which experience [[oceanic climate]]s characterized by cool summers and mild, wet winters.

[[Southern Europe]] enjoys a [[Mediterranean climate]], with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. This climate predominates in countries such as [[Spain]], [[Italy]], and [[Greece]], where seasonal rainfall supports agriculture and tourism. [[Eastern Europe]] and parts of the continent's interior feature [[continental climate]]s with more pronounced seasonal temperature differences, including cold winters and warm summers. [[Precipitation]] in these regions is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year.

[[Northern Europe]], including [[Scandinavia]], is characterized by [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] and [[tundra climate]]s, where winters are long and harsh, and summers are short and cool. The Arctic portions of Europe, particularly in [[Russia]] and Norway, also experience [[polar climate]]s. Mountainous regions, such as the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathians]], exhibit [[alpine climate]]s, with temperature and precipitation patterns that vary with altitude. Higher elevations generally experience cooler temperatures and greater precipitation, often in the form of snow.

Europe's climate zones have been further influenced by anthropogenic [[climate change]], leading to rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events across the continent.

==Landlocked countries==

The landlocked countries in Europe are: [[Andorra]], [[Armenia]], [[Austria]], [[Belarus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]], [[Kosovo]], [[Liechtenstein]] (which is [[Landlocked country#Double-landlocked|doubly landlocked]]), [[Luxembourg]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Moldova]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovakia]], [[Switzerland]], [[Vatican City]]

[[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Austria]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Serbia]], and [[North Macedonia]] constitute a contiguous landlocked agglomeration of eight countries in Central Europe and the Balkans, stretching from Geneva all the way to Skopje. The other landlocked countries are "standalone" landlocked, not bordering any other such ''European'' one (the emphasis is necessary, since [[Kazakhstan]] borders [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Kyrgyzstan]], thus forming a vast landlocked expanse in [[Central Asia]]).

==Countries consisting solely of islands or parts of islands==
* [[Cyprus]]
* [[Iceland]]
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
* [[Malta]]
* [[United Kingdom]]

==Countries bordering or spanning another continent==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Eurasia || [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Republic of Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], [[Turkey]], [[Greece]] (some [[Aegean islands]] and [[Kastelorizo|Kastelorizo island]] in southeastern Mediterranean)
|-
| Europe-Africa || [[Malta]], [[Spain]] ([[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]] and [[Canary Islands]]), [[Italy]] ([[Lampedusa]] and [[Lampione]]), [[Portugal]] ([[Madeira]]),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VlAOktBjoZwC&q=madeira+africa&pg=PA304 |title=Peoples of Africa |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2000 |isbn=9780761471585}}</ref> [[France]] ([[Réunion]] and [[Mayotte]])
|-
| Europe-South America || [[France]] ([[French Guiana]])
|-
| Europe-North America || [[France]] ([[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]], and [[St. Pierre et Miquelon]]), [[Iceland]], [[Denmark]] ([[Greenland]]), the [[Netherlands]] ([[Bonaire]], [[Saba (island)|Saba]], and [[St. Eustatius]]), [[Portugal]] ([[Corvo Island]], [[Flores Island (Azores)|Flores Island]])
|}

==Countries whose capital is not the most populous==
{| class="wikitable"
! Country !! Capital !! Largest city or municipality
|-
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}} || [[Vaduz]] || [[Schaan]]
|-
|{{flag|Malta}} || [[Valletta]] || [[Birkirkara]]
|-
|{{flag|San Marino}} || [[City of San Marino|San Marino]] || [[Serravalle, San Marino|Serravalle]]
|-
|{{flag|Switzerland}}  || [[Bern]] || [[Zürich]]
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}} || [[Ankara]] || [[Istanbul]]
|}

''Note'': [[Italy]]'s capital, [[Rome]], is the country's largest city if only the municipality (''comune'') is considered. [[Greater Milan]] is the largest [[metropolitan area]] in Italy.

[[Brussels]] is considered to be the largest city of [[Belgium]], according to the population of the [[Brussels-Capital Region]]. The population of the [[City of Brussels]] is ~175,000. [[Antwerp]] is the biggest city of the country.

==List of countries by the number of other countries they border==
[[Image:Neighbouring Countries of Europe.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of European countries by number of neighbouring countries]]

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
| 14 || [[Russia]] <small>(Including [[Kaliningrad Oblast|Kaliningrad]])</small>
|-
| 11 || [[France]] <small>(Including [[French overseas departments|overseas departments]] and [[Overseas departments and territories of France|territories]])</small>
|-
| 9 || [[Germany]]
|-
| 8 || [[Austria]], [[Serbia]], [[Turkey]], [[France]] <small>(Excluding overseas departments)</small>
|-
| 7 || [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], [[Ukraine]]
|-
| 6 || [[Italy]]
|-
| 5 || [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Romania]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Slovakia]], [[Spain]] <small>(Including [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]])</small>, [[Switzerland]]
|-
| 4 || [[Albania]], [[Armenia]], [[Belgium]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Kosovo]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Montenegro]],  [[Slovenia]]
|-
| 3 || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Finland]], the [[Netherlands]] <small>(Including [[Sint Maarten]])</small>, [[Norway]], [[Luxembourg]]
|-
| 2 || [[Andorra]], [[Estonia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Moldova]], [[Sweden]]
|-
| 1 || [[Denmark]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Monaco]], [[Portugal]], [[San Marino]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vatican City]]
|-
| 0 || [[Iceland]], [[Cyprus]], [[Malta]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Regions of Europe]]
* [[European grid]]
* [[European Union]]
* [[Western Europe]]
* [[Central Europe]]
* [[Eastern Europe]]
* [[Northern Europe]]
* [[Southern Europe]]
* [[Southeast Europe]]
* [[Extreme points of Europe]]
* [[Intermediate Region]]
* [[Extreme points of the European Union]]
* [[List of European ultra-prominent peaks]]
* [[List of the highest European ultra-prominent peaks]]
* [[List of mountain ranges]]
* [[Southernmost glacial mass in Europe]]
* [[Countries bordering the European Union]]
* [[Extreme points of Eurasia]]
* [[Extreme points of Afro-Eurasia]]
* [[Geography of the European Union]]
* [[Special member state territories and the European Union]]
* [[Age of Discovery]]
* [[Explorers of Russia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Geography of Europe}}

{{Geography of Europe}}
{{Europefooter}}

[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Geography of Europe| ]]