View source for Gamal Abdel Nasser

{{Short description|President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970}}
{{redirect|Nasser|other uses|Nasser (disambiguation)|and|Gamal Abdel Nasser (disambiguation)}}
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{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix    = [[Excellency|His Excellency]]
| name                = Gamal Abdel Nasser
| native_name         = {{nobold|جمال عبد الناصر}}
| native_name_lang    = ar
| birth_name          = {{nowrap|Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein}}
| image               = Stevan Kragujevic, Gamal Abdel Naser u Beogradu, 1962.jpg
| caption             = Nasser in 1962
| order               = 2nd
| office              = President of Egypt
| primeminister       = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| ''Himself''
| [[Ali Sabri]]
| [[Zakaria Mohieddin]]
| [[Mohamed Sedki Sulayman]]
| ''Himself''
}}
| vicepresident       = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[Sabri al-Asali]]<br />(1958)
| [[Akram al-Hawrani]]<br />(1958–1960)
| [[Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)|Abdel Latif Boghdadi]]<br />(1958–1964)
| [[Abdel Hakim Amer]]<br />(1958–1965)
| [[Nureddin Kuhala]]<br />(1960–1961)
| [[Abdel Hamid al-Sarraj]]<br />(1961)
| [[Kamal el-Din Hussein]]<br />(1961–1964)
| Zakaria Mohieddin<br />(1961–1964, 1965–1968)
| [[Hussein el-Shafei]]<br />(1961–1965, 1968–1970)
| Anwar Sadat<br />(1964, 1969–1970)
| [[Hassan Ibrahim]]<br />(1964–1966)
| Ali Sabri<br />(1965–1968)
}}
| term_start          = 14 November 1954
| term_end            = 28 September 1970<br />[[Acting (law)|Acting]]: 14 November 1954 – 23 June 1956
| predecessor         = [[Mohamed Naguib]]
| successor           = [[Anwar Sadat]]
| order2              = 31st
| office2             = Prime Minister of Egypt
| president2          = ''Himself''
| term_start2         = 19 June 1967
| term_end2           = 28 September 1970
| predecessor2        = Mohamed Sedki Sulayman
| successor2          = [[Mahmoud Fawzi]]
| president3          = {{ubl|Mohamed Naguib|''Himself''}}
| term_start3         = 18 April 1954
| term_end3           = 29 September 1962
| predecessor3        = Mohamed Naguib
| successor3          = Ali Sabri
| president4          = Mohamed Naguib
| term_start4         = 25 February 1954
| term_end4           = 8 March 1954
| predecessor4        = Mohamed Naguib
| successor4          = Mohamed Naguib
{{Collapsed infobox section begin
 | last                = yes
 | Other offices
 | titlestyle          = border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}
{{Infobox officeholder
 | embed               = yes
| office5             = Deputy Prime Minister of Egypt
| primeminister5      = Mohamed Naguib
| term_start5         = 8 March 1954
| term_end5           = 18 April 1954
| predecessor5        = [[Gamal Salem]]
| successor5          = Gamal Salem
| primeminister6      = Mohamed Naguib
| term_start6         = 18 June 1953
| term_end6           = 25 February 1954
| predecessor6        = [[Sulayman Hafez]]
| successor6          = Gamal Salem
| office7             = [[Minister of the Interior (Egypt)|Minister of the Interior]]
| primeminister7      = Mohamed Naguib
| term_start7         = 18 June 1953
| term_end7           = 25 February 1954
| predecessor7        = Sulayman Hafez
| successor7          = Zakaria Mohieddin
| office8             = [[Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (Egypt)|Chairman of the Revolutionary&nbsp;Command&nbsp;Council]]
| term_start8         = 14 November 1954
| term_end8           = 23 June 1956
| predecessor8        = Mohamed Naguib
| successor8          = ''Himself'' (as President)
| office9             = 2nd [[Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement|Secretary-General of the {{nowrap|Non-Aligned Movement}}]]
| term_start9         = 5 October 1964
| term_end9           = 8 September 1970
| predecessor9        = [[Josip Broz Tito]]
| successor9          = [[Kenneth Kaunda]]
| office10            = [[Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity|Chairman of the {{nowrap|Organisation of African Unity}}]]
| term_start10        = 17 July 1964
| term_end10          = 21 October 1965
| predecessor10       = [[Haile Selassie]]
| successor10         = [[Kwame Nkrumah]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
}}
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1918|1|15|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Alexandria]], [[Sultanate of Egypt]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1970|09|28|1918|01|15|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Cairo]], [[United Arab Republic]]
| resting_place       = [[Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque]]
| spouse              = {{marriage |[[Tahia Kazem]]|1944}}
| children            = 5, including [[Khalid Abdel Nasser|Khalid]]
| party               = [[Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)|Arab Socialist Union]]
| otherparty          = [[National Union (United Arab Republic)|National Union]]<br>[[Liberation Rally]]<br>[[Young Egypt Party (1933)|Young Egypt Party]]
| profession          = {{hlist|[[Officer (armed forces)|Military officer]]|<!-- , and later --> politician}}
| allegiance          = {{ubl|[[Kingdom of Egypt]]|[[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]]|[[United Arab Republic]]}}
| branch              = [[Egyptian Armed Forces]]
| serviceyears        = 1938–1952
| rank                = [[Lieutenant colonel]]
| battles             = [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
| signature           = Nasser signature.svg
| relations           = [[Abdel Nasser Hussein]] (father)<br/>[[Aida Abdel Nasser]] (sister)
}}
{{Abdel Nasser}}
'''Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ɡ|ə|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|_|ˌ|æ|b|d|ɛ|l|_|ˈ|n|ɑː|s|ər|,_|-|_|ˈ|n|æ|s|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|_|ˌ|ɑː|b|d|əl|_|-}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/nasser|title=Nasser|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Nasser|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> {{langx|ar|جمال عبد الناصر حسين}}, {{IPA|arz|ɡæˈmæːl ʕæbdenˈnɑːsˤeɾ ħeˈseːn|lang}}.}} (15 January 1918 – 28 September 1970) was an Egyptian military officer and revolutionary who served as the second [[president of Egypt]] from 1954 until his death in 1970. Nasser led the [[Egyptian revolution of 1952]] and introduced [[Land reform in Egypt|far-reaching land reforms]] the following year. Following a 1954 [[Attempted assassination of Gamal Abdel Nasser|assassination attempt]] by a [[Muslim Brotherhood]] member, he cracked down on the organization, put President [[Mohamed Naguib]] under [[house arrest]] and assumed executive office. He was [[1956 Egyptian referendum|formally elected president]] in June 1956.

Nasser's popularity in Egypt and the [[Arab world]] skyrocketed after his [[Suez Canal Authority|nationalization of the Suez Canal]] and his political victory in the subsequent [[Suez Crisis]], known in Egypt as the ''Tripartite Aggression''. Calls for [[Arab Union|pan-Arab unity]] under his leadership increased, culminating with the formation of the [[United Arab Republic]] with [[Syria]] from 1958 to 1961. In 1962, Nasser began a series of major [[Arab socialism|socialist]] measures and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite setbacks to his [[pan-Arabist]] cause, by 1963 Nasser's supporters gained power in several Arab countries, but he became embroiled in the [[North Yemen Civil War]], and eventually the much larger [[Arab Cold War]]. He began his second presidential term [[1965 United Arab Republic presidential confirmation referendum|in March 1965]] after his political opponents were banned from running. Following Egypt's defeat by Israel in the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967, Nasser resigned, but he returned to office after popular demonstrations called for his reinstatement. By 1968, Nasser had appointed himself prime minister, launched the [[War of Attrition]] to regain the [[Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula|Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula]], begun a process of depoliticizing the military, and issued a set of political liberalization reforms. After the conclusion of the [[1970 Arab League summit]], Nasser suffered a heart attack and died. His funeral in [[Cairo]] drew five to six million mourners, and prompted an outpouring of grief across the Arab world.

Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world, particularly for his strides towards [[social justice]] and Arab unity, his modernization policies, and his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] efforts. [[Presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser|His presidency]] also encouraged and coincided with an Egyptian cultural boom, and the launching of large industrial projects, including the [[Aswan Dam]], and [[Helwan]] city. Nasser's detractors criticize his authoritarianism, his [[human rights violation]]s, his [[antisemitism]], and the dominance of the military over civil institutions that characterised his tenure, establishing a pattern of military and dictatorial rule in Egypt which has persisted, nearly uninterrupted, to the present day.

== Early life ==
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein<ref>{{citation|url=https://ahlan.com/%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9 |title=Gamal Abdel Nasser's Egyptian ID card |author=حسام الدين الأمير |access-date=28 January 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129022436/https://ahlan.com/%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9| archive-date=29 January 2022}}</ref> was born in [[Bakos, Alexandria|Bakos]], [[Alexandria]], Egypt on 15 January 1918, a year before the tumultuous events of the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1919]].<ref name="V23">{{Harvnb|Vatikiotis|1978|pp=23–24}}</ref> Nasser's father, [[Abdel Nasser Hussein]], was a postal worker<ref>{{Harvnb|Joesten|1974|p=14}}</ref> born in [[Beni Mur]] in [[Upper Egypt]],<ref>Aburish, 2004, p. 12.</ref><ref>Stephens, 1972, p. 22.</ref> and raised in Alexandria.<ref name="V23" /> His mother Fahima Hammad was born in the village of [[Bani Murr]], the daughter of the Alexandrian coal trader.<ref name="Rushdi2011">{{cite news|title=The President's Mother! |url=https://m.youm7.com/story/2011/4/27/أم-الرئيس-1/399605 |first=Muhammad al-Dasouqi |last=Rushdi |work=[[Youm7]] |date=27 April 2011 |language=Arabic}}</ref> Her family came from [[Mallawi]], [[Minya Governorate|el-Minya]].<ref name="Stephens 23">{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=23}}</ref> His parents had married in 1917.<ref name="Stephens 23" /> Nasser had two brothers, Izz al-Arab and al-Leithi.<ref name="V23" /> Nasser's biographers Robert Stephens and [[Said Aburish]] wrote that Nasser's family believed strongly in the "Arab notion of glory", since the name of Nasser's brother, Izz al-Arab, translates to "Glory of the Arabs".<ref name="Aburish12-13">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=12–13}}</ref>

Nasser's family traveled frequently due to his father's work. In 1921, they moved to [[Asyut]] and, in 1923, to [[Khatatba]], where Nasser's father ran a post office. Nasser attended a primary school for the children of railway employees until 1924, when he was sent to live with his paternal uncle in [[Cairo]], and to attend the Nahhasin elementary school.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=26}}</ref>

Nasser exchanged letters with his mother and visited her on holidays. He stopped receiving messages at the end of April 1926. Upon returning to Khatatba, he learned that his mother had died after giving birth to his third brother, Shawki, and that his family had kept the news from him.<ref name="Stephens 28-32">{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|pp=28–32}}</ref><ref name="Alexander14">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=14}}</ref> Nasser later stated that "losing her this way was a shock so deep that time failed to remedy".<ref name="BibliothecaHoda">{{cite web |url=http://nasser.bibalex.org/Common/pictures01-%20sira_en.htm#1 |title=A Historical Sketch of Gamal Abdel Nasser |publisher=[[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]] |first=Hoda |last=Abdel Nasser |access-date=23 July 2013}}</ref> He adored his mother and the injury of her death deepened when his father remarried before the year's end.<ref name="Stephens 28-32" /><ref name="Aburish8-9">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=8–9}}</ref><ref name="V24">{{Harvnb|Vatikiotis|1978|p=24}}</ref>

In 1928, Nasser went to Alexandria to live with his maternal grandfather and attend the city's Attarin elementary school.<ref name="Alexander14" /><ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> He left in 1929 for a private boarding school in [[Helwan]], and later returned to Alexandria to enter the Ras el-Tin secondary school and to join his father, who was working for the city's postal service.<ref name="Alexander14" /><ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> It was in Alexandria that Nasser became involved in political activism.<ref name="Alexander14" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|pp=33–34}}</ref> After witnessing clashes between protesters and police in Manshia Square,<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> he joined the demonstration without being aware of its purpose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Joesten|1974|p=19}}</ref> The protest, organized by the [[ultranationalist]] [[Young Egypt Party (1933)|Young Egypt Society]], called for the end of colonialism in Egypt in the wake of the [[Egyptian Constitution of 1923|1923 Egyptian constitution]]'s annulment by Prime Minister [[Isma'il Sidqi]].<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> Nasser was arrested and detained for a night<ref name="Litvin39">{{Harvnb|Litvin|2011|p=39}}</ref> before his father bailed him out.<ref name="Alexander14" /> Nasser joined the paramilitary wing of the group, known as the [[Green Shirts]], for a brief period in 1934.<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=18}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=21}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Woodward|1992|p=15}}</ref> His association with the group and active role in student demonstrations during this period "imbued him with a fierce Egyptian nationalism", according to the historian James Jankowski.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|p=28}}</ref>

When his father was transferred to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him and attended al-Nahda al-Masria school.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /><ref name="Alexander15">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=15}}</ref> He took up acting in school plays for a brief period and wrote articles for the school's paper, including a piece on French philosopher [[Voltaire]] titled "Voltaire, the Man of Freedom".<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /><ref name="Alexander15" /> On 13 November 1935, Nasser led a student demonstration against British rule, protesting against a statement made four days prior by UK foreign minister [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Samuel Hoare]] that rejected prospects for the 1923 Constitution's restoration.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> Two protesters were killed and Nasser received a graze to the head from a policeman's bullet.<ref name="Litvin39" /> The incident garnered his first mention in the press: the nationalist newspaper ''Al Gihad'' reported that Nasser led the protest and was among the wounded.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /><ref name="J66">{{Harvnb|Joesten|1974|p=66}}</ref> On 12 December, the new king, [[Farouk of Egypt|Farouk]], issued a decree restoring the constitution.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" />

Nasser's involvement in political activity increased throughout his school years, such that he only attended 45 days of classes during his last year of secondary school.<ref name="Alexander19-20">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|pp=19–20}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=32}}</ref> Despite it having the almost unanimous backing of Egypt's political forces, Nasser strongly objected to the [[Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936|1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty]] because it stipulated the continued presence of British military bases in the country.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> Nonetheless, political unrest in Egypt declined significantly and Nasser resumed his studies at al-Nahda,<ref name="Alexander19-20" /> where he received his [[leaving certificate]] later that year.<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" />

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Gamal Abdel Nasser.jpg|Nasser in 1931|alt=A boy wearing a jacket, a white shirt with a black tie and a fez on his head
File:Al-Gihad's mention of Nasser, 1935.jpg|Nasser's name circled in ''Al-Gihad''
</gallery>

=== Early influences ===
Aburish asserts that Nasser was not distressed by his frequent relocations, which broadened his horizons and showed him Egyptian society's [[class division]]s.<ref name="Aburish11-2" /> His own social status was well below the wealthy Egyptian elite, and his discontent with those born into wealth and power grew throughout his lifetime.<ref name="Alexander27" /> Nasser spent most of his spare time reading, particularly in 1933, when he lived near the [[Egyptian National Library and Archives|National Library of Egypt]]. He read the [[Qur'an]], the [[Hadith|sayings]] of [[Muhammad]], the lives of the [[Sahaba]] (Muhammad's companions),<ref name="Aburish11-2">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=11–12}}</ref> the biographies of nationalist leaders [[Napoleon]], [[Atatürk]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] and [[Garibaldi]], and the [[My Early Life|autobiography]] of [[Winston Churchill]].<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /><ref name="Litvin39" /><ref name="Alexander16">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Books Gamal Abdel Nasser Used to Read, 1. During his Secondary School Years |url=http://nasser.bibalex.org/Common/pictures01-%20sira4_en.htm#1 |publisher=[[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]] |access-date=20 August 2013}}</ref>

Nasser was greatly influenced by [[Egyptian nationalism]], as espoused by politician [[Mustafa Kamil Pasha|Mustafa Kamel]], poet [[Ahmed Shawqi]],<ref name="Aburish11-2" /> and his anti-colonialist instructor at the [[Egyptian Military Academy|Royal Military Academy]], [[Aziz al-Masri]], to whom Nasser expressed his gratitude in a 1961 newspaper interview.<ref>{{Harvnb|Talhami|2007|p=164}}</ref> He was especially influenced by Egyptian writer [[Tawfiq al-Hakim]]'s novel ''Return of the Spirit'', in which al-Hakim wrote that the Egyptian people were only in need of a "man in whom all their feelings and desires will be represented, and who will be for them a symbol of their objective".<ref name="Litvin39" /><ref name="Alexander16" /> Nasser later credited the novel as his inspiration to launch the coup d'état that began the [[Egyptian Revolution of 1952]].<ref name="Alexander16" />

== Military career ==
[[File:Nasser with comrades, 1940.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=Two seated men in military uniform and wearing fez hats|Nasser (center) with [[Ahmed Mazhar]] (left) in army, 1940]]

In 1937, Nasser applied to the Royal Military Academy for army officer training,<ref name="Aburish15" /> but his police record of anti-government protest initially blocked his entry.<ref name="Alexander20">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=20}}</ref> Disappointed, he enrolled in the law school at [[King Fuad University]],<ref name="Alexander20" /> but quit after one semester to reapply to the Military Academy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reid|1981|p=158}}</ref> From his readings, Nasser, who frequently spoke of "dignity, glory, and freedom" in his youth,<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=14}}</ref> became enchanted with the stories of national liberators and heroic conquerors; a military career became his chief priority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=15}}</ref>

Convinced that he needed a ''[[wasta]]'', or an influential intermediary to promote his application above the others, Nasser managed to secure a meeting with Under-Secretary of War Ibrahim Khairy Pasha,<ref name="Aburish15" /> the person responsible for the academy's selection board, and requested his help.<ref name="Alexander20" /> Khairy Pasha agreed and sponsored Nasser's second application,<ref name="Aburish15" /> which was accepted in late 1937.<ref name="Alexander20" /><ref name="Cook41">{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=41}}</ref> Nasser focused on his military career from then on, and had little contact with his family. At the academy, he met [[Abdel Hakim Amer]] and [[Anwar Sadat]], both of whom became important aides during his presidency.<ref name="Aburish15">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=15–16}}</ref> After graduating from the academy in July 1938,<ref name="BibliothecaHoda" /> he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the infantry, and posted to [[Mankabad]].<ref name="Alexander27">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|pp=26–27}}</ref> It was here that Nasser and his closest comrades, including Sadat and Amer, first discussed their dissatisfaction at widespread corruption in the country and their desire to topple the monarchy. Sadat would later write that because of his "energy, clear-thinking, and balanced judgement", Nasser emerged as the group's natural leader.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=16}}</ref>

In 1941, Nasser was posted to [[Khartoum]], Sudan, which was part of Egypt at the time. Nasser returned to Egypt in September 1942 after a brief stay in Sudan, then secured a position as an instructor in the Cairo Royal Military Academy in May 1943.<ref name="Alexander27" /> In February 1942, in what became known as the [[1942 Abdeen Palace incident|Abdeen Palace Incident]], British troops surrounded Farouk's palace to compel him to dismiss Prime Minister [[Hussein Sirri Pasha]] in favour of [[Mostafa El-Nahas]], whom Britain felt would be more sympathetic to its war effort. The British ambassador, [[Miles Lampson]], marched into the palace and confronted the King, stating that he would be forced to abdicate and sent into exile unless he dismissed Pasha. Ultimately, Farouk submitted, and appointed El-Nahas as Prime Minister. Nasser saw the incident as a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty and wrote, "I am ashamed that our army has not reacted against this attack",<ref name="Aburish18">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=18}}</ref> and wished for "calamity" to overtake the British.<ref name="Aburish18" /> Nasser was accepted into the General Staff College later that year.<ref name="Aburish18" /> He began to form a group of young military officers with strong nationalist sentiments who supported some form of revolution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|p=20}}</ref> Nasser stayed in touch with the group's members primarily through Amer, who continued to seek out interested officers within the [[Egyptian Armed Forces|Egyptian Armed Force's]] various branches and presented Nasser with a complete file on each of them.<ref name="Aburish">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=22}}</ref>

=== 1948 Arab–Israeli War ===
[[File:Nasser at Faluja Palestine.png|thumb|right|alt=Eight men in dressed in military fatigues standing before an organized assembly of weapons, mostly rifles and mortar. The first man from the left is not wearing a hat, while the remaining seven are wearing hats.|Nasser (first from left) with his unit in the [[al-Faluja|Faluja pocket]], displaying weapons captured from the Israeli Army during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 war]].]]

Nasser's first battlefield experience was in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=63}}</ref> He initially volunteered to serve with the [[Arab Higher Committee]] (AHC) led by [[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni]]. Nasser met with and impressed al-Husayni,<ref name="Aburish23">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=23}}</ref> but was ultimately refused entry to the AHC's forces by the Egyptian government for reasons that were unclear.<ref name="Aburish23" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=24}}</ref>

In May 1948, following the British withdrawal, King Farouk sent the Egyptian army into Israel,<ref name="Aburish25-26" /> with Nasser serving as a staff officer of the 6th Infantry Battalion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heikal|1973|p=103}}</ref> During the war, he wrote of the Egyptian army's unpreparedness, saying "our soldiers were dashed against fortifications".<ref name="Aburish25-26" /> Nasser was deputy commander of the Egyptian forces that secured the [[Al-Faluja|Faluja pocket]] (commanded by Said Taha Bey<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ud3T_TSMy9sC&pg=PA66|title=Warrior: An Autobiography|last1=Sharon|first1=Ariel|last2=Chanoff|first2=David|year=2002|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-3464-1|language=en}}</ref> nicknamed the "Sudanese tiger" by the Israelis<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.israeldefense.co.il/he/content/%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A6%D7%A2-%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91-1949-%E2%80%93-%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%94-%D7%A9%D7%9C-%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%AA-%D7%90%D7%A9-%D7%A2%D7%9D-%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D|title=מבצע חורב 1949 – תחילתה של הפסקת אש עם מצרים|access-date=6 December 2017|language=he}}</ref>). On 12 July, he was lightly wounded in the fighting. By August, his brigade was surrounded by the [[Israeli Army]]. Appeals for help from [[Jordan|Transjordan]]'s [[Arab Legion]] went unheeded, but the brigade refused to surrender. Negotiations between [[Israel]] and Egypt finally resulted in the ceding of Faluja to Israel.<ref name="Aburish25-26">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=25–26}}</ref> According to veteran journalist [[Eric Margolis (journalist)|Eric Margolis]], the defenders of Faluja, "including young army officer Gamal Abdel Nasser, became national heroes" for enduring Israeli bombardment while isolated from their command.<ref name="Brightman">{{Harvnb|Brightman|2004|p=233}}</ref>

Still stationed after the war in the Faluja enclave, Nasser agreed to an Israeli request to identify 67 killed soldiers of the [[God's Company (Israel)|"religious platoon"]]. The expedition was led by Rabbi [[Shlomo Goren]] and Nasser personally accompanied him, ordering the Egyptian soldiers to stand at attention. They spoke briefly, and according to Goren, after learning what the [[square phylacteries]] found with the soldiers were, Nasser told him that he "now understands their courageous stand". During an interview on Israeli TV in 1971, Rabbi Goren claimed the two agreed to meet again when the time of peace comes.<ref>Israeli TV, "Such a Life" 1971, interviewing Rabbi Shlomo Goren along with witnesses to the event (in Hebrew)</ref><ref>[http://www.nrg.co.il/online/1/ART2/749/890.html 67 dead, Who remembers "God's platoon"] [[Maariv]] (NRG website, in Hebrew)</ref>

The Egyptian singer [[Umm Kulthum]] hosted a public celebration for the officers' return despite reservations from the royal government, which had been under British pressure to prevent the reception. The apparent difference in attitude between the government and the general public increased Nasser's determination to topple the monarchy.<ref name="Dokos">{{Harvnb|Dokos|2007|p=114}}</ref> Nasser had also felt bitter that his brigade had not been relieved despite the resilience it displayed.<ref name="Pollack">{{Harvnb|Pollack|2002|p=27}}</ref> He started writing his book ''Philosophy of the Revolution'' during the siege.<ref name="Brightman" />

After the war, Nasser returned to his role as an instructor at the Royal Military Academy.<ref name="Heikal17" /> He sent emissaries to forge an alliance with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in October 1948, but soon concluded that the religious agenda of the Brotherhood was not compatible with his nationalism. From then on, Nasser prevented the Brotherhood's influence over his cadres' activities without severing ties with the organization.<ref name="Aburish25-26" /> Nasser was sent as a member of the Egyptian delegation to [[Rhodes]] in February 1949 to negotiate a formal [[1949 Armistice Agreements|armistice]] with Israel, and reportedly considered the terms to be humiliating, particularly because the Israelis were able to easily [[Operation Uvda|occupy]] the [[Eilat]] region while negotiating with the Arabs in March.<ref name="Aburish27" />

== Revolution ==

=== Free Officers ===
{{Main|Free Officers Movement (Egypt)}}
[[File:Free Officers, 1953.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Eight men in dressed in military uniform, posing in a room around a rectangular table. All the men, except for third and fifth persons from the left are seated. The third and fifth person from the left are standing.|The Free Officers after the coup, 1953. Counterclockwise: [[Zakaria Mohieddin]], [[Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)|Abdel Latif Boghdadi]], [[Kamel el-Din Hussein]] (standing), Nasser (seated), [[Abdel Hakim Amer]], [[Mohamed Naguib]], [[Youssef Seddik (revolutionary)|Youssef Seddik]], and Ahmad Shawki.]]

Nasser's return to Egypt coincided with [[Husni al-Za'im]]'s Syrian [[coup d'état]].<ref name="Aburish27">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=27–28}}</ref> Its success and evident popular support among the Syrian people encouraged Nasser's revolutionary pursuits.<ref name="Aburish27" /> Soon after his return, he was summoned and interrogated by Prime Minister [[Ibrahim Abdel Hadi]] regarding suspicions that he was forming a secret group of dissenting officers.<ref name="Aburish27" /> According to secondhand reports, Nasser convincingly denied the allegations.<ref name="Aburish27" /> Abdel Hadi was also hesitant to take drastic measures against the army, especially in front of its chief of staff, who was present during the interrogation, and subsequently released Nasser.<ref name="Aburish27" /> The interrogation pushed Nasser to speed up his group's activities.<ref name="Aburish27" />

After 1949, the group adopted the name "[[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Association of Free Officers]]" and advocated "little else but freedom and the restoration of their country's dignity".<ref name="Heikal17">{{Harvnb|Heikal|1973|p=17}}</ref> Nasser organized the Free Officers' founding committee, which eventually comprised fourteen men from different social and political backgrounds, including representation from Young Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Egyptian Communist Party, and the aristocracy.<ref name="Aburish27" /> Nasser was unanimously elected chairman of the organization.<ref name="Aburish27" />

In the 1950 parliamentary elections, the [[Wafd Party]] of [[Mostafa El-Nahas|el-Nahhas]] gained a victory—mostly due to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood, which boycotted the elections—and was perceived as a threat by the Free Officers as the Wafd had campaigned on demands similar to their own.<ref name="Aburish30">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=30}}</ref> Accusations of corruption against Wafd politicians began to surface, however, breeding an atmosphere of rumor and suspicion that consequently brought the Free Officers to the forefront of Egyptian politics.<ref name="Aburish32">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=32}}</ref> By then, the organization had expanded to around ninety members. According to [[Khaled Mohieddin]], "nobody knew all of them and where they belonged in the hierarchy except Nasser".<ref name="Aburish32" /> Nasser felt that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the government and, for nearly two years, he did little beyond officer recruitment and underground news bulletins.<ref name="Aburish33">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=33}}</ref>

On 11 October 1951, the Wafd government abrogated the unpopular [[Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936|Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936]] by which the United Kingdom had the right to maintain its military forces in the Suez Canal Zone.<ref name="Aburish33" /> The popularity of this move, as well as that of government-sponsored guerrilla attacks against the British, put pressure on Nasser to act.<ref name="Aburish33" /> According to Sadat, Nasser decided to wage "a large scale assassination campaign".<ref name="Aburish34">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=34}}</ref> In January 1952, he and [[Hassan Ibrahim]] attempted to kill the royalist general [[Hussein Sirri Amer]] by firing their submachine guns at his car as he drove through the streets of Cairo.<ref name="Aburish34" /> Instead of killing the general, the attackers wounded an innocent female passerby.<ref name="Aburish34" /> Nasser recalled that her wails "haunted" him and firmly dissuaded him from undertaking similar actions in the future.<ref name="Aburish34" />

Sirri Amer was close to King Farouk, and was nominated for the presidency of the Officer's Club—normally a ceremonial office—with the king's backing.<ref name="Aburish34" /> Nasser was determined to establish the independence of the army from the monarchy, and with Amer as the intercessor, resolved to field a nominee for the Free Officers.<ref name="Aburish34" /> They selected [[Mohamed Naguib]], a popular general who had offered his resignation to Farouk in 1942 over British high-handedness and was wounded three times in the Palestine War.<ref name="Aburish34-5">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=34–35}}</ref> Naguib won overwhelmingly and the Free Officers, through their connection with a leading Egyptian daily, ''al-Misri'', publicized his victory while praising the nationalistic spirit of the army.<ref name="Aburish34-5" />

=== Revolution of 1952 ===
{{Main|Egyptian revolution of 1952}}
[[File:Nasser, Naguib and Hafez, 1952.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three men seated and observing an event. The first man from the left is wearing a suit and fez, the second man is wearing a military uniform, and the third man is wearing military uniform with a cap. Behind them are three men standing, all dressed in military uniform. In the background is ab audience seated in bleachers|Leaders of Egypt following the ouster of King Farouk, November 1952. Seated, left to right: [[Sulayman Hafez]], [[Mohamed Naguib]] and Nasser]]
On 25 January 1952, at a time of growing [[fedayeen]] attacks on British forces occupying the Suez Canal Zone, some 7,000 British soldiers attacked the main police station in the Canal city [[Ismailia]]. In the ensuing battle, which lasted two hours, 50 Egyptian policeman were killed, sparking outrage across Egypt, and the [[Cairo Fire]] riots which left 76 people dead. Afterwards, Nasser published a simple six-point program in ''[[Rose al Yusuf (magazine)|Rose al-Yūsuf]]'' to dismantle [[feudalism]] and British influence in Egypt. In May, Nasser received word that Farouk knew the names of the Free Officers and intended to arrest them; he immediately entrusted Free Officer Zakaria Mohieddin with the task of planning the government takeover by army units loyal to the association.<ref name="Aburish39">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=35–39}}</ref>

The Free Officers' intention was not to install themselves in government, but to re-establish a parliamentary democracy. Nasser did not believe that a low-ranking officer like himself (a [[lieutenant colonel]]) would be accepted by the Egyptian people, and so selected General Naguib to be his "boss" and lead the coup in name. The revolution they had long sought was launched on 22 July and was declared a success the next day. The Free Officers seized control of all government buildings, radio stations, and police stations, as well as army headquarters in Cairo. While many of the rebel officers were leading their units, Nasser donned civilian clothing to avoid detection by royalists and moved around Cairo monitoring the situation.<ref name="Aburish39" /> In a move to stave off foreign intervention two days before the revolution, Nasser had notified the American and British governments of his intentions, and both had agreed not to aid Farouk.<ref name="Aburish39" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|pp=36–37}}</ref> Under pressure from the Americans, Nasser had agreed to exile the deposed king with an honorary ceremony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=108}}</ref>

On 18 June 1953, the monarchy was abolished and the Republic of Egypt declared, with Naguib as its [[President of Egypt|first president]].<ref name="Aburish39" /> According to Aburish, after assuming power, Nasser and the Free Officers expected to become the "guardians of the people's interests" against the monarchy and the [[pasha]] class while leaving the day-to-day tasks of government to civilians.<ref name="Aburish41" /> They asked former prime minister Ali Maher to accept reappointment to his previous position, and to form an all-civilian cabinet.<ref name="Aburish41">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=41}}</ref> The Free Officers then governed as the [[Egyptian Revolutionary Command Council|Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC) with Naguib as chairman and Nasser as vice-chairman.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|pp=38–39}}</ref> Relations between the RCC and Maher grew tense, however, as the latter viewed many of Nasser's schemes—agrarian reform, abolition of the monarchy, reorganization of political parties<ref name="Dekmejian24">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=24}}</ref>—as too radical, culminating in Maher's resignation on 7 September. Naguib assumed the additional role of prime minister, and Nasser that of deputy prime minister.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stephens|1972|p=114}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=46}}</ref> In September, the [[Land reform in Egypt|Agrarian Reform Law]] was put into effect.<ref name="Dekmejian24" /> In Nasser's eyes, this law gave the RCC its own identity and transformed the coup into a revolution.<ref name="Aburish45" />

Preceding the reform law, in August 1952, communist-led riots broke out at textile factories in [[Kafr el-Dawwar]], leading to a clash with the army that left nine people dead. While most of the RCC insisted on executing the riot's two ringleaders, Nasser opposed this. Nonetheless, the sentences were carried out. The Muslim Brotherhood supported the RCC, and after Naguib's assumption of power, demanded four ministerial portfolios in the new cabinet. Nasser turned down their demands and instead hoped to co-opt the Brotherhood by giving two of its members, who were willing to serve officially as independents, minor ministerial posts.<ref name="Aburish45">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=45}}</ref>

== Road to presidency ==

=== Disputes with Naguib ===
[[File:Nageeb & nasser.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Two smiling men in military uniform seated in an open-top automobile. The first man on the left is pointing his hand in a gesture. Behind the automobile are men in uniform walking away from the vehicle|Nasser (right) and [[Mohamed Naguib]] (left) during celebrations marking the second anniversary of the 1952 revolution, July 1954]]
[[File:Nasser and Naguib Saluting.tif|thumb|alt=Five men in military uniforms standing in a row, with the three in the middle saluting|Nasser and Naguib saluting at the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]]]
[[File:Gamal Abdel Nasser on the Muslim Brotherhood (subtitled).webm|thumb|right|alt=Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the hijab and that Islamic law should be enforced across the country.|Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the [[hijab]] and that [[Sharia|Islamic law]] should be enforced across the country.]]
In January 1953, Nasser overcame opposition from Naguib and banned all political parties,<ref name="Aburish46-7">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=46–47}}</ref> creating a one-party system under the Liberation Rally, a loosely structured movement whose chief task was to organize pro-RCC rallies and lectures,<ref name="Kandil22">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=22}}</ref> with Nasser its [[secretary-general]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=23}}</ref> Despite the dissolution order, Nasser was the only RCC member who still favored holding parliamentary elections, according to his fellow officer [[Abdel Latif Boghdadi (politician)|Abdel Latif Boghdadi]].<ref name="Aburish46-7" /> Although outvoted, he still advocated holding elections by 1956.<ref name="Aburish46-7" /> In March 1953, Nasser led the Egyptian delegation negotiating a British withdrawal from the Suez Canal.<ref name="Aburish51">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=51}}</ref>

When Naguib began showing signs of independence from Nasser by distancing himself from the RCC's land reform decrees and drawing closer to Egypt's established political forces, namely the Wafd and the Brotherhood,<ref name="Kandil27">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=27}}</ref> Nasser resolved to depose him.<ref name="Aburish51" /> In June, Nasser took control of the interior ministry post from Naguib loyalist [[Sulayman Hafez]],<ref name="Kandil27" /> and pressured Naguib to conclude the abolition of the monarchy.<ref name="Aburish51" />

On 25 February 1954, Naguib announced his resignation after the RCC held an official meeting without his presence two days prior.<ref name="Kandil32">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=32}}</ref> On 26 February, Nasser accepted the resignation, put Naguib under house arrest,<ref name="Kandil32" /> and the RCC proclaimed Nasser as both RCC chairman and prime minister.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|p=60}}</ref> As Naguib intended, a mutiny immediately followed, demanding Naguib's reinstatement and the RCC's dissolution.<ref name="Kandil32" /> While visiting the striking officers at Military Headquarters (GHQ) to call for the mutiny's end, Nasser was initially intimidated into accepting their demands.<ref name="Kandil33">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=33}}</ref> However, on 27 February, Nasser's supporters in the army launched a raid on the GHQ, ending the mutiny.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=34}}</ref> Later that day, hundreds of thousands of protesters, mainly belonging to the Brotherhood, called for Naguib's return and Nasser's imprisonment.<ref name="Kandil35">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=35}}</ref> In response, a sizable group within the RCC, led by Khaled Mohieddin, demanded Naguib's release and return to the presidency.<ref name="Aburish51" /> Nasser acquiesced, but delayed Naguib's reinstatement until 4 March, allowing him to promote Amer to Commander of the Armed Forces—a position formerly occupied by Naguib.<ref name="Aburish52">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=52}}</ref>

On 5 March, Nasser's security coterie arrested thousands of participants in the uprising.<ref name="Kandil35" /> As a ruse to rally opposition against a return to the pre-1952 order, the RCC decreed an end to restrictions on monarchy-era parties and the Free Officers' withdrawal from politics.<ref name="Kandil35" /> The RCC succeeded in provoking the beneficiaries of the revolution, namely the workers, peasants, and petty bourgeois, to oppose the decrees,<ref name="Kandil36">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=36}}</ref> with one million transport workers launching a strike and thousands of peasants entering Cairo in protest in late March.<ref name="Kandil38">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=38}}</ref> Naguib sought to crack down on the protesters, but his requests were rebuffed by the heads of the security forces.<ref name="Kandil39" /> On 29 March, Nasser announced the decrees' revocation in response to the "impulse of the street".<ref name="Kandil39">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=39}}</ref> Between April and June, hundreds of Naguib's supporters in the military were either arrested or dismissed, and Mohieddin was informally exiled to [[Switzerland]] to represent the RCC abroad.<ref name="Kandil39" /> [[King Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] attempted to mend relations between Nasser and Naguib, but to no avail.<ref name="Aburish53">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=52–53}}</ref>

=== Assuming chairmanship of RCC ===
{{Main|Attempted assassination of Gamal Abdel Nasser}}
[[File:Liberation organization in Alexandria invitation to Nasser speech 26-10-1954.jpg|thumb|alt=A letter written in Arabic with the seal of the RCC at the top|Liberation organization in Alexandria invitation to Nasser speech 26 October 1954]]
[[File:Nasser mansheya incident.oga|thumb|Sound recording of 1954 assassination attempt on Nasser while he was addressing a crowd in Manshia, [[Alexandria]]. ]]
On 26 October 1954, Muslim Brotherhood member Mahmoud Abdel-Latif [[Attempted assassination of Gamal Abdel Nasser|attempted to assassinate Nasser]] while he was delivering a speech in Alexandria, broadcast to the Arab world by radio, to celebrate the British military withdrawal. The gunman was {{convert|25|ft|m}} away from him and fired eight shots, but all missed Nasser. Panic broke out in the mass audience, but Nasser maintained his posture and raised his voice to appeal for calm.<ref name="Aburish55">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=54–55}}</ref><ref name="Rogan228" /> With great emotion he exclaimed the following:

<blockquote>My countrymen, my blood spills for you and for Egypt. I will live for your sake and die for the sake of your freedom and honor. Let them kill me; it does not concern me so long as I have instilled pride, honor, and freedom in you. If Gamal Abdel Nasser should die, each of you shall be Gamal Abdel Nasser ... Gamal Abdel Nasser is of you and from you and he is willing to sacrifice his life for the nation.<ref name="Rogan228">{{Harvnb|Rogan|2011|p=228}}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Nasser and RCC members welcomed by Alexandria, 1954.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A man standing in an open-top vehicle and waving to a crowd of people surrounding the vehicle. There are several men seated in the vehicle and in another trailing vehicle, all dressed in military uniform|Nasser greeted by crowds in Alexandria one day after his announcement of the British withdrawal and the assassination attempt against him, 27 October 1954.]]
The crowd roared in approval and Arab audiences were electrified. The assassination attempt backfired, quickly playing into Nasser's hands.<ref name="Aburish54">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=54}}</ref> Upon returning to Cairo, he ordered one of the largest political crackdowns in the modern history of Egypt,<ref name="Aburish54" /> with the arrests of thousands of dissenters, mostly members of the Brotherhood, but also communists, and the dismissal of 140 officers loyal to Naguib.<ref name="Aburish54" /> Eight Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death,<ref name="Aburish54" /> although the sentence of its chief ideologue, [[Sayyid Qutb]], was commuted to a 15-year imprisonment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|2000|p=159}}</ref> Naguib was removed from the presidency and put under house arrest, but was never tried or sentenced, and no one in the army rose to defend him. With his rivals neutralized, Nasser became the undisputed leader of Egypt.<ref name="Rogan228" />

Nasser's street following was still too small to sustain his plans for reform and to secure him in office.<ref name="Aburish56">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=56}}</ref> To promote himself and the Liberation Rally, he gave speeches in a cross-country tour,<ref name="Aburish56" /> and imposed controls over the country's [[Egyptian newspapers|press]] by decreeing that all publications had to be approved by the party to prevent "sedition".<ref name="AtiyehOweiss331–2">{{Harvnb|Atiyeh|Oweis|1988|pp=331–332}}</ref> Both [[Umm Kulthum]] and [[Abdel Halim Hafez]], the leading Arab singers of the era, performed songs praising Nasser's nationalism. Others produced plays denigrating his political opponents.<ref name="Aburish56" /> According to his associates, Nasser orchestrated the campaign himself.<ref name="Aburish56" /> [[Arab nationalist]] terms such "Arab homeland" and "Arab nation" frequently began appearing in his speeches in 1954–55, whereas prior he would refer to the Arab "peoples" or the "Arab region".<ref>{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|p=32}}</ref> In January 1955, the RCC appointed him as their president, pending national elections.<ref name="Aburish56" />
[[File:Copts-with-Nasser-1965.jpg|thumb|President Nasser receives a delegation of Christian bishops from [[Dakahlia Governorate|Dakahlia]], [[Qena]], [[Qus]] and [[Sohag]] (1965)]]
Nasser made secret contacts with Israel in 1954–55, but determined that peace with Israel would be impossible, considering it an "expansionist state that viewed the Arabs with disdain".<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=239}}</ref> On 28 February 1955, Israeli troops [[Operation Black Arrow|attacked]] the Egyptian-held Gaza Strip with the stated aim of suppressing [[Palestinian fedayeen]] raids. Nasser did not feel that the Egyptian Army was ready for a confrontation and did not retaliate militarily. His failure to respond to Israeli military action demonstrated the ineffectiveness of his armed forces and constituted a blow to his growing popularity.<ref name="Rasler38">{{Harvnb|Rasler|Thompson|Ganguly|2013|pp=38–39}}</ref><ref name="Dekmeijan44">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=44}}</ref> Nasser subsequently ordered the tightening of the [[Israeli passage through the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran|blockade on Israeli shipping through the Straits of Tiran]] and restricted the use of airspace over the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] by Israeli aircraft in early September.<ref name="Rasler38" /> The Israelis re-militarized the [[Auja al-Hafir|al-Auja Demilitarized Zone]] on the Egyptian border on 21 September.<ref name="Dekmeijan44" />

Simultaneous with Israel's February raid, the [[Baghdad Pact]] was formed between some regional allies of the UK. Nasser considered the Baghdad Pact a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in the Middle East, and a mechanism to undermine the [[Arab League]] and "perpetuate [Arab] subservience to Zionism and [Western] imperialism".<ref name="Rasler38" /> Nasser felt that if he was to maintain Egypt's regional leadership position he needed to acquire modern weaponry to arm his military. When it became apparent to him that [[Western world|Western countries]] would not supply Egypt under acceptable financial and military terms,<ref name="Rasler38" /><ref name="Dekmeijan44" /><ref name="Kandil45-6">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|pp=45–46}}</ref> Nasser turned to the [[Eastern Bloc]] and concluded a {{currency|320 million|USD}} armaments agreement with [[Czechoslovakia]] on 27 September.<ref name="Rasler38" /><ref name="Dekmeijan44" /> Through the [[Egyptian-Czech arms deal|Czechoslovakian arms deal]], the balance of power between Egypt and Israel was more or less equalized and Nasser's role as the Arab leader defying the West was enhanced.<ref name="Dekmeijan44" /> The arms deal led to increased unease in the United States, where Nasser was compared to [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Adolf Hitler]], causing it to strengthen its relations with Israel and become more wary of Egypt as a result.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McAlexander |first1=Richard J. |date=18 November 2010 |title=Couscous Mussolini: US perceptions of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the 1958 intervention in Lebanon and the origins of the US–Israeli special relationship |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682745.2010.482960?role=button&needAccess=true&journalCode=fcwh20 |journal=[[Cold War History (journal)|Cold War History]] |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=363–385 |doi=10.1080/14682745.2010.482960 |s2cid=153604066 |access-date=4 March 2023 |issn=1468-2745|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Adoption of neutralism ===
[[File:Nasser-Faisal-Husayni at Bandung.png|thumb|upright|alt=Six men seated on a rug. The first two men from the left are dressed in white robes and white headdresses, the third and fourth men are dressed in military uniform, and the last two are wearing robes and headdresses|Nasser and [[Ahmad bin Yahya|Imam Ahmad]] of [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|North Yemen]] facing the camera, Prince [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] in white robes in the background, [[Mohammad Amin al-Husayni|Amin al-Husayni]] of the [[All-Palestine Government]] in the foreground at the [[Bandung Conference]], April 1955]]

At the [[Asian–African Conference|Bandung Conference]] in [[Indonesia]] in late April 1955, Nasser was treated as the leading representative of the Arab countries and was one of the most popular figures at the summit.<ref name="TanAcharya12">{{Harvnb|Tan|Acharya|2008|p=12}}</ref><ref name="Dekmeijan43">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=43}}</ref> He had paid earlier visits to [[Pakistan]] (9 April),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ginat|2010|p=115}}</ref> [[India]] (14 April),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ginat|2010|p=113}}</ref> [[Burma]], and [[Afghanistan]] on the way to Bandung,<ref name="Jankowski65-6">{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|pp=65–66}}</ref> and previously cemented a treaty of friendship with India in Cairo on 6 April, strengthening [[Egypt–India relations|Egyptian–Indian relations]] on the international policy and economic development fronts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ginat|2010|p=105}}</ref>

Nasser mediated discussions between the pro-Western, pro-Soviet, and neutralist conference factions over the composition of the "Final Communique"<ref name="TanAcharya12" /> addressing colonialism in Africa and Asia and the fostering of global peace amid the [[Cold War]] between the West and the [[Soviet Union]]. At Bandung, Nasser sought a proclamation for the avoidance of international defense alliances, support for the independence of [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], and [[Morocco]] from [[French colonialism|French rule]], support for the [[Palestinian right of return]], and the implementation of UN resolutions regarding the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]]. He succeeded in lobbying the attendees to pass resolutions on each of these issues, notably securing the strong support of [[China]] and India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ginat|2010|p=111}}</ref>

Following Bandung, Nasser officially adopted the "positive neutralism" of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]] president [[Josip Broz Tito]] and Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] as a principal theme of Egyptian foreign policy regarding the Cold War.<ref name="Dekmeijan43" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=66}}</ref> Nasser was welcomed by large crowds of people lining the streets of Cairo on his return to Egypt on 2 May and was widely heralded in the press for his achievements and leadership in the conference. Consequently, Nasser's prestige was greatly boosted, as was his self-confidence and image.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ginat|2010|pp=111–112}}</ref>

=== 1956 constitution and presidency ===
[[File:Nasser voting constitutional referendum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=A man wearing a suit inserting a piece of paper into a box. He is being photographed by cameramen|Nasser submitting his vote for the referendum of the proposed constitution, 23 June 1956]]
With his domestic position considerably strengthened, Nasser was able to secure primacy over his RCC colleagues and gained relatively unchallenged decision-making authority,<ref name="Jankowski65-6" /> particularly over foreign policy.<ref name="Jankowski67">{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|p=67}}</ref>

In January 1956, the new [[Egyptian Constitution of 1956|Constitution of Egypt]] was drafted, entailing the establishment of a single-party system under the National Union (NU),<ref name="Jankowski67" /> a movement Nasser described as the "cadre through which we will realize our revolution".<ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=126}}</ref> The NU was a reconfiguration of the Liberation Rally,<ref name="Ansari84">{{Harvnb|Ansari|1986|p=84}}</ref> which Nasser determined had failed in generating mass public participation.<ref name="Peretz242">{{Harvnb|Peretz|1994|p=242}}</ref> In the new movement, Nasser attempted to incorporate more citizens, approved by local-level party committees, in order to solidify popular backing for his government.<ref name="Peretz242" /> The NU would select a nominee for the presidential election whose name would be provided for public approval.<ref name="Jankowski67" />

Nasser's nomination for the post and the new constitution were put to [[1956 Egyptian referendum|public referendum]] on 23 June and each was approved by an overwhelming majority.<ref name="Jankowski67" /> A 350-member [[People's Assembly (Egypt)|National Assembly]] was established,<ref name="Ansari84" /> elections for which were held in July 1957. Nasser had ultimate approval over all the candidates.<ref name="Peretz241">{{Harvnb|Peretz|1994|p=241}}</ref> The constitution granted [[women's suffrage]], prohibited discrimination by sex, and entailed special protection for women in the workplace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sullivan|1986|p=80}}</ref> Coinciding with the new constitution and Nasser's presidency, the RCC dissolved itself and its members resigned their military commissions as part of the transition to civilian rule.<ref name="Dekmejian45">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=45}}</ref> During the deliberations surrounding the establishment of a new government, Nasser began a process of sidelining his rivals among the original Free Officers, while elevating his closest allies to high-ranking positions in the cabinet.<ref name="Jankowski67" />

== Nationalization of the Suez Canal Company ==
[[File:Raising the flag over Port Said.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A man in military uniform raising a flag up a pole. Behind him are other uniformed men and others wearing traditional, civilian dress|Nasser raising the Egyptian flag over the [[Suez Canal]] city of [[Port Said]] to celebrate the final British military withdrawal from the country, June 1956]]
[[File:Nasser Speech.tif|thumb|Nasser giving a speech at the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]]]
After the three-year transition period ended with Nasser's official assumption of power, his domestic and independent foreign policies increasingly collided with the regional interests of the UK and France. The latter condemned his strong support for [[Algerian War of Independence|Algerian independence]], and the UK's [[Anthony Eden|Eden government]] was agitated by Nasser's campaign against the Baghdad Pact.<ref name="Dekmejian45" /> In addition, Nasser's adherence to neutralism regarding the Cold War, recognition of communist China, and [[Egyptian-Czech arms deal|arms deal with the Eastern bloc]] alienated the United States. On 19 July 1956, the US and UK abruptly withdrew their offer to finance construction of the [[Aswan Dam]],<ref name="Dekmejian45" /> citing concerns that [[Egypt's economy]] would be overwhelmed by the project.<ref>{{Harvnb|James|2008|p=149}}</ref>

Nasser was informed of the British–American withdrawal in a news statement while aboard a plane returning to Cairo from [[Belgrade]], and took great offense.<ref name="James150">{{Harvnb|James|2008|p=150}}</ref> Although ideas for nationalizing the [[Suez Company (1858–1997)|Suez Canal Company]] were in the offing after the UK agreed to withdraw its military from Egypt in 1954 (the last British troops left on 13 June 1956), journalist [[Mohamed Hassanein Heikal]] asserts that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the company that operated the waterway between 19 and 20 July.<ref name="James150" /> Nasser himself would later state that he decided on 23 July, after studying the issue and deliberating with some of his advisers from the dissolved RCC, namely Boghdadi and technical specialist [[Mahmoud Younis]], beginning on 21 July.<ref name="James150" /> The rest of the RCC's former members were informed of the decision on 24 July, while the bulk of the cabinet was unaware of the nationalization scheme until hours before Nasser publicly announced it.<ref name="James150" /> According to Ramadan, Nasser's decision to nationalize the canal was a solitary decision, taken without consultation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|pp=105–106}}</ref>

On 26 July 1956, Nasser gave a speech in Alexandria announcing the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company as a means to fund the Aswan Dam project in light of the British–American withdrawal.<ref name="Goldschmidt162">{{Harvnb|Goldschmidt|2008|p=162}}</ref> In the speech, he denounced [[British Empire|British imperialism]] in Egypt and British control over the canal company's profits, and upheld that the Egyptian people had a right to sovereignty over the waterway, especially since "120,000 Egyptians had died building it".<ref name="Goldschmidt162" /> The motion was technically in breach of the international agreement he had signed with the UK on 19 October 1954,<ref name="Jankowski68">{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|p=68}}</ref> although he ensured that all existing stockholders would be paid off.<ref name="BBC: 1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/26/newsid_2701000/2701603.stm |title=1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal |work=[[BBC News]] |date=26 July 1956 |access-date=4 March 2007}}</ref>

The nationalization announcement was greeted very emotionally by the audience and, throughout the Arab world, thousands entered the streets shouting slogans of support.<ref name="Aburish108">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=108}}</ref> US ambassador [[Henry A. Byroade]] stated, "I cannot overemphasize [the] popularity of the Canal Company nationalization within Egypt, even among Nasser's enemies."<ref name="Jankowski68" /> Egyptian political scientist Mahmoud Hamad wrote that, prior to 1956, Nasser had consolidated control over Egypt's military and civilian bureaucracies, but it was only after the canal's nationalization that he gained near-total popular legitimacy and firmly established himself as the "charismatic leader" and "spokesman for the masses not only in Egypt, but all over the [[Third World]]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamad|2008|p=96}}</ref> According to Aburish, this was Nasser's largest pan-Arab triumph at the time and "soon his pictures were to be found in the tents of Yemen, the souks of [[Marrakesh]], and the posh villas of Syria".<ref name="Aburish108" /> The official reason given for the nationalization was that funds from the canal would be used for the construction of the dam in Aswan.<ref name="Jankowski68" /> That same day, Egypt closed the canal to Israeli shipping.<ref name="BBC: 1956: Egypt Seizes Suez Canal" />

=== Suez Crisis ===
{{Main|Suez Crisis|Closure of the Suez Canal (1956-1957)}}
[[File:Suez nationalization.ogv|thumb|right|thumbtime=2:16|alt=A black and white newsreel reporting Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal|[[Movietone newsreel]]s reporting Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal and both domestic and Western reactions]]
France and the UK, the largest shareholders in the Suez Canal Company, saw its nationalization as yet another hostile measure aimed at them by the Egyptian government. Nasser was aware that the canal's nationalization would instigate an international crisis and believed the prospect of military intervention by the two countries was 80 percent likely.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rogan|2011|p=299}}</ref> Nasser dismissed their claims,<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpfuYTSFlVo Nasser 1956 speech mocking the media and the British denunciation of him] (in Egyptian Arabic, YouTube)</ref> and believed that the UK would not be able to intervene militarily for at least two months after the announcement, and dismissed Israeli action as "impossible".<ref>{{Harvnb|Heikal|1973|p=91}}</ref> In early October, the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] met on the matter of the canal's nationalization and adopted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 118|a resolution]] recognizing Egypt's right to control the canal as long as it continued to allow passage through it for foreign ships.<ref>{{Harvnb|Heikal|1973|pp=103–104}}</ref> According to Heikal, after this agreement, "Nasser estimated that the danger of invasion had dropped to 10 percent".<ref>{{Harvnb|Heikal|1973|p=105}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, however, the UK, France, and Israel made a [[Protocol of Sèvres|secret agreement]] to take over the Suez Canal, occupy the Suez Canal zone,<ref name="Jankowski68" /><ref>{{Citation |first=Avi |last=Shlaim |author-link=Avi Shlaim |url=http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ssfc0005/The%20Protocol%20of%20Sevres%201956%20Anatomy%20of%20a%20War%20Plot.html |title=The Protocol of Sèvres,1956: Anatomy of a War Plot |work=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=73 |year=1997 |issue=3 |pages=509–530 |access-date=6 October 2009 |archive-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405191936/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ssfc0005/The%20Protocol%20of%20Sevres%201956%20Anatomy%20of%20a%20War%20Plot.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and topple Nasser.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=179}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Jankowski|2001|p=66}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=47}}</ref>

On 29 October 1956, Israeli forces crossed the [[Sinai Peninsula]], overwhelmed Egyptian army posts, and quickly advanced to their objectives. Two days later, British and French planes bombarded Egyptian airfields in the canal zone.<ref name="Aburish119">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=118–119}}</ref> Nasser ordered the military's high command to withdraw the Egyptian Army from Sinai to bolster the canal's defenses.<ref name="Shemesh116" /> Moreover, he feared that if the armored corps was dispatched to confront the Israeli invading force and the British and French subsequently landed in the canal city of [[Port Said]], Egyptian armor in the Sinai would be cut off from the canal and destroyed by the combined tripartite forces.<ref name="Shemesh116" /> Amer strongly disagreed, insisting that Egyptian tanks meet the Israelis in battle.<ref name="Shemesh116" /> The two had a heated exchange on 3 November, and Amer conceded.<ref name="Shemesh116">{{Harvnb|Shemesh|Troen|1990|p=116}}</ref> Nasser also ordered blockage of the canal by sinking or otherwise disabling forty-nine ships at its entrance.<ref name="Aburish119" />

Despite the commanded withdrawal of Egyptian troops, about 2,000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during engagement with Israeli forces,<ref name="Bidwell398">{{Harvnb|Bidwell|1998|p=398}}</ref> and some 5,000 Egyptian soldiers were captured by the Israeli Army.<ref name="Shemesh116" /> Amer and [[Salah Salem]] proposed requesting a ceasefire, with Salem further recommending that Nasser surrender himself to British forces.<ref name="Jankowski68" /> Nasser berated Amer and Salem, and vowed, "Nobody is going to surrender."<ref name="Aburish119" /> Nasser assumed military command. Despite the relative ease in which Sinai was occupied, Nasser's prestige at home and among Arabs was undamaged.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=46}}</ref> To counterbalance the Egyptian Army's dismal performance, Nasser authorized the distribution of about 400,000 rifles to civilian volunteers and hundreds of militias were formed throughout Egypt, many led by Nasser's political opponents.<ref name="Alexander94">{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=94}}</ref>

It was at Port Said that Nasser saw a confrontation with the invading forces as being the strategic and psychological focal point of Egypt's defense.<ref name="Kyle445-446">{{Harvnb|Kyle|2011|pp=445–446}}</ref> A third infantry battalion and hundreds of national guardsmen were sent to the city as reinforcements, while two regular companies were dispatched to organize popular resistance.<ref name="Kyle445-446" /> Nasser and Boghdadi traveled to the canal zone to boost the morale of the armed volunteers. According to Boghdadi's memoirs, Nasser described the Egyptian Army as "shattered" as he saw the wreckage of Egyptian military equipment en route.<ref name="Kyle445-446" /> When British and French forces landed in Port Said on 5–6 November, its local militia put up a stiff resistance, resulting in street-to-street fighting.<ref name="Alexander94" /><ref name="Kyle13-4">{{Harvnb|Kyle|2001|pp=113–114}}</ref> The Egyptian Army commander in the city was preparing to request terms for a ceasefire, but Nasser ordered him to desist. The British-French forces managed to largely secure the city by 7 November.<ref name="Kyle13-4" /> Between 750 and 1,000 Egyptians were killed in the battle for Port Said.<ref name="Bidwell398" />

The US [[Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower administration]] condemned the tripartite invasion, and supported UN resolutions demanding withdrawal and a [[United Nations Emergency Force]] (UNEF) to be stationed in Sinai.<ref name="Yaqub51">{{Harvnb|Yaqub|2004|p=51}}</ref> Nasser commended Eisenhower, stating he played the "greatest and most decisive role" in stopping the "tripartite conspiracy".<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=180}}</ref> By the end of December, British and French forces had totally withdrawn from Egyptian territory,<ref name="Yaqub51" /> while Israel completed its withdrawal in March 1957 and released all Egyptian [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="Bidwell398" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Establishment of UNEF (United Nations Emergency Force) |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1backgr2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231033027/https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unef1backgr2.html |archive-date=31 December 2009 |access-date=29 July 2010 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> As a result of the Suez Crisis, Nasser brought in a set of regulations imposing rigorous requirements for residency and citizenship as well as [[1956–57 exodus and expulsions from Egypt|forced expulsions]], mostly affecting British and French nationals and Jews with foreign nationality, as well as many [[Egyptian Jews]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beinin|2005|p=87}}</ref> Some 25,000 Jews, almost half of the Jewish community, left in 1956, mainly for Israel, Europe, the United States and South America.<ref name="Laskier2">{{cite web|url=http://www.hsje.org/Egypt/Egypt%20Today/egyptian_jewry_under_the_nasser_.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080125011249/http://www.hsje.org/Egypt/Egypt%20Today/egyptian_jewry_under_the_nasser_.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2008|title=Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70|author=Michael M. Laskier|publisher=Historical Society of Jews from Egypt|year=1995|access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://israelite.galileo.usg.edu/israelite/view?docId=bookreader/asi/asi1957/asi1957-0450.mets.xml#page/1/mode/1up Nasser refutes Jewish accusations of expulsion or mistreatment] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010024713/http://israelite.galileo.usg.edu/israelite/view?docId=bookreader/asi/asi1957/asi1957-0450.mets.xml#page/1/mode/1up |date=10 October 2017}} in the Southern Israelite (Jewish) Newspaper, 1957</ref>

After the fighting ended, Amer accused Nasser of provoking an unnecessary war and then blaming the military for the result.<ref>{{harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=50}}</ref> On 8 April, the canal was reopened,<ref>{{harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=123}}</ref> and Nasser's political position was enormously enhanced by the widely perceived failure of the invasion and attempt to topple him. British diplomat [[Sir Anthony Nutting, 3rd Baronet|Anthony Nutting]] claimed the crisis "established Nasser finally and completely" as the ''rayyes'' (president) of Egypt.<ref name="Jankowski68" />

== Pan-Arabism and socialism ==
{{See also|Arab Cold War|Nasserism}}
[[File:Arab Defense Pact Signing 1957.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Five men standing side by side behind a table with documents on it. All the men are wearing suits and ties, with the exception of the man in the middle, who is wearing a traditional robe and headdress. There are three men standing behind them.|The signing of the regional defense pact between Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Jordan, January 1957. At the forefront, from left right: Prime Minister [[Sulayman al-Nabulsi]] of Jordan, King [[Hussein of Jordan]], King [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]], Nasser, Prime Minister [[Sabri al-Asali]] of Syria]]

By 1957, [[pan-Arabism]] had become the dominant ideology in the Arab world, and the average Arab citizen considered Nasser their undisputed leader.<ref name="Dawisha184">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=184}}</ref> Historian Adeed Dawisha credited Nasser's status to his "charisma, bolstered by his perceived victory in the Suez Crisis".<ref name="Dawisha184" /> The Cairo-based [[Voice of the Arabs]] radio station spread Nasser's ideas of united Arab action throughout the Arabic-speaking world, so much so that historian Eugene Rogan wrote, "Nasser conquered the Arab world by radio."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rogan|2011|p=305}}</ref> Lebanese sympathizers of Nasser and the Egyptian embassy in [[Beirut]]—the press center of the Arab world—bought out Lebanese media outlets to further disseminate Nasser's ideals.<ref name="Aburish 135-136" /> Egypt also expanded its policy of secondment, dispatching thousands of high-skilled Egyptian professionals (usually politically active teachers) across the region.<ref name="Tsourapas2016a">{{Harvnb|Tsourapas|2016}}</ref> Nasser also enjoyed the support of Arab nationalist civilian and paramilitary organizations throughout the region. His followers were numerous and well-funded, but lacked any permanent structure and organization. They called themselves "[[Nasserite]]s", despite Nasser's objection to the label (he preferred the term "Arab nationalists").<ref name="Aburish 135-136" />

In January 1957, the US adopted the [[Eisenhower Doctrine]] and pledged to prevent the spread of communism and its perceived agents in the Middle East.<ref name="Aburish127">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=127}}</ref> Although Nasser was an opponent of communism in the region, his promotion of pan-Arabism was viewed as a threat by pro-Western states in the region.<ref name="Aburish127" /><ref name="Yaqub102">{{Harvnb|Yaqub|2004|p=102}}</ref> Eisenhower tried to isolate Nasser and reduce his regional influence by attempting to transform King Saud into a counterweight.<ref name="Aburish127" /><ref name="Yaqub102" /> Also in January, the elected Jordanian prime minister and Nasser supporter<ref name="Dawisha155">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=155}}</ref> [[Sulayman al-Nabulsi]] brought Jordan into a military pact with Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Dawisha181">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=181–182}}</ref>

Relations between Nasser and King [[Hussein of Jordan]] deteriorated in April when Hussein implicated Nasser in two coup attempts against him<ref name="Dawisha181" /><ref name="Dawisha191">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=191}}</ref>—although Nasser's involvement was never established<ref>{{Harvnb|Dann|1989|p=169}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=130}}</ref>—and dissolved al-Nabulsi's cabinet.<ref name="Dawisha181" /><ref name="Dawisha191" /> Nasser subsequently slammed Hussein on Cairo radio as being "a tool of the imperialists".<ref name="Aburish 130-131">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=130–131}}</ref> Relations with King Saud also became antagonistic as the latter began to fear that Nasser's increasing popularity in Saudi Arabia was a genuine threat to the [[House of Saud|royal family]]'s survival.<ref name="Dawisha181" /> Despite opposition from the governments of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, [[Iraq]], and [[Lebanon]], Nasser maintained his prestige among their citizens and those of other Arab countries.<ref name="Aburish 135-136">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=135–136}}</ref>

By the end of 1957, Nasser nationalized all remaining British and French assets in Egypt, including the tobacco, cement, pharmaceutical, and [[phosphate]] industries.<ref name="Aburish138-9">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=138–139}}</ref> When efforts to offer tax incentives and attract outside investments yielded no tangible results, he nationalized more companies and made them a part of his economic development organization.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> He stopped short of total government control: two-thirds of the economy was still in private hands.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> This effort achieved a measure of success, with increased agricultural production and investment in industrialization.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> Nasser initiated the Helwan steelworks, which subsequently became Egypt's largest enterprise, providing the country with product and tens of thousands of jobs.<ref name="Aburish138-9" /> Nasser also decided to cooperate with the [[Soviet Union]] in the construction of the Aswan Dam to replace the withdrawal of US funds.<ref name="Aburish138-9" />

=== United Arab Republic ===
{{Main|United Arab Republic}}
[[File:Nasser announcing UAR.flac|thumb|right|Nasser's announcement of the United Arab Republic, 23 February 1958]]
[[File:1958-02-03 Egypt, Syria Merge In New Arab Republic.webm|thumb|right|Newsreel clip about Nasser and Quwatli's establishment of United Arab Republic]]

Despite his popularity with the people of the Arab world, by mid-1957 his only regional ally was Syria.<ref name="Dawisha191-2">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=191–192}}</ref> In September, [[Turkish army|Turkish troops]] massed along the Syrian border, giving credence to rumors that the Baghdad Pact countries [[Syrian Crisis of 1957|were attempting to topple Syria's leftist government]].<ref name="Dawisha191-2" /> Nasser sent a contingent force to Syria as a symbolic display of solidarity, further elevating his prestige in the Arab world, and particularly among Syrians.<ref name="Dawisha191-2" />

As political instability grew in Syria, delegations from the country were sent to Nasser demanding immediate unification with Egypt.<ref name="Dawisha193">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=193}}</ref> Nasser initially turned down the request, citing the two countries' incompatible political and economic systems, lack of [[Geographic contiguity|contiguity]], the Syrian military's record of intervention in politics, and the deep factionalism among Syria's political forces.<ref name="Dawisha193" /> However, in January 1958, a second Syrian delegation managed to convince Nasser of an impending communist takeover and a consequent slide to civil strife.<ref name="Dawisha198">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=198}}</ref> Nasser subsequently opted for union, albeit on the condition that it would be a total political merger with him as its president, to which the delegates and Syrian president [[Shukri al-Quwatli]] agreed.<ref name="Dawisha199">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=199–200}}</ref> On 1 February, the [[United Arab Republic]] (UAR) was proclaimed and, according to Dawisha, the Arab world reacted in "stunned amazement, which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria."<ref name="Dawisha200">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=200}}</ref> Nasser ordered a crackdown against Syrian communists, dismissing many of them from their governmental posts.<ref name="Aburish151">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=150–151}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|1999|pp=44–45}}</ref>

[[File:Presidents Gamal Abdul Nasser and Shukri al-Quwatli receiving Yemeni Crown Prince Mohammad Badr in Damascus in February 1958 congratulating them on formation of the United Arab Republic.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three men sitting next to each other, two of whom are wearing suits and ties, with the man in the middle wearing a traditional robe and headdress.|Nasser seated alongside Crown Prince [[Muhammad al-Badr]] of North Yemen (center) and Shukri al-Quwatli (right), February 1958. North Yemen joined the UAR to form the [[United Arab States]], a loose confederation.]]

On a surprise visit to Damascus to celebrate the union on 24 February, Nasser was welcomed by crowds in the hundreds of thousands.<ref name="Dawisha202-3">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=202–203}}</ref> Crown Prince [[Imam Badr]] of North Yemen was dispatched to Damascus with proposals to include his country in the new republic. Nasser agreed to establish a loose federal union with Yemen—the [[United Arab States]]—in place of total integration.<ref name="Aburish158">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=158}}</ref> While Nasser was in Syria, King Saud planned to have him assassinated on his return flight to Cairo.<ref name="Dawisha190">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=190}}</ref> On 4 March, Nasser addressed the masses in Damascus and waved before them the Saudi check given to Syrian security chief and, unbeknownst to the Saudis, ardent Nasser supporter [[Abdel Hamid Sarraj]] to shoot down Nasser's plane.<ref name="Aburish160-1">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=160–161}}</ref> As a consequence of Saud's plot, he was forced by senior members of the Saudi royal family to informally cede most of his powers to his brother, [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]], a major Nasser opponent who advocated [[pan-Islamism|pan-Islamic unity]] over pan-Arabism.<ref name="Aburish161-2">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=161–162}}</ref>

A day after announcing the attempt on his life, Nasser established a new provisional constitution proclaiming a 600-member National Assembly (400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria) and the dissolution of all political parties.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser gave each of the provinces two vice-presidents: Boghdadi and Amer in Egypt, and [[Sabri al-Asali]] and [[Akram al-Hawrani]] in Syria.<ref name="Aburish161-2" /> Nasser then left for Moscow to meet with [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. At the meeting, Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party, but Nasser refused, stating it was an internal matter which was not a subject of discussion with outside powers. Khrushchev was reportedly taken aback and denied he had meant to interfere in the UAR's affairs. The matter was settled as both leaders sought to prevent a rift between their two countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=163}}</ref>

With the establishment of the United Arab Republic, the United States under President Eisenhower attempted to build better relations and initiate a rapprochement between the two countries, contrasting with the previously cautious stance of the American government towards Nasser.<ref name="RolandPopp2010" /> In particular, Nasser sought American assistance in his ideological cold war with [[Abd al-Karim Qasim|Abdel Karim Qasim]] in Iraq and his ideology of [[Qasimism]], which conflicted with Nasser's pan-Arab nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yolcu |first=Furkan Halit |date=1 October 2020 |title=Building a Model While Debunking Another: The Rivalry of Arab Nationalism between 'Abd al-Karim Qasim and Gamal Abdel Nasser |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13537113.2020.1788696 |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=319–335 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2020.1788696 |s2cid=222110461 |issn=1353-7113 |access-date=15 October 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, due to major ideological differences, no significant long-term working relationship developed between Nasser and Eisenhower.<ref name="RolandPopp2010">{{cite journal |last1=Popp |first1=Roland |date=10 September 2010 |title=Accommodating to a working relationship: Arab Nationalism and US Cold War policies in the Middle East, 1958–60 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14682741003686107 |journal=[[Cold War History (journal)|Cold War History]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=397–427 |doi=10.1080/14682741003686107 |s2cid=153362433 |access-date=5 March 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Influence on the Arab world ===
{{quote box
| quote = The holy march on which the Arab nation insists, will carry us forward from one victory to another ... the flag of freedom which flies over Baghdad today will fly over Amman and Riyadh. Yes, the flag of freedom which flies over Cairo, Damascus, and Baghdad today will fly over the rest of the Middle East ...
| quoted = 1 | width = 35% | align = right | source = Gamal Abdel Nasser, 19 July in Damascus<ref name="Aburish 174-175" />}}

In Lebanon, clashes between pro-Nasser factions and supporters of staunch Nasser opponent, then-President [[Camille Chamoun]], culminated in [[1958 Lebanon crisis|civil strife]] by May.<ref name="Dawisha208">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=208}}</ref> The former sought to unite with the UAR, while the latter sought Lebanon's continued independence.<ref name="Dawisha208" /> Nasser delegated oversight of the issue to Sarraj, who provided limited aid to Nasser's Lebanese supporters through money, light arms, and officer training<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=164}}</ref>—short of the large-scale support that Chamoun alleged.{{sfn|Dawisha|2009|pp=208–209}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=167}}</ref> Nasser did not covet Lebanon, seeing it as a "special case", but sought to prevent Chamoun from a second presidential term.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=166}}</ref> In Oman, the [[Jebel Akhdar War]] between the rebels in the interior of Oman against the British-backed Sultanate of Oman prompted Nasser to support the rebels in what was considered a war against colonialism between 1954 and 1959.<ref name="JAN">{{Cite book |last=Fremont-Barnes |first=Gregory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOZjCAAAQBAJ&dq=jebel%20akhdar%20war&pg=RA1-PA76 |title=A History of Counterinsurgency [2 volumes] |date=2015-05-05 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-0425-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="NYTJAN">{{Cite news |date=1957-07-28 |title=OMAN DISPUTE HIGHLIGHTS U.S.-BRITISH DIFFERENCES; London Moves to Support Its Sultan While Washington Worries About Saudi Arabia British System of Control U.S. View of the Case Threat to Britain (Published 1957) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1957/07/28/archives/oman-dispute-highlights-usbritish-differences-london-moves-to.html?searchResultPosition=1 |access-date=2025-10-10 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Negotiations between Chehab and Nasser.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Two men standing side by side in the forefront, wearing overcoats. Behind them are several men in military uniform or suits and ties standing and saluting or making no gestures.|Nasser (right) and Lebanese president [[Fuad Chehab]] (to Nasser's right) at the Syrian–Lebanese border during talks to end the [[1958 Lebanon crisis|crisis in Lebanon]]. [[Akram al-Hawrani]] stands third to Nasser's left, and [[Abdel Hamid Sarraj]] stands to Chehab's right, March 1959.]]

On 14 July 1958, Iraqi army officers Abdel Karim Qasim and [[Abdel Salam Aref]] overthrew the Iraqi monarchy and, the next day, Iraqi prime minister and Nasser's chief Arab antagonist, [[Nuri al-Said]], was killed.<ref name="Dawisha209">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=209}}</ref> The entire Iraqi royal family was killed, and Al-Said's and Iraqi crown prince [['Abd al-Ilah]]'s bodies were mutilated and dragged across Baghdad.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRXDRyFETQkC&pg=PA18-IA169|title=Lion of Jordan|author=Avi Shlaim|access-date=23 January 2018|year= 2008|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-27051-1}}</ref> Nasser recognized the new government and stated that "any attack on Iraq was tantamount to an attack on the UAR".<ref name="Aburish169-170" /> On 15 July, US marines landed in Lebanon, and British special forces in Jordan, upon the request of those countries' governments to prevent them from falling to pro-Nasser forces. Nasser felt that the [[14 July Revolution|revolution in Iraq]] left the road for pan-Arab unity unblocked.<ref name="Aburish169-170">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=169–170}}</ref> On 19 July, for the first time, he declared that he was opting for full Arab union, although he had no plan to merge Iraq with the UAR.<ref name="Aburish 174-175">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=174–175}}</ref> While most members of the [[Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC) favored Iraqi-UAR unity,<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=172}}</ref> Qasim sought to keep Iraq independent and resented Nasser's large popular base in the country.<ref name="Dawisha209" />

In the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin, al-Hawrani, and [[Salah al-Din Bitar|Salah Bitar]] to oversee developments in Syria.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> By moving the latter two, who were Ba'athists, to Cairo, he neutralized important political figures who had their own ideas about how Syria should be run.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> He put Syria under Sarraj, who effectively reduced the province to a [[police state]] by imprisoning and exiling landholders who objected to the introduction of Egyptian agricultural reform in Syria, as well as communists.<ref name="Aburish176-78" /> Following the Lebanese election of [[Fuad Chehab]] in September 1958, relations between Lebanon and the UAR improved considerably.<ref name="Salam102">{{Harvnb|Salam|2004|p=102}}</ref> On 25 March 1959, Chehab and Nasser met at the [[Lebanese–Syrian border]] and compromised on an end to the Lebanese crisis.<ref name="Salam102" />

[[File:Nasser addressing Damascus, 1960.jpg|thumb|right|alt=The back of a man waving to the throng below|Nasser waving to crowds in [[Damascus]], Syria, October 1960]]

Relations between Nasser and Qasim grew increasingly bitter on 9 March,<ref name="Aburish181-83">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=181–183}}</ref> after Qasim's forces suppressed a [[1959 Mosul uprising|rebellion]] in [[Mosul]], launched a day earlier by a [[Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf|pro-Nasser Iraqi RCC officer]] backed by UAR authorities.<ref name="Dawisha216">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=216}}</ref> Nasser had considered dispatching troops to aid his Iraqi sympathizers, but decided against it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=179–180}}</ref> He clamped down on Egyptian communist activity due to the key backing Iraqi communists provided Qasim. Several influential communists were arrested, including Nasser's old comrade [[Khaled Mohieddin]], who had been allowed to re-enter Egypt in 1956.<ref name="Aburish181-83" />

By December, the political situation in Syria was faltering and Nasser responded by appointing Amer as governor-general alongside Sarraj. Syria's leaders opposed the appointment and many resigned from their government posts. Nasser later met with the opposition leaders and in a heated moment, exclaimed that he was the elected president of the UAR and those who did not accept his authority could "walk away".<ref name="Aburish176-78">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=176–178}}</ref>

=== Collapse of the union and aftermath ===
Opposition to the union mounted among some of Syria's key elements,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=227}}</ref> namely the [[socioeconomic]], political, and military elites.<ref name="Dawisha231">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=231}}</ref> In response to Syria's worsening economy, which Nasser attributed to its control by the [[bourgeoisie]], in July 1961, Nasser decreed socialist measures that nationalized wide-ranging sectors of the Syrian economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=229}}</ref> He also dismissed Sarraj in September to curb the growing political crisis. Aburish states that Nasser was not fully capable of addressing Syrian problems because they were "foreign to him".<ref name="Aburish189-191">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=189–191}}</ref> In Egypt, the economic situation was more positive, with a GNP growth of 4.5 percent and a rapid growth of industry.<ref name="Aburish189-191" /> In 1960, Nasser nationalized the Egyptian press, which had already been cooperating with his government, in order to steer coverage towards the country's socioeconomic issues and galvanize public support for his socialist measures.<ref name="AtiyehOweiss331–2" />

On 28 September 1961, secessionist army units launched a coup in Damascus, declaring Syria's secession from the UAR.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=230}}</ref> In response, pro-union army units in northern Syria revolted and pro-Nasser protests occurred in major Syrian cities.<ref name="Dawisha231" /> Nasser sent [[Sa'ka Forces|Egyptian Special Forces]] to [[Latakia]] to bolster his allies, but withdrew them two days later, citing a refusal to allow inter-Arab fighting.<ref name="Aburish204-5">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=204–205}}</ref> Addressing the UAR's breakup on 5 October,<ref name="Podeh157">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=157}}</ref> Nasser accepted personal responsibility<ref name="Aburish204-5" /> and declared that Egypt would recognize an elected Syrian government.<ref name="Podeh157" /> He privately blamed interference by hostile Arab governments.<ref name="Aburish204-5" /> According to Heikal, Nasser suffered something resembling a nervous breakdown after the dissolution of the union; he began to smoke more heavily and his health began to deteriorate.<ref name="Aburish204-5" />

=== Revival on regional stage ===
{{See also|North Yemen Civil War}}
[[File:Nasser, Arif and Ben Bella.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three important men walking alongside each other.|Nasser (center) receiving Algerian president [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] (right) and Iraqi president [[Abdel Salam Aref]] (left) for the [[1964 Arab League summit (Alexandria)|Arab League summit]] in Alexandria, September 1964. Ben Bella and Aref were close allies of Nasser.]]

Nasser's regional position changed unexpectedly when Yemeni officers led by Nasser supporter [[Abdullah al-Sallal]] overthrew Imam Badr of North Yemen on 27 September 1962.<ref name="Aburish207" /> Al-Badr and his tribal partisans began receiving increasing support from Saudi Arabia to help reinstate the kingdom, while Nasser subsequently accepted a request by Sallal to militarily aid the new government on 30 September.<ref name="Dawisha235">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=235}}</ref> Consequently, Egypt became increasingly embroiled in the drawn-out [[North Yemen Civil War|civil war]], with 60,000 Egyptian soldiers deployed in North Yemen in March 1966. In August 1967, in order to make up for Egyptian losses during the Six-Day War, Nasser recalled 15,000 troops from North Yemen. As part of the [[Khartoum Resolution]] at the [[1967 Arab League summit]] in the same month, Egypt announced that it was ready to withdraw all its soldiers from North Yemen and it did so by the end of 1967.<ref name="Dawisha235" /> 26,000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during the intervention.{{sfn|Pollack|2002|pp=55–56}} Most of Nasser's old colleagues had questioned the wisdom of continuing the war, but Amer reassured Nasser of their coming victory.<ref name="Aburish209">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=209–211}}</ref> Nasser later remarked in 1968 that intervention in Yemen was a "miscalculation".<ref name="Dawisha235" />

In July 1962, Algeria became [[Algerian independence war|independent]] of France.<ref name="Aburish209" /> As a staunch political and financial supporter of the Algerian independence movement, Nasser considered the country's independence to be a personal victory.<ref name="Aburish209" /> Amid these developments, a [[Free Princes|pro-Nasser clique]] in the Saudi royal family led by Prince [[Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz|Talal]] defected to Egypt, along with the Jordanian chief of staff, in early 1963.<ref name="Dawisha237">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=237}}</ref>

On 8 February 1963, a [[Ramadan Revolution|military coup]] in Iraq led by a Ba'athist–Nasserist alliance toppled Qasim, who was subsequently shot dead. [[Abdul Salam Arif|Abdel Salam Aref]], a Nasserist, was chosen to be the new president.<ref name="Aburish209" /> A similar alliance [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|toppled]] the Syrian government on 8 March.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|pp=76–77}}</ref> On 14 March, the new Iraqi and Syrian governments sent Nasser delegations to push for a new Arab union.<ref name="Aburish 215-217">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=215–217}}</ref> At the meeting, Nasser lambasted the Ba'athists for "facilitating" Syria's split from the UAR,<ref name="Dawisha239">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=239}}</ref> and asserted that he was the "leader of the Arabs".<ref name="Aburish 215-217" /> A transitional unity agreement stipulating a federal system<ref name="Aburish 215-217" /> was signed by the parties on 17 April and the new union was set to be established in May 1965.<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|p=81}}</ref> However, the agreement fell apart weeks later when Syria's Ba'athists [[1963 Syrian coup d'état#Purges and failed coup of 18 July|purged]] Nasser's supporters from the officers corps. A failed counter-coup by a [[Jassem Alwan|Nasserist colonel]] followed, after which Nasser condemned the Ba'athists as "fascists".<ref>{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|pp=82–83}}</ref>
[[File:Nasser and Sallal in Sanaa.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Several men in different clothing standing before a crowd of people.|Nasser before Yemeni crowds on his arrival to [[Sanaa]], April 1964. In front of Nasser and giving a salute is Yemeni President [[Abdullah al-Sallal]] ]]

In January 1964, Nasser called for an [[1964 Arab League summit (Cairo)|Arab League summit]] in Cairo to establish a unified Arab response against Israel's plans to divert the [[Jordan River]]'s waters for economic purposes, which Syria and Jordan deemed an act of war.<ref name="Dawisha243">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|pp=243–244}}</ref> Nasser blamed Arab divisions for what he deemed "the disastrous situation".<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> He discouraged Syria and Palestinian guerrillas from provoking the Israelis, conceding that he had no plans for war with Israel.<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> During the summit, Nasser developed cordial relations with King Hussein, and ties were mended with the rulers of Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Morocco.<ref name="Dawisha243" /> In May, Nasser moved to formally share his leadership position over the Palestine issue<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /> by initiating the creation of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO).<ref name="Aburish 222-223" /><ref name="Cubert52">{{Harvnb|Cubert|1997|p=52}}</ref> In practice, Nasser used the PLO to wield control over the Palestinian fedayeen.<ref name="Cubert52" /> Its head was to be [[Ahmad Shukeiri]], Nasser's personal nominee.<ref name="Aburish 222-223">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=222–223}}</ref>

After years of foreign policy coordination and developing ties, Nasser, President [[Sukarno]] of [[Indonesia]], President [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]] of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] of [[India]] founded the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) in 1961.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mehrotra|1990|p=57}}</ref> Its declared purpose was to solidify international non-alignment and promote world peace amid the Cold War, end colonization, and increase economic cooperation among developing countries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mehrotra|1990|p=58}}</ref> In 1964, Nasser was made president of the NAM and held the second conference of the organization in Cairo.<ref name="Aburish234">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=234}}</ref>

Nasser played a significant part in the strengthening of African solidarity in the late 1950s and early 1960s, although his continental leadership role had increasingly passed to Algeria since 1962.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1">{{Harvnb|Adi|Sherwood|2003|pp=140–141}}</ref> During this period, Nasser made Egypt a refuge for anti-colonial leaders from several African countries and allowed the broadcast of anti-colonial propaganda from Cairo.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1" /> Beginning in 1958, Nasser had a key role in the discussions among African leaders that led to the establishment of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU) in 1963.<ref name="AdiSherwood140-1" />

== Modernization efforts and internal dissent ==
[[File:Egyptian officials at al-Azhar, 1959.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Several men walking forward, side by side. There are five men in the forefront, all wearing suits and ties. In the background is an ornate building with two minarets and a dome.|Government officials attending [[Friday prayer]]s at [[al-Azhar Mosque]], 1959. From left to right; Interior Minister [[Zakaria Mohieddin]], Nasser, Social Affairs Minister [[Hussein el-Shafei]] and National Union Secretary [[Anwar Sadat]]]]

=== Al-Azhar ===
In 1961, Nasser sought to firmly establish Egypt as the leader of the Arab world and to promote a second revolution in Egypt with the purpose of merging Islamic and socialist thinking.<ref name="Aburish201">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=200–201}}</ref> To achieve this, he initiated several reforms to modernize [[al-Azhar University|al-Azhar]], which serves as the ''de facto'' leading authority in [[Sunni Islam]], and to ensure its prominence over the Muslim Brotherhood and the more conservative [[Wahhabism]] promoted by Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Aburish201" /> Nasser had used al-Azhar's most willing ''[[ulema]]'' (scholars) as a counterweight to the Brotherhood's Islamic influence, starting in 1953.<ref name="Aburish46-7" />

Nasser instructed al-Azhar to create changes in its syllabus that trickled to the lower levels of Egyptian education, consequently allowing the establishment of coeducational schools and the introduction of [[evolution]] into school [[curriculum]]. The reforms also included the merger of [[sharia|religious]] and civil courts.<ref name="Aburish201" /> Moreover, Nasser forced al-Azhar to issue a [[fatwā]] admitting [[Shia Muslim]]s, [[Alawite]]s, and [[Druze]] into mainstream Islam; for centuries prior, al-Azhar deemed them to be "heretics".<ref name="Aburish201" />

=== Rivalry with Amer ===
Following Syria's secession, Nasser grew concerned with Amer's inability to train and modernize the army, and with the [[state within a state]] Amer had created in the military command and [[Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate|intelligence apparatus]].<ref name="Aburish237" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=51}}</ref> In late 1961, Nasser established the Presidential Council and decreed it the authority to approve all senior military appointments, instead of leaving this responsibility solely to Amer.<ref name="Farid71">{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|p=71}}</ref><ref name="Brooks88">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=88}}</ref> Moreover, he instructed that the primary criterion for promotion should be merit and not personal loyalties.<ref name="Farid71" /> Nasser retracted the initiative after Amer's allies in the officers corps threatened to mobilize against him.<ref name="Brooks88" />

In early 1962 Nasser again attempted to wrest control of the military command from Amer.<ref name="Brooks88" /> Amer responded by directly confronting Nasser for the first time and secretly rallying his loyalist officers.<ref name="Farid71" /><ref name="Brooks89">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=89}}</ref> Nasser ultimately backed down, wary of a possible violent confrontation between the military and his civilian government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|pp=71–72}}</ref> According to Boghdadi, the stress caused by the UAR's collapse and Amer's increasing autonomy forced Nasser, who already had [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], to practically live on painkillers from then on.<ref name="Aburish244">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=244}}</ref>

=== National Charter and second term ===
[[File:Nasser's Second Term.jpg|thumb|right|alt=To the left, a man in a suit and tie is standing at a podium in front of the Egyptian flag. To the right, a crowd of people watch, most of whom are men in suits. Some of the men are holding a camera.|Nasser being sworn in for a second term as Egypt's president, 25 March 1965]]

In October 1961, Nasser embarked on a major nationalization program for Egypt, believing the total adoption of socialism was the answer to his country's problems and would have prevented Syria's secession.<ref name="Aburish205">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=205–206}}</ref> In order to organize and solidify his popular base with Egypt's citizens and counter the army's influence, Nasser introduced the National Charter in 1962 and a [[Egyptian Constitution of 1963|new constitution]].<ref name="Aburish237">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=235–237}}</ref> The charter called for [[universal health care]], [[affordable housing]], [[vocational schools]], greater women's rights and a family planning program, as well as widening the Suez Canal.<ref name="Aburish237" />

Nasser also attempted to maintain oversight of the country's civil service to prevent it from inflating and consequently becoming a burden to the state.<ref name="Aburish237" /> New laws provided workers with a minimum wage, profit shares, free education, free health care, reduced working hours, and encouragement to participate in management. Land reforms guaranteed the security of tenant farmers,<ref>{{Harvnb|Stork|2001|pp=235–236}}</ref> promoted agricultural growth, and reduced rural poverty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akram-Lodhi|Borras|Kay|2007|pp=258–259}}</ref> As a result of the 1962 measures, government ownership of Egyptian business reached 51&nbsp;percent,<ref>{{Harvnb|Abdelmalek|1968|pp=363–365}}</ref> and the National Union was renamed the [[Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)|Arab Socialist Union]] (ASU).<ref name="Aburish205" /> With these measures came more domestic repression, as thousands of [[Islamist]]s were imprisoned, including dozens of military officers.<ref name="Aburish205" /> Nasser's tilt toward a Soviet-style system led his aides Boghdadi and [[Hussein el-Shafei]] to submit their resignations in protest.<ref name="Aburish207">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=207–208}}</ref>

During the presidential referendum in Egypt, Nasser was [[1965 United Arab Republic presidential confirmation referendum|re-elected]] to a second term as UAR president and took his oath on 25 March 1965. He was the only candidate for the position, with virtually all of his political opponents forbidden by law from running for office, and his fellow party members reduced to mere followers. That same year, Nasser had the Muslim Brotherhood chief ideologue Sayyed Qutb imprisoned.<ref name="Aburish239" /> Qutb was charged and found guilty by the court of plotting to assassinate Nasser, and was executed in 1966.<ref name="Aburish239">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=238–239}}</ref> Beginning in 1966, as Egypt's economy slowed and government debt became increasingly burdensome, Nasser began to ease state control over the private sector, encouraging state-owned bank loans to private business and introducing incentives to increase exports.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=123}}</ref> During the '60s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggishness to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ferris|2013|p=2}}</ref>

== Six-Day War ==
{{Main|Six-Day War}}
[[File:Nasser, Hussein and Amer before signing Egyptian-Jordanian defense pact.jpg|thumb|alt=Three important men walking in a hall, the first and the third are in military garb, the second is in a suit and tie. Behind them are three other men|Nasser (center), King [[Hussein of Jordan]] (left) and Egyptian Army Chief of Staff [[Abdel Hakim Amer]] (right) at the [[Supreme Council of the Armed Forces|Supreme Command of the Armed Forces]] headquarters in Cairo before signing a [[United Arab Command|mutual defense pact]], 30 May 1967|left]]

In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria, although Chief of Staff [[Mohamed Fawzi (general)|Mohamed Fawzi]] considered the warnings to be "baseless".<ref name="Aburish252">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=252}}</ref><ref name="Kandil76">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=76}}</ref> According to Kandil, without Nasser's authorization, Amer used the Soviet warnings as a pretext to dispatch troops to Sinai on 14 May, and Nasser subsequently demanded UNEF's withdrawal.<ref name="Kandil76" /><ref name="Brooks90">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=90}}</ref> Earlier that day, Nasser received a warning from King Hussein of Israeli-American collusion to drag Egypt into war.<ref name="Kandil77">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=77}}</ref> The message had been originally received by Amer on 2 May, but was withheld from Nasser until the Sinai deployment on 14 May.<ref name="Kandil77" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1996|p=159}}</ref> Although in the preceding months, Hussein and Nasser had been accusing each other of avoiding a fight with Israel,<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1996|pp=158–159}}</ref> Hussein was nonetheless wary that an Egyptian–Israeli war would risk the West Bank's occupation by Israel.<ref name="Kandil77" /> Nasser still felt that the US would restrain Israel from attacking due to assurances that he received from the US and Soviet Union.<ref name="Aburish254-5">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=254–255}}</ref> In turn, he also reassured both powers that Egypt would only act defensively.<ref name="Aburish254-5" />

On 21 May, Amer asked Nasser to order the Straits of Tiran blockaded, a move Nasser believed Israel would use as a ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref name="Kandil77" /> Amer reassured him that the army was prepared for confrontation,<ref name="Brooks95">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=95}}</ref><ref name="Kandil77-8">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|pp=77–78}}</ref> but Nasser doubted Amer's assessment of the military's readiness.<ref name="Brooks95" /> According to Nasser's vice president Zakaria Mohieddin, although "Amer had absolute authority over the armed forces, Nasser had his ways of knowing what was really going on".<ref name="Parker1993p79" /> Moreover, Amer anticipated an impending Israeli attack and advocated a preemptive strike.<ref name="Aburish255">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=255}}</ref><ref name="Kandil86">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=86}}</ref> Nasser refused the call<ref name="Kandil86" /><ref name="Aburish257">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=257}}</ref> upon determination that the air force lacked pilots and Amer's handpicked officers were incompetent.<ref name="Aburish257" /> Still, Nasser concluded that if Israel attacked, Egypt's quantitative advantage in manpower and arms could stave off Israeli forces for at least two weeks, allowing for diplomacy towards a ceasefire.<ref name="Brooks97">{{Harvnb|Brooks|2008|p=97}}</ref> Israel repeated declarations it had made in 1957 that any closure of the Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war, but Nasser closed the Straits to Israeli shipping on 22–23 May. Towards the end of May, Nasser increasingly exchanged his positions of deterrence for deference to the inevitability of war,<ref name="Brooks97" /><ref name="Aburish258">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=258}}</ref> under increased pressure to act by both the general Arab populace and various Arab governments.<ref name="Aburish252" /><ref name="Aburish254">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=252–254}}</ref> On 26 May Nasser declared, "our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".<ref name="Mutawi2002p95">{{Harvnb|Mutawi|2002|p=95}}</ref> On 30 May, King Hussein committed Jordan in an [[United Arab Command|alliance]] with Egypt and Syria.<ref name="Aburish256">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=256}}</ref>

[[File:Khartoum_Arab_Summit,_1967.jpg|alt=Khartoum Arab Summit, 1967|thumb|Some of the attending heads of state at the [[1967 Arab League summit|Arab League Summit in Khartoum]] following the Six-Day War. From left to right: [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Faisal]] of Saudi Arabia, Nasser, [[Abdullah al-Sallal]] of Yemen, [[Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah]] of Kuwait and [[Abdul Rahman Arif|Abd al-Rahman Arif]] of Iraq, 2 September 1967]]
On the morning of 5 June, the [[Israeli Air Force]] struck Egyptian air fields, destroying much of the Egyptian Air Force. Before the day ended, Israeli armored units had cut through Egyptian defense lines and captured the town of [[el-Arish]].<ref name="Aburish261">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=260–261}}</ref> The next day, Amer ordered the immediate withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Sinai—causing the majority of Egyptian casualties during the war.<ref name="Kandil82">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=82}}</ref> Israel quickly captured Sinai and the [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt, the [[West Bank]] from Jordan, and the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria.

According to Sadat, it was only when the Israelis cut off the Egyptian garrison at [[Sharm el-Sheikh]] that Nasser became aware of the situation's gravity.<ref name="Aburish261" /> After hearing of the attack, he rushed to army headquarters to inquire about the military situation.<ref name="Aburish263">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=263}}</ref> The simmering conflict between Nasser and Amer subsequently came to the fore, and officers present reported the pair burst into "a nonstop shouting match".<ref name="Aburish263" /> The Supreme Executive Committee, set up by Nasser to oversee the conduct of the war, attributed the repeated Egyptian defeats to the Nasser–Amer rivalry and Amer's overall incompetence.<ref name="Aburish261" /> According to Egyptian diplomat [[Ismail Fahmi]], who became foreign minister during Sadat's presidency, the Israeli invasion and Egypt's consequent defeat was a result of Nasser's dismissal of all rational analysis of the situation and his undertaking of a series of irrational decisions.<ref name="Fahmy19">{{Harvnb|Fahmy|2013|p=19}}</ref>

=== Resignation and aftermath ===
[[File:Protests against Nassers resignation 1967.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A crowd of people, many waving. One person is holding up a portrait of a man|Egyptian demonstrators protesting Nasser's resignation, 1967]]
{{quote box
| quote  = I have taken a decision with which I need your help. I have decided to withdraw totally and for good from any official post or political role, and to return to the ranks of the masses, performing my duty in their midst, like any other citizen. This is a time for action, not grief. ... My whole heart is with you, and let your hearts be with me. May God be with us—hope, light, and guidance in our hearts.
| source = Nasser's 9 June resignation speech, which was retracted the next day<ref name="Aburish262">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=262}}</ref>
| quoted = 1
| align  = right
| width  = 35%
}}

During the first four days of the war, the general population of the Arab world believed Arab radio station fabrications of imminent Arab victory.<ref name="Aburish262" /> On 9 June, Nasser appeared on television to inform Egypt's citizens of their country's defeat.<ref name="Aburish262" /><ref name="Bidwell276">{{Harvnb|Bidwell|1998|p=276}}</ref> He announced his resignation on television later that day, and ceded all presidential powers to his then-Vice President Zakaria Mohieddin, who had no prior information of this decision and refused to accept the post.<ref name="Bidwell276" /> It was in this resignation
speech that the Six Day War was first called the "setback". The second sentence of his speech ran: "We cannot hide from ourselves the fact that we have met with a grave setback [naksa] in the last few days"—the "naksa" or "setback" for Egypt being the destruction of its armed forces, the loss of the entire Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza region, and the national humiliation and disgrace of losing a war to the vastly smaller Israeli Army.

Hundreds of thousands of sympathizers poured into the streets in mass demonstrations throughout Egypt and across the Arab world rejecting his resignation,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=84}}</ref> chanting, "We are your soldiers, Gamal!"<ref name="Aburish268">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=268–269}}</ref> Nasser retracted his decision the next day.<ref name="Aburish268" />

[[File:خطاب تنحي الرئيس جمال عبد الناصر بعد النكسة.webm|thumb|right|A video clip of Nasser's resignation speech]]
On 11 July, Nasser replaced Amer with Mohamed Fawzi as general commander,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=85}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|p=430}}</ref> over the protestations of Amer's loyalists in the military, 600 of whom marched on army headquarters and demanded Amer's reinstatement.<ref name="Kandil87">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=87}}</ref> After Nasser sacked thirty of the loyalists in response,<ref name="Kandil87" /> Amer and his allies devised a plan to topple him on 27 August.<ref name="Kandil88">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=88}}</ref> Nasser was tipped off about their activities and, after several invitations, he convinced Amer to meet him at his home on 24 August.<ref name="Kandil88" /> Nasser confronted Amer about the coup plot, which he denied before being arrested by Mohieddin. Amer allegedly committed suicide (others claims state he was poisoned) on 14 September.<ref name="Kandil89">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|pp=89–90}}</ref> Despite his souring relationship with Amer, Nasser spoke of losing "the person closest to [him]".<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=277}}</ref> Thereafter, Nasser began a process of depoliticizing the armed forces, arresting dozens of leading military and intelligence figures loyal to Amer.<ref name="Kandil89" />

At the 29 August [[1967 Arab League summit|Arab League summit]] in Khartoum, Nasser's usual commanding position had receded as the attending heads of state expected Saudi King Faisal to lead. A ceasefire in the Yemen War was declared and the summit concluded with the [[Khartoum Resolution]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=270–271}}</ref> which, according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option—a war with [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meital |first1=Yoram |title=The Khartoum Conference and Egyptian Policy after the 1967 War: A Reexamination |journal=Middle East Journal |date=2000 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=64–82 |jstor=4329432 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329432}}</ref>

The Soviet Union soon resupplied the Egyptian military with about half of its former arsenals and broke diplomatic relations with Israel. Nasser cut relations with the US following the war, and, according to Aburish, his policy of "playing the superpowers against each other" ended.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=272}}</ref> In November, Nasser accepted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 242|UN Resolution 242]], which called for Israel's withdrawal from territories acquired in the war. His supporters claimed Nasser's move was meant to buy time to prepare for another confrontation with Israel, while his detractors believed his acceptance of the resolution signaled a waning interest in Palestinian independence.<ref name="Aburish281">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=281}}</ref>

== Final years of presidency ==
=== Domestic reforms and governmental changes ===
Nasser appointed himself the additional roles of prime minister and supreme commander of the armed forces on 19 June 1967.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=276}}</ref> Angry at the military court's perceived leniency with air force officers charged with negligence during the 1967 war, workers and students launched protests calling for major political reforms in late February 1968.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brownlee|2007|p=88}}</ref><ref name="Farid97">{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|p=97}}</ref> Nasser responded to the demonstrations, the most significant public challenge to his rule since workers' protests in March 1954, by removing most military figures from his cabinet and appointing eight civilians in place of several high-ranking members of the Arab Socialist Union (ASU).<ref name="Brownlee89">{{Harvnb|Brownlee|2007|p=89}}</ref><ref name="Kandil92">{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=92}}</ref> By 3 March, Nasser directed Egypt's intelligence apparatus to focus on external rather than domestic espionage, and declared the "fall of the [[Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate|mukhabarat]] state".<ref name="Kandil92" />

On 30 March, Nasser proclaimed a manifesto stipulating the restoration of civil liberties, greater parliamentary independence from the executive,<ref name="Farid97" /> major structural changes to the ASU, and a campaign to rid the government of corrupt elements.<ref name="Brownlee89" /> A public referendum approved the proposed measures in May, and held subsequent elections for the Supreme Executive Committee, the ASU's highest decision-making body.<ref name="Farid97" /> Observers noted that the declaration signaled an important shift from [[political repression]] to liberalization, although its promises would largely go unfulfilled.<ref name="Brownlee89" />

Nasser appointed Sadat and Hussein el-Shafei as his vice presidents in December 1969. By then, relations with his other original military comrades, namely Khaled and Zakaria Mohieddin and former vice president Sabri, had become strained.<ref name="Aburish299">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=299–301}}</ref> By mid-1970, Nasser pondered replacing Sadat with Boghdadi after reconciling with the latter.<ref name="Aburish304">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=304}}</ref>

=== War of Attrition and regional diplomatic initiatives ===
[[File:President Nasser's visit to the Suez front with Egypt's top military commanders during the War of Attrition.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A man wearing suit peering out across a body of water with binoculars from an opening in dirt mound. Behind him are three men in military uniform|Nasser observing the [[Suez]] front with Egyptian officers during the 1968 [[War of Attrition]]. General Commander [[Mohamed Fawzi (general)|Mohamed Fawzi]] is directly behind Nasser, and to their left is Chief of Staff [[Abdul Munim Riad|Abdel Moneim Riad]], November 1968]]
[[File:Nasser brokering ceasefire with Chairman Arafat and King Hussein.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three important seated men conferring. The first man from the left is wearing a checkered headdress, sunglasses and jodhpurs, the second man is wearing a suit and tie, and the third is wearing military uniform. Standing behind them are suited men.|Nasser brokering a ceasefire between [[Yasser Arafat]] of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] (left) and King Hussein of Jordan (right) at the [[1970 Arab League summit|emergency Arab League summit]] in Cairo on 27 September 1970, one day before Nasser's death]]Meanwhile, in January 1968, Nasser commenced the [[War of Attrition]] to reclaim territory captured by Israel, ordering attacks against Israeli positions east of the then-blockaded Suez Canal.<ref name="Aburish280">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=280}}</ref> In March, Nasser offered [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Fatah]] movement arms and funds after their performance against Israeli forces in the [[Battle of Karameh]] that month.<ref name="Aburish288">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=288–290}}</ref> He also advised Arafat to think of peace with Israel and the establishment of a [[Palestinian state]] comprising the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.<ref name="Aburish288" /> Nasser effectively ceded his leadership of the "Palestine issue" to Arafat.<ref name="Aburish281" />

Israel retaliated against Egyptian shelling with commando raids, artillery shelling and air strikes. This resulted in an exodus of civilians from Egyptian cities along the Suez Canal's western bank.<ref>{{Harvnb|Byman|Waxman|2002|p=66}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Rasler|Thompson|Ganguly|2013|p=49}}</ref><ref name="Aburish297-8">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=297–298}}</ref> Nasser ceased all military activities and began a program to build a network of internal defenses, while receiving the financial backing of various Arab states.<ref name="Aburish297-8" /> The war resumed in March 1969.<ref name="Aburish297-8" /> In November, Nasser brokered an [[Cairo Agreement (1969)|agreement]] between the PLO and the [[Lebanese Armed Forces|Lebanese military]] that granted Palestinian guerrillas the right to use Lebanese territory to attack Israel.<ref name="Aburish301">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=301}}</ref>

In June 1970, Nasser accepted the US-sponsored [[Rogers Plan]], which called for an end to hostilities and an Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory, but it was rejected by Israel, the PLO, and most Arab states except Jordan.<ref name="Aburish304" /> Nasser had initially rejected the plan, but conceded under pressure from the Soviet Union, which feared that escalating regional conflict could drag it into a war with the US.<ref name="Aburish305">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=305}}</ref><ref name="Viorst133">{{Harvnb|Viorst|1987|p=133}}</ref> He also determined that a ceasefire could serve as a tactical step toward the strategic goal of recapturing the Suez Canal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farid|1996|p=163}}</ref> Nasser forestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with [[Israel]] were tantamount to surrender.<ref name="RabinovichShakedp192">{{cite book|author1=[[Itamar Rabinovich]]|author2=Haim Shaked|title=From June to October: The Middle East Between 1967 And 1973|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNQ3K5HfiHAC&pg=PA192|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2418-7|page=192|quote=In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender. His efforts to forestall any movement toward direct negotiations...}}</ref> Following Nasser's acceptance, Israel agreed to a ceasefire and Nasser used the lull in fighting to move [[surface-to-air missile]]s towards the canal zone.<ref name="Aburish305" /><ref name="Viorst133" />

Meanwhile, tensions in Jordan between an increasingly autonomous PLO and King Hussein's government had been simmering;<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=259}}</ref> following the [[Dawson's Field hijackings]], a [[Black September in Jordan|military campaign]] was launched to rout out PLO forces. The offensive elevated risks of a regional war and prompted Nasser to hold an emergency [[1970 Arab League summit|Arab League summit]] on 27 September in Cairo,<ref name="Aburish309-10">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=309–310}}</ref> where he forged a ceasefire.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=262}}</ref>

== Death and funeral ==

{{main|Death and state funeral of Gamal Abdel Nasser}}

[[File:Nasser's Funeral Procession.png|thumb|right|alt=Throngs of people marching in a thoroughfare that is adjacent to a body of water|Nasser's funeral procession attended by five million mourners in Cairo, 1 October 1970]]

As the Arab League summit closed on 28 September 1970, hours after escorting the [[Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah|last Arab leader to leave]], Nasser suffered a heart attack. He was immediately transported to his house, where his physicians tended to him. Nasser died several hours later, around 6&nbsp;p.m. at age 52.<ref name="Nutting476">{{Harvnb|Nutting|1972|p=476}}</ref> Heikal, Sadat, and Nasser's wife Tahia were at his deathbed.<ref name="Aburish310">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=310}}</ref> According to his doctor, al-Sawi Habibi, Nasser's likely cause of death was [[arteriosclerosis]], [[varicose veins]], and complications from long-standing [[diabetes]]. Nasser was also a [[Chain smoking|heavy smoker]] with a family history of heart disease—two of his brothers died in their fifties from the same condition.<ref name="Daigle115" /> The state of Nasser's health was not known to the public prior to his death.<ref name="Daigle115" /><ref name="Al-Arabiya">{{cite web |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2010/09/26/120379.html |title=Claims that Sadat killed Nasser are unfounded |date=26 September 2010 |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |access-date=27 January 2011}}</ref> He had suffered heart attacks before, in 1966 and September 1969.

Following the announcement of Nasser's death, most Arabs were in a state of shock.<ref name="Aburish310" /> Nasser's funeral procession through Cairo on 1 October was attended by at least five million mourners.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jenkins |first1=Loren |last2=Cody |first2=Edward |title=Quiet Rites Show Stark Contrast to Funeral for Nasser |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1981/10/11/quiet-rites-show-stark-contrast-to-funeral-for-nasser/a3adbf97-c0e3-4f62-8d18-3ae5950f2372/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=11 October 1981 |access-date=20 September 2021 |issn=0190-8286 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Aburish315">{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=315–316}}</ref><ref name="TIME" /> The {{convert|10|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} procession to his burial site began at the old RCC headquarters with a flyover by [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]] jets. His flag-draped coffin was attached to a [[Limbers and caissons|gun carriage]] pulled by six horses and led by a column of cavalrymen.<ref name="TIME" /> All Arab heads of state attended, with the exception of Saudi King Faisal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weston|2008|p=203}}</ref> King Hussein and Arafat cried openly, and [[Muammar Gaddafi]] of [[Libyan Arab Republic|Libya]] fainted from emotional distress twice.<ref name="Aburish315" /> A few major non-Arab [[dignitary|dignitaries]] were present, including Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] and French Prime Minister [[Jacques Chaban-Delmas]].<ref name="Aburish315" />

[[File:Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque]] in Cairo, the site of his burial|alt=The front side of a mosque with only one minaret containing a clock.]]

Almost immediately after the procession began, mourners engulfed Nasser's coffin chanting, "There is no God but [[Allah]], and Nasser is God's beloved... Each of us is Nasser."<ref name="TIME" /> Police unsuccessfully attempted to quell the crowds and, as a result, most of the foreign dignitaries were evacuated.<ref name="TIME" /> The final destination was the Nasr Mosque, which was afterwards renamed Abdel Nasser Mosque, where Nasser was buried.<ref name="TIME" />

Because of his ability to motivate nationalistic passions, "men, women, and children wept and wailed in the streets" after hearing of his death, according to Nutting.<ref name="Nutting476" /> The general Arab reaction was of mourning, with thousands of people pouring onto the streets of major cities throughout the Arab world.<ref name="TIME" /> Over a dozen people were killed in Beirut as a result of the chaos, and in [[Jerusalem]], roughly 75,000&nbsp;Arabs marched through the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]] chanting, "Nasser will never die."<ref name="TIME" /> As a testament to his unchallenged leadership of the Arab people, following his death, the headline of the Lebanese ''[[L'Orient-Le Jour|Le Jour]]'' read, "One hundred million human beings—the Arabs—are orphans."<ref>{{cite news |title=Nasser's Legacy: Hope and Instability |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=12 October 1970 |page=20}}</ref> [[Sherif Hetata]], a former political prisoner<ref>{{Harvnb|Botman|1988|p=72}}</ref> and later member of Nasser's ASU,<ref>{{Harvnb|Nelson|2000|p=72}}</ref> said that "Nasser's greatest achievement was his funeral. The world will never again see five million people crying together."<ref name="Aburish315" />

== Legacy ==
[[File:Nasser and Taha Hussein, Nov 19 1959.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Two men conferring with each other, both are wearing suits and the man on the left is also wearing sunglasses. Three men are standing around them, with one holding a number of objects in his hand|Nasser presenting prominent and blind writer [[Taha Hussein]] (standing in front of Nasser) with a national honors prize for literature, 1959]]

Nasser made Egypt fully independent of [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|British influence]],<ref name="Cook111">{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=111}}</ref><ref name="Reich379">{{Harvnb|Reich|1990|p=379}}</ref> and the country became a major power in the [[developing world]] under his leadership.<ref name="Cook111" /> One of Nasser's main domestic efforts was to establish [[social justice]], which he deemed a prerequisite to [[liberal democracy]].<ref name="Darling192">{{Harvnb|Darling|2013|p=192}}</ref> During his presidency, ordinary citizens enjoyed unprecedented access to housing, education, jobs, health services and nourishment, as well as other forms of [[social welfare]], while [[feudalistic]] influence waned.<ref name="Cook111" /><ref name="Ahram" />

However, these advances came at the expense of civil liberties. In Nasser's Egypt, the media were tightly controlled, mail was opened, and telephones were wiretapped.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gamal-Abdel-Nasser Gamal Abdel Nasser] at Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> He was elected in 1956, 1958 and 1965 in plebiscites in which he was the sole candidate, each time claiming unanimous or near-unanimous support. With few exceptions, the legislature did little more than approve Nasser's policies. As the legislature was made up almost entirely of government supporters, Nasser effectively held all governing power in the nation.

By the end of his presidency, employment and working conditions improved considerably, although poverty was still high in the country and substantial resources allocated for social welfare had been diverted to the war effort.<ref name="Darling192" />

The national economy grew significantly through [[agrarian reform]], major modernization projects such as the Helwan steel works and the Aswan Dam, and nationalization schemes such as that of the Suez Canal.<ref name="Cook111" /><ref name="Ahram" /> However, the marked economic growth of the early 1960s took a downturn for the remainder of the decade, only recovering in 1970.<ref name="Cook112">{{Harvnb|Cook|2011|p=112}}</ref> Egypt experienced a "golden age" of culture during Nasser's presidency, according to historian Joel Gordon, particularly in film, television, theater, radio, literature, [[fine art]]s, comedy, poetry, and music.<ref name="Gordon171">{{Harvnb|Gordon|2000|p=171}}</ref> Egypt under Nasser dominated the Arab world in these fields,<ref name="Ahram" /><ref name="Gordon171" /> producing cultural icons.<ref name="Ahram" />

During Mubarak's presidency, [[Nasserism|Nasserist]] political parties began to emerge in Egypt, the first being the [[Arab Democratic Nasserist Party]] (ADNP).<ref>{{harvnb|Bernard-Maugiron|2008|p=220}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brynen|Korany|Noble|1995|p=50}}</ref> The party carried minor political influence,<ref name="Podeh100">{{harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=100}}</ref> and splits between its members beginning in 1995 resulted in the gradual establishment of splinter parties,<ref>{{cite news |last=El-Nahhas |first=Mona |title=Nasserism's potential untapped |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/503/el5.htm |work=Al-Ahram Weekly |issue=503 |date=18 October 2000 |access-date=10 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119073022/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/503/el5.htm |archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> including [[Hamdeen Sabahi]]'s 1997 founding of [[Dignity Party (Egypt)|Al-Karama]].<ref name="AO&Jadaliyya" /> Sabahi came in third place during the [[2012 Egyptian presidential election|2012 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/201252613122175999.html |title=Egypt candidate to seek election suspension |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]] |date=27 May 2012 |access-date=10 June 2013}}</ref> Nasserist activists were among the founders of [[Kefaya]], a major opposition force during Mubarak's rule.<ref name="AO&Jadaliyya">{{cite web |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/33/104/26690/Elections-/Political-Parties/AlKarama.aspx |title=Egypt Elections Watch: Al-Karama |work=[[Ahram Online]] and [[Jadaliyya]] |date=18 November 2011 |access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref> On 19 September 2012, four Nasserist parties (the ADNP, Karama, the [[National Conciliation Party (Egypt)|National Conciliation Party]], and the Popular Nasserist Congress Party) merged to form the [[United Nasserist Party]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/nasserist-groups-announce-new-unified-political-party |title=Nasserist groups announce new, unified political party |work=[[Egypt Independent]] |publisher=[[Al-Masry Al-Youm]] |date=20 September 2012 |access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref>

=== Public image ===
[[File:Nasser giving job.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A man on his knees looking up to a man sitting and holding his hand and wearing sun glasses, has his right hand on his shoulder and is talking to him. In the background there are men in military uniform all looking on the kneeling man.|Nasser speaking to a homeless Egyptian man and offering him a job, after the man was found sleeping below the stage where Nasser was seated, 1959]]

Nasser was known for his accessibility and direct relationship with ordinary Egyptians.<ref name="Podeh67-8">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|pp=67–68}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hamad|2008|pp=100–101}}</ref> His availability to the public, despite assassination attempts against him, was unparalleled among his successors.<ref name="EIGolia">{{cite news |first=Maria |last=Golia |title=Kings never die: A tale of a devoted iconography |url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/kings-never-die-tale-devoted-iconography |work=[[Egypt Independent]] |publisher=[[Al-Masry Al-Youm]] |date=23 July 2011 |access-date=30 June 2013}}</ref> A skilled orator,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=149}}</ref> Nasser gave 1,359 speeches between 1953 and 1970, a record for any Egyptian head of state.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hamad|2008|p=99}}</ref> Historian Elie Podeh wrote that a constant theme of Nasser's image was "his ability to represent Egyptian authenticity, in triumph or defeat".<ref name="Podeh67-8" /> The national press also helped to foster his popularity and profile—more so after the nationalization of state media.<ref name="EIGolia" /> Historian Tarek Osman wrote:
<blockquote>The interplay in the Nasser 'phenomenon' between genuine expression of popular feeling and state-sponsored propaganda may sometimes be hard to disentangle. But behind it lies a vital historical fact: that Gamal Abdel Nasser signifies the only truly Egyptian developmental project in the country's history since the fall of the Pharaonic state. There had been other projects ... But this was different—in origin, meaning and impact. For Nasser was a man of the Egyptian soil who had overthrown the Middle East's most established and sophisticated monarchy in a swift and bloodless move—to the acclaim of millions of poor, oppressed Egyptians—and ushered in a programme of 'social justice', 'progress and development', and 'dignity'.<ref name="Osman 42">{{Harvnb|Osman|2011|p=42}}</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Nasser in Mansoura, 1960.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A man wearing a suit and tie with his upper body jutting out, waving his hand to crowds of people, many dressed in traditional clothing and holding posters of the man or three-striped, two-star flags|Nasser waving to crowds in [[Mansoura]], 1960]]

While Nasser was increasingly criticized by Egyptian intellectuals following the Six-Day War and his death in 1970, the general public was persistently sympathetic both during and after Nasser's life.<ref name="Podeh67-8" /> According to political scientist Mahmoud Hamad, writing in 2008, "nostalgia for Nasser is easily sensed in Egypt and all Arab countries today".<ref name="Hamad100">{{Harvnb|Hamad|2008|p=100}}</ref> General malaise in Egyptian society, particularly during the [[History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak era]], augmented nostalgia for Nasser's presidency, which increasingly became associated with the ideals of national purpose, hope, social cohesion, and vibrant culture.<ref name="Gordon171" />

Until the present day, Nasser serves as an iconic figure throughout the Arab world,<ref name="Cook111" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Hardy |first=Roger |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5204490.stm |title=How Suez made Nasser an Arab icon |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC MMIX |date=26 July 2006 |access-date=23 November 2009}}</ref> a symbol of Arab unity and dignity,<ref name="Hourani369">{{Harvnb|Hourani|2002|p=369}}</ref><ref name="Seale66">{{Harvnb|Seale|1990|p=66}}</ref><ref name="Dekmeijan">{{Harvnb|Dekmejian|1971|p=304}}</ref> and a towering figure in [[History of the Middle East#Modern Middle East|modern Middle Eastern history]].<ref name="Cook41" /> He is also considered a champion of social justice in Egypt.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ramadan |last=Al Sherbini |title=Anniversary heightens face-off with Muslim Brotherhood |url=http://gulfnews.com/news/region/egypt/anniversary-heightens-face-off-with-muslim-brotherhood-1.1212381 |publisher=Al Nisr Publishing LLC |work=[[Gulf News]] |date=23 July 2012 |access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="StephensHT">{{citation |first=Robert |last=Stephens |title=Makers of the Twentieth Century: Nasser |url=http://www.historytoday.com/robert-stephens/makers-twentieth-century-nasser |work=[[History Today]] |publisher=History Today |volume=31 |issue=2 |year=1981 |access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref> [[Time magazine|''Time'']] writes that despite his mistakes and shortcomings, Nasser "imparted a sense of personal worth and national pride that [Egypt and the Arabs] had not known for 400 years. This alone may have been enough to balance his flaws and failures."<ref name="TIME">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942325-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313132254/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942325-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 March 2010 |title=Nasser's Legacy: Hope and Instability |work=[[Time magazine|Time]] |date=12 October 1970 |access-date=3 May 2010}}</ref>

Historian [[Steven A. Cook]] wrote in July 2013, "Nasser's heyday still represents, for many, the last time that Egypt felt united under leaders whose espoused principles met the needs of ordinary Egyptians."<ref>{{cite news |first=Steven |last=Cook |author-link=Steven A. Cook |title=A Faustian Pact: Generals as Democrats |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/26/opinion/a-faustian-pact-generals-as-democrats.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=25 July 2013 |access-date=18 August 2013}}</ref> During the [[Arab Spring]], which resulted in a [[Egyptian Revolution of 2011|revolution]] in Egypt, photographs of Nasser were raised in Cairo and Arab capitals during anti-government demonstrations.<ref name="AlJazeeraAndoni">{{cite news |last=Andoni |first=Lamis |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/02/201121115231647934.html |title=The resurrection of pan-Arabism |work=[[Al-Jazeera English]] |publisher=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]] |date=11 February 2011 |access-date=15 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="AhramTonsi">{{cite news |last=El-Tonsi |first=Ahmed |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/1031/21/The-legacy-of-Nasserism.aspx |title=The legacy of Nasserism |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |date=16 January 2013 |access-date=1 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630194535/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/News/1031/21/The-legacy-of-Nasserism.aspx |archive-date=30 June 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to journalist Lamis Andoni, Nasser had become a "symbol of Arab dignity" during the mass demonstrations.<ref name="AlJazeeraAndoni" />

=== Criticism ===
[[File:Nasser and Sadat in National Assembly.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Two men in suits seated next to each other with their arms resting on a table|[[Anwar Sadat]] (left) and Nasser in the National Assembly, 1964. Sadat succeeded Nasser as president in 1970 and significantly departed from Nasser's policies throughout his rule.]]
Sadat declared his intention to "continue the path of Nasser" in his 7 October 1970 presidential inauguration speech,<ref name="Cooper67" /> but began to depart from Nasserist policies as his domestic position improved following the 1973 [[1973 Arab–Israeli War|October War]].<ref name="Podeh100" /><ref name="Cooper67">{{Harvnb|Cooper|1982|p=67}}</ref> President Sadat's [[Infitah]] policy sought to open Egypt's economy for private investment.<ref name="Osman 44">{{harvnb|Osman|2011|p=44}}</ref> According to Heikal, ensuing anti-Nasser developments until the present day led to an Egypt "[half] at war with Abdel-Nasser, half [at war] with Anwar El-Sadat".<ref name="Ahram" />

Nasser's Egyptian detractors considered him a dictator who thwarted democratic progress, imprisoned thousands of dissidents, and led a repressive administration responsible for numerous human rights violations.<ref name="Ahram">{{cite news |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/501/nasser2.htm |title=Liberating Nasser's Legacy |first1=Hani |last1=Shukrallah |author-link1=Hani Shukrallah |first2=Hosny |last2=Guindy |work=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |publisher=[[Al-Ahram]] |date=4 November 2000 |access-date=23 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806232017/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2000/501/nasser2.htm |archive-date=6 August 2009}}</ref> Islamists in Egypt, particularly members of the politically persecuted Brotherhood, viewed Nasser as oppressive, tyrannical, and demonic.<ref>{{harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=61}}</ref> Samer S. Shehata, who wrote an article on "The Politics of Laughter: Nasser, Sadat, and Mubarek in Egyptian Political Jokes" noted that "with the new regime came the end of parliamentary politics and political freedoms, including the right to organize political parties, and freedoms of speech and the press".<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1261035|jstor=1261035|title=The Politics of Laughter: Nasser, Sadat, and Mubarek in Egyptian Political Jokes|last1=Shehata|first1=Samer S.|journal=Folklore|year=1992|volume=103|issue=1|pages=75–91|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1992.9715831|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Liberal writer Tawfiq al-Hakim described Nasser as a "confused Sultan" who employed stirring rhetoric, but had no actual plan to achieve his stated goals.<ref name="Osman 44" />

Some of Nasser's [[Liberalism in Egypt|liberal]] and Islamist critics in Egypt, including the founding members of the [[New Wafd Party]] and writer [[Jamal Badawi]], dismissed Nasser's popular appeal with the Egyptian masses during his presidency as being the product of successful manipulation and demagoguery.<ref name="Podehix-x" /> Egyptian political scientist Alaa al-Din Desouki blamed the 1952 revolution's shortcomings on Nasser's concentration of power, and Egypt's lack of democracy on Nasser's political style and his government's limitations on [[freedom of expression]] and [[Participation (decision making)|political participation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=50}}</ref>
American political scientist Mark Cooper asserted that Nasser's charisma and his direct relationship with the Egyptian people "rendered intermediaries (organizations and individuals) unnecessary".<ref name="Cooper64" /> He opined that Nasser's legacy was a "guarantee of instability" due to Nasser's reliance on personal power and the absence of strong political institutions under his rule.<ref name="Cooper64">{{Harvnb|Cooper|1982|p=64}}</ref> Historian Abd al-Azim Ramadan wrote that Nasser was an irrational and irresponsible leader, blaming his inclination to solitary decision-making for Egypt's losses during the Suez War, among other events.<ref name="Podeh105">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=105}}</ref> [[Miles Copeland, Jr.]], a [[Central Intelligence Agency]] officer known for his close personal relationship with Nasser,{{sfn|Wilford|2013|pp=xi, 67–68, 137, 153, 225, 283}} said that the barriers between Nasser and the outside world have grown so thick that all but the information that attest to his infallibility, indispensability, and immortality has been filtered out.<ref>{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=49}}</ref>

[[Zakaria Mohieddin]], who was Nasser's vice president, said that Nasser gradually changed during his reign. He ceased consulting his colleagues and made more and more of the decisions himself. Although Nasser repeatedly said that a war with Israel will start at a time of his, or Arab, choosing, in 1967 he started a bluffing game "but a successful bluff means your opponent must not know which cards you are holding. In this case Nasser's opponent could see his hand in the mirror and knew he was only holding a pair of deuces" and Nasser knew that his army is not prepared yet. "All of this was out of character...His tendencies in this regard may have been accentuated by diabetes... That was the only rational explanation for his actions in 1967".<ref name="Parker1993p79" />

====Antisemitism====
During an interview with [[Gerhard Frey (politician)|Gerhard Frey]] in the German neo-Nazi newspaper ''[[National-Zeitung]]'' on May 1st, 1964, Nasser said that "''no person, not even the most simple one, takes seriously the lie of the six million Jews that were murdered [in the Holocaust]''."<ref>{{cite book |last=Satloff |first=Robert |title=Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach Into Arab lands |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2007 |page=163 |isbn=978-1-58648-510-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Laqueur |first=Walter |title=The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu/page/141 141] |isbn=978-0-19-530429-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu/page/141}}</ref><ref name="Wistrich1985p188" /> However, he is not known to have ever again publicly called the figure of six million into question, perhaps because his advisors and East German contacts had advised him on the subject.<ref>{{cite book |last=Achar |first=Gilbert |title=The Arabs and the Holocaust |publisher=Saqi Books |year=2011 |page=210}}</ref> Nasser, convinced of its authenticity, also encouraged the distribution of the antisemitic fabrication ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]''. He believed that the Jews greatly influenced the global financial market and that they ultimately strove for world domination. Nasser also hired former Nazi officials like [[Johann von Leers]] to distribute antisemitic propaganda. He is, however, thought to have been more moderate in that regard than contemporary political powers like Young Egypt or the Muslim Brotherhood.{{sfn|Herf|2009|p=260}}{{sfn|Stillman|2005|p=483}}

=== Regional leadership ===
[[File:Nimeiry, Nasser and Gaddafi, 1969.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three men walking side by side. The man in the middle is wearing a suit, while the two to his side are wearing military uniforms and hats. There are a few other men in uniform walking behind them|[[Jaafar Nimeiry]] of Sudan (left), Nasser, and [[Muammar Gaddafi]] of [[Libya]] (right) at the [[Tripoli International Airport|Tripoli Airport]], 1969. Nimeiry and Gaddafi were influenced by Nasser's pan-Arabist ideas and the latter sought to succeed him as "leader of the Arabs".]]

Through his actions and speeches, and because he was able to symbolize the popular Arab will, Nasser inspired several nationalist revolutions in the Arab world.<ref name="Osman 42" /> He defined the politics of his generation and communicated directly with the public masses of the Arab world, bypassing the various heads of states of those countries—an accomplishment not repeated by other Arab leaders.<ref name="Podehix-x">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|pp=ix–x}}</ref> The extent of Nasser's centrality in the region made it a priority for incoming Arab nationalist heads of state to seek good relations with Egypt, in order to gain popular legitimacy from their own citizens.<ref name="Dawisha151">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=151}}</ref>

To varying degrees,<ref name="Cook41" /> Nasser's [[statism|statist]] system of government was continued in Egypt and emulated by virtually all Arab republics,<ref name="Podeh47">{{Harvnb|Podeh|2004|p=47}}</ref> namely Algeria, Syria, Iraq, Tunisia, [[Yemen]], Sudan, and Libya.<ref name="Cook41" /><ref name="Podeh47" /> [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], Algeria's first president, was a staunch Nasserist.<ref>{{Citation |last=Abdel-Malek |first=Anouar |author-link=Anouar Abdel-Malek |url=http://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5927 |title=Nasserism and Socialism |journal=The Socialist Register |volume=1 |year=1964 |page=52 |access-date=26 November 2009 |issue=1}}</ref> Abdullah al-Sallal drove out the king of North Yemen in the name of Nasser's pan-Arabism.<ref name="Aburish207" /> Other coups influenced by Nasser included those that occurred in Iraq in July 1958 and Syria in 1963.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asterjian|2007|p=52}}</ref> Muammar Gaddafi, who overthrew the [[Idris of Libya|Libyan monarchy]] in 1969, considered Nasser his hero and sought to succeed him as "leader of the Arabs".<ref>{{cite news |last=Fetini |first=Alyssa |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1876539,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205112422/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1876539,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 February 2009 |title=Muammar Gaddafi |work=[[Time magazine|Time]] |date=3 February 2009 |access-date=24 November 2009}}</ref> Also in 1969, Colonel [[Gaafar Nimeiry]], a supporter of Nasser, took power in Sudan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rubin|2010|p=41}}</ref> The [[Arab Nationalist Movement]] (ANM) helped spread Nasser's pan-Arabist ideas throughout the Arab world, particularly among the Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kimmerling|Migdal|2003|p=225}}</ref><ref name="Dawisha156">{{Harvnb|Dawisha|2009|p=156}}</ref> and in [[South Yemen]], the [[Persian Gulf]], and Iraq.<ref name="Dawisha156" /> While many regional heads of state tried to emulate Nasser, Podeh opined that the "[[parochialism]]" of successive Arab leaders "transformed imitation [of Nasser] into parody".<ref name="Podeh47" />

=== Portrayal in film ===
In 1963, Egyptian director [[Youssef Chahine]] produced the film ''[[Saladin the Victorious|El Nasser Salah El Dine]]'' ("Saladin The Victorious"), which intentionally drew parallels between [[Saladin]], considered a hero in the Arab world, and Nasser and his pan-Arabist policies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Haydock|Risden|2009|p=110}}</ref> Nasser is played by [[Ahmed Zaki (actor)|Ahmed Zaki]] in [[Mohamed Fadel]]'s 1996 ''[[Nasser 56]]''. The film set the Egyptian box office record at the time, and focused on Nasser during the Suez Crisis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gordon|2000|p=161}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Gayle |last=Young |title=Nasser film strikes chord with the people of Egypt |url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/24/egypt.nasser/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921080450/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9610/24/egypt.nasser/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 September 2013 |work=[[CNN]] |publisher=Cable News Network, Inc. |date=24 October 1996 |access-date=23 July 2013}}</ref> It is also considered a milestone in [[Cinema of Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Arab cinema]] as the first film to dramatize the role of a modern-day Arab leader.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hourani|Khoury|2004|p=599}}</ref> Together with the 1999 Syrian [[Biographical film|biopic]] ''Gamal Abdel Nasser'', the films marked the first biographical movies about contemporary public figures produced in the Arab world.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karawya |first=Fayrouz |url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/biopics-arab-world-history-entangled-subjectivity |title=Biopics in the Arab world: History entangled with subjectivity|work=Egypt Independent|publisher=Al-Masry Al-Youm|date=29 August 2011|access-date=10 June 2013}}</ref> He is portrayed by Amir Boutrous in the [[Netflix]] television series ''[[The Crown (TV series)|The Crown]]''.

== Personal life ==
[[File:Nasser's family.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A group of related people posing outdoors. From left to right, there are three women dressed in shirts and long skirts, three boys dressed in suits and ties and a man in a suit and tie|Nasser and his family in Manshiyat al-Bakri, 1963. From left to right, his daughter Mona, his wife [[Tahia Abdel Nasser|Tahia Kazem]], daughter Hoda, son Abdel Hakim, son [[Khalid Abdel Nasser|Khaled]], son Abdel Hamid, and Nasser.]]

In 1944, Nasser married [[Tahia Abdel Nasser|Tahia Kazem]] (1920 – 25 March 1992), the daughter of a wealthy [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] father and an Egyptian mother, both of whom had died when she was young. She had been introduced to Nasser through her brother, Abdel Hamid Kazim, a merchant friend of Nasser's, in 1943.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sullivan|1986|p=84}}</ref> After their wedding, the couple moved into a house in Manshiyat al-Bakri, a suburb of Cairo, where they lived for the rest of their lives. Nasser's entry into the officer corps in 1937 secured him relatively well-paid employment in a society where most people lived in poverty.<ref name="Alexander27" /> Nasser and Tahia would sometimes discuss politics at home, but for the most part Nasser kept his career separate from his family life. He preferred to spend most of his free time with his children.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sullivan|1986|p=85}}</ref>

Nasser and Tahia had two daughters and three sons:<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|pp=313–320}}</ref>

* Hoda, b. 1945.
* Mona, b. 1947.
* [[Khalid Abdel Nasser|Khalid]], (13 December 1949 – 15 September 2011). The most active politically. Said to have co-founded (with Egyptian diplomat {{ill|Mahmoud Noureddin|ar|}}) a secret [[left-wing politics|leftist]] organization, {{ill|Egypt's Revolution|ar|منظمة ثورة مصر}} (''Thawrat Miṣr''), which was accused of assassinating Israeli members of the Shin Bet stationed in Egypt in the late 1980s. Khalid took refuge in Yugoslavia and was eventually pardoned by President Hosni Mubarak.
* Abd al-Hamid, b. 1951.
* Abd al-Hakim, b. 1955. Appears regularly in Egyptian and regional media, heads the museum dedicated to the life of his father.

Although he was a proponent of secular politics, Nasser was an observant Muslim who made the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] in 1954 and 1965.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=148}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=74}}</ref> He was known to be personally incorruptible,<ref>{{Harvnb|Makdissi|2011|p=217}}</ref><ref name="Bird177">{{Harvnb|Bird|2010|p=177}}</ref><ref name="Goldschmidt167">{{Harvnb|Goldschmidt|2008|p=167}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Alexander|2005|p=97}}</ref> a characteristic which further enhanced his reputation among the citizens of Egypt and the Arab world.<ref name="Goldschmidt167" /> Nasser's personal hobbies included playing chess, photography, watching American films, reading Arabic, English, and French magazines, and listening to classical music.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bird|2010|p=178}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syrian History - Gamal Abdul Nasser during the union years, practicing his favorite hobby: photography - 1960 |url=http://w.syrianhistory.com/en/photos/5582 |access-date=2024-06-01 |website=w.syrianhistory.com}}</ref>
[[File:Gamal_Abdel_Nasser_(1969).jpg|thumb|256x256px|Nasser practices photography at his home in Cairo, 1969]]
Nasser was a [[chain smoking|chain smoker]].<ref name="Daigle115">{{Harvnb|Daigle|2012|p=115}}</ref><ref name="Bird177" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=10}}</ref> He maintained 18-hour workdays and rarely took time off for vacations. The combination of smoking and working long hours contributed to his poor health. He was diagnosed with diabetes in the early 1960s and by the time of his death in 1970, he also had [[arteriosclerosis]], [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], and [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]]. He suffered two major [[Myocardial infarction|heart attacks]] (in 1966 and 1969), and was on [[bed rest]] for six weeks after the second episode. State media reported that Nasser's absence from the public view at that time was a result of [[influenza]].<ref name="Daigle115" />

== Writings ==
Nasser wrote the following books, published during his lifetime:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasser.bibalex.org/Books/BooksMain.aspx?ID=0&x=7&lang=en|title=Gamal Abdel Nasser Writings|publisher=Bibliotheca Alexandrina|access-date=24 June 2013}}</ref>

* ''Memoirs of the First Palestine War'' ({{langx|ar|يوميات الرئيس جمال عبد الناصر عن حرب فلسطين}}) (1955; [[Akher Sa'a]])
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928201645/http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Nasser%2C%20Memoirs%20of%20the%20First%20Palestine%20War.pdf "Memoirs of the First Palestine War"], in 2, no. 2 (Win. 73): 3–32 (First English translation, 1973, pdf-file from [[Journal of Palestine Studies]])
* ''Egypt's Liberation: The Philosophy of the Revolution'' ({{langx|ar|فلسفة الثورة}}) (1955; Dar al-Maaref)
** ''Egypt's liberation; the philosophy of the revolution'', introduced by Dorothy Thompson (Washington: [[Public Affairs Press]], 1955)
* [[File:Nasser-Tahia (1969).jpg|thumb|Nasser with his wife Tahia in his home in Cairo in 1969]]''Towards Freedom'' ({{langx|ar|في سبيل الحرية}}) (1959; Cairo-Arabian Company)

== Honours ==
; Foreign honours
* Czechoslovakia: Collar Grand Cross of the [[Order of the White Lion]] (1966)<ref>{{cite web|title=Seznamy nositelů státních vyznamenání|url=https://www.prazskyhradarchiv.cz/cs/archivkpr/statni-vyznamenani/seznamy-nositelu-statnich-vyznamenani|website=prazskyhradarchiv.cz|language=cs|access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
* East Germany: First Class of the [[Star of People's Friendship]] (1965)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deutsche-gesellschaft-fuer-ordenskunde.de/DGOWP/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/VL-GSdV-1964-1989.pdf|title=Verleihungsliste zum Orden "Großer Stern der Völkerfreundschaft" von 1964 bis 1989|newspaper=Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ordenskunde e.V.|first=Dirk|last=Hubrich|language=de|date=October 2015|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref>
* Finland: Grand Cross with Collar of the [[Order of the White Rose of Finland]] (1967)<ref>{{cite web|title=Suomen Valkoisen Ruusun Ritarikunnan Suurristin Ketjuineen Ulkomaalaiset Saajat|url=https://ritarikunnat.fi/ritarikunnat/palkitut/suomen-valkoisen-ruusun-ritarikunnan-suurristin-ketjuineen-ulkomaalaiset-saajat/|website=ritarikunnat.fi|date=9 October 2020|access-date=27 June 2021|language=fi}}</ref>
* Malaysia: Honorary Recipient of the [[Order of the Crown of the Realm]] (DMN (K)) (1965)<ref>{{cite web|website=istiadat.gov.my|url=http://www.istiadat.gov.my/v8/images/stories/1965.pdf|title=Senarai Penuh Penerima Darjah Kebesaran, Bintang dan Pingat Persekutuan Tahun 1965|access-date=6 June 2016|archive-date=28 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928010854/http://www.istiadat.gov.my/v8/images/stories/1965.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Polish People's Republic: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Polonia Restituta]]<ref name=pol>{{cite book |title=Polish orders and decorations
|first=Wojciech |last=Stela |year=2008 |publisher=Warsaw |page=49 |isbn=}}</ref>
* Singapore: [[Darjah Utama Temasek]] (1964)<ref>{{Cite news |last=Muhammad Razi Rahman |date=2014-09-05 |title=PRESIDEN YUDHOYONO PERERAT HUBUNGAN PEMERINTAH RI-SINGAPURA |trans-title=PRESIDENT YUDHOYONO STRENGTHENS RELATIONS BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENTS OF INDONESIA AND SINGAPORE |work=[[Antara (news agency)|Antara]] |language=id |id={{Factiva|ANTAID0020140905ea9500811}}}}</ref>
* South Africa: Supreme Commander of the [[Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo]] (2004)<ref>{{cite web|title=National Orders awards 29 October 2004 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/aboutgovt/orders/recipients/2004.htm |website=South African Government Information |access-date=29 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026132830/http://www.info.gov.za/aboutgovt/orders/recipients/2004.htm |archive-date=26 October 2012}}</ref>
* Soviet Union:
** [[Hero of the Soviet Union]] (1964)<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Copp |first=John W. |title =Egypt and the Soviet Union, 1953–1970 |type=MA thesis |publisher=Portland State University |date=1986 |url=https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4806&context=open_access_etds |doi=10.15760/etd.5681 |page=137 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
** [[Order of Lenin]]
* Tunisia: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Republic (Tunisia)|Order of the Republic]] (1965)
* Yugoslavia: Great Star of the [[Order of the Yugoslav Star]] (1955)<ref>{{cite web |title=Tito in Africa: Picturing Solidarity
|url=https://www.muzej-jugoslavije.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Tito-in-Africa.pdf |website=muzej-jugoslavije.org |date=September 2020}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser]]
*[[List of presidents of Egypt]]
*[[List of prime ministers of Egypt]]
*[[Suez Crisis]]
*[[Six-Day War]]
*[[War of Attrition]]
*[[Closure of the Suez Canal (1967–1975)]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
<references>
<ref name="Wistrich1985p188">{{cite book |last=Wistrich |first=Robert S. |title=Hitler's apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=acBtAAAAMAAJ |date=17 October 1985 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=978-0-297-78719-8 |page=188 |quote="President Nasser of Egypt in a notorious interview with the editor of the neo-Nazi Deutsche Soldaten und National Zeitung, published on 1 May 1964, insisted that No one, not even the simplest man in our country, takes seriously the lie about six million Jews who were murdered"}}</ref>

<ref name="Parker1993p79">{{cite book|author=Richard Bordeaux Parker|title=The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofmiscal00park|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34298-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofmiscal00park/page/79 79]|quote="Zakaria Muhieddin...was vice president) of Nasser)...All of this was out of character. In the early days of the revolution Nasser had been the most cautious member of the RCC; that was why he was its leader. He was forever saying, after they had taken a decision, "Let's think this over until tomorrow." After he came to power he gradually changed. He ceased consulting his colleagues and made more and more of the decisions himself. His tendencies in this regard may have been accentuated by diabetes, which Muhieddin said sometimes leads people to make rash decisions. That was the only rational explanation for his actions in 1967."}}</ref>
</references>

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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Beattie, Kirk J. "Nasser's Egypt: A Quest for National Power and Prosperity." in ''Nation Building, State Building, and Economic Development: Case Studies and Comparisons'' (Routledge, 2015) pp.&nbsp;146–164.
* Hasou, Tawfig Y. ''The struggle for the Arab world: Egypt's Nasser and the Arab League'' (Routledge, 2019).
* Joya, Angela. ''The Roots of Revolt: A Political Economy of Egypt from Nasser to Mubarak'' (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
* Khalifah, Omar. ''Nasser in the Egyptian Imaginary'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2016), Nasser in Egyptian literature.
* McAlexander, Richard J., “Couscous Mussolini: US Perceptions of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the 1958 Intervention in Lebanon and the Origins of the U.S.-Israeli Special Relationship,” ''Cold War History'' 11 (Aug. 2011), 363–85.
* McNamara, Robert. "The Nasser factor: Anglo-Egyptian relations and Yemen/Aden crisis 1962–65." ''Middle Eastern Studies'' 53.1 (2017): 51–68.
* Salem, Sara. "Four Women of Egypt: Memory, Geopolitics, and the Egyptian Women's Movement during the Nasser and Sadat Eras." ''Hypatia'' 32.3 (2017): 593–608. [http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/101487/1/Hypatia.pdf online]
* Šćepanović, Janko. "Unwanted Conflict? The Analysis of the Impact of Misperception, Beliefs and Psychology of President Nasser at the Outbreak of the Six Day War." ''Chinese Journal of International Review'' 1.02 (2019): 1950003. [https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/S2630531319500033 online]
* Shechter, Relli. ''The rise of the Egyptian middle class: socio-economic mobility and public discontent from Nasser to Sadat'' (Cambridge University Press, 2018).
* Waterbury, John. ''The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat'' (Princeton University Press, 2014).

==External links==
{{Sister project links|c=Category:Gamal Abdel Nasser|d=yes|q=yes|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=Author:Gamal Nasser|species=no}}
* [http://www.nasser.org/home/main.aspx?lang=en Site for President Gamal Abdel Nasser]. Bibliotheca Alexandrina and the Gamal Abdel Nasser Foundation. 8 October 2012. An archive of speeches, photos and documents related to Nasser.
* [https://www.presidency.eg/en/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A4%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%88%D9%86/%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1/ Presidency biography]

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{{s-ttl|title=Prime Minister of Egypt|years=1954–1962}}
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{{s-ttl|title=Prime Minister of Egypt|years=1967–1970}}
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