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{{Short description|Warfare practiced by Gaelic peoples}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Synthesis|date=April 2010}}
[[File:Galloglass-circa-1521.jpg|thumb|300px|Irish [[gallowglass]] and [[Kern (soldier)|kern]]. Drawing by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1521.]]
'''Gaelic warfare''' was the type of [[warfare]] practiced by the [[Gaels|Gaelic peoples]] (the [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], and [[Manx people|Manx]]), in the pre-modern period.

{{war}}

==Indigenous Gaelic warfare==

===Weaponry===
Irish warfare was for centuries centered on the ''Ceithearn'', or [[Kern (soldier)|Kern]] in English (and so pronounced in Gaelic), light [[skirmisher|skirmishing infantry]] who harried the enemy with missiles before charging. John Dymmok, serving under [[Elizabeth I]]'s [[lord-lieutenant of Ireland]], described the kerns as:

"... A kind of footman, slightly armed with a sword, a [[targe]]t (round shield) of wood, or a bow and sheaf of arrows with barbed heads, or else three darts, which they cast with a wonderful facility and nearness..."<ref>Fergus Cannan, 'HAGS OF HELL': Late Medieval Irish Kern. History Ireland , Vol. 19, No. 1 (January/February 2011), pp. 14–17</ref>

For centuries the backbone of any Gaelic Irish army were these lightly armed [[Infantry in the Middle Ages|foot soldiers]]. [[Kern (soldier)|Ceithearn]] were usually armed with a [[spear]] (''gae'') or [[sword]] (''claideamh''), [[dirk|long dagger]] (''scian''),<ref>[[Sgian-dubh]]</ref> [[History of archery#Europe|bow]] (''bogha'') and a set of [[javelin]]s, or [[Dart (missile)|darts]] (''gá-ín'').<ref>'HAGS OF HELL': Late Medieval Irish Kern. History Ireland , Vol. 19, No. 1 (January/February 2011), pp. 17</ref>

The use of [[Heavy infantry|armoured infantry]] in [[Gaelic Ireland]] from the 9th century on, came as a counter to the mail-clad [[Early Scandinavian Dublin#Early Viking raids|Vikings]]. The arrival of the heavily armoured [[Norse–Gaels|Norse-Gaelic]] mercenary [[Gallowglass]]es in the early 13th century, was in response to the [[Norman invasion of Ireland]] and the [[Anglo-Normans]] use of heavily armoured [[Men-at-arms]] and [[Knight]]s.

These adaptations and developments brought regular use of other weapons such as [[lance]]s, [[poleaxe]]s like the [[dane axe]], [[lochaber axe]], [[sparth axe]] and swords like the [[Knightly sword|arming sword]] and [[Longsword|two-handed swords]] similar to the Scottish [[Claymore]]. 
Many of the medieval swords found in Ireland today are unlikely to be of native manufacture given many of the pommels and cross-guard decoration is not of Gaelic origin.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Irish Medieval Swords c. 1170–1600|jstor = 25506140|last1 = Halpin|first1 = Andrew|journal = Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature|year = 1986|volume = 86C|pages = 183–230}}</ref>

[[File:07 Brian on the Morning of Clontarf.jpg|thumb|right|[[Brian Boru|''Brian Bóruma'']] leading his army on the morning of the [[Battle of Clontarf]].]]

By the time of [[Brian Boru|''Brian Bóruma'']] and&nbsp;[[Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill|''Máel Sechnaill'']], [[Lists of Irish kings|Irish kings]] were taking large armies on [[Military campaign|campaign]] over long distances and using [[navy|naval forces]] in tandem with [[Army|land forces]]. From the 11th century on, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known as ''lucht tighe'' "troops of the household", who were often given houses and land on the [[brehon law|king's mensal land]]. These were well-trained and equipped professional soldiers made up of [[infantry]] and [[cavalry]].<ref>Duffy, Seán, ed. (2005). Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-1-135-94824-5.</ref>

Aside from [[Hobelars]], who were highly mobile, lightly armoured, cavalry [[skirmisher]]s and [[Mounted archery|archers]], used primarily for [[reconnaissance|scouting]] and [[ambush]]es, the main Gaelic [[cavalry]] was usually made up of a [[Lists of Irish kings|king]] or [[Chief of the name|chieftain]] and [[Irish clans|his clan]]. They usually [[bareback riding|rode without saddles]] but wore [[Chain mail|armour]] and [[bascinet|iron helmets]] and wielded [[Oakeshott typology#Type XIII|swords]], [[dirk|skenes]] and long [[spear]]s or [[lance]]s.<ref>Ó Cléirigh, Cormac (1997). Irish frontier warfare: a fifteenth-century case study (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2010.</ref> A fully outfitted medieval Irish army would have included [[light infantry]], [[heavy infantry]] and mixed [[cavalry]].<ref>Flanagan, Marie Therese (1996). "Warfare in Twelfth-Century Ireland". A Military History of Ireland. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–75.</ref>

Gaelic Warfare was anything but stagnant and was adaptive and ever changing. By the time of the [[Tudor reconquest of Ireland]] and the beginning of the end of the Gaelic era, the Irish had adopted continental "[[pike and shot]]" formations like those used by the continental armies of the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]], [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss]] and [[Holy Roman Empire|Germans]]. With formations consisting of [[pikemen]] mixed with [[musketeer]]s and [[gallowglass|swordsmen]]. Indeed, from 1593 to 1601, the [[Gaelic Ireland|Gaelic Irish]] fought with the most up-to-date methods of [[warfare]], including full reliance on [[firearm]]s and modern military tactics.<ref>G. A. Hayes-McCoy, "Strategy and Tactics in Irish Warfare, 1593–1601." Irish Historical Studies , Vol. 2, No. 7 (Mar. 1941), pp. 255</ref>

===Gaelic raid culture===
[[File:Cuchulain in Battle.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Cú Chulainn]] in Battle'', illustration by J. C. Leyendecker in T. W. Rolleston's ''Myths & Legends of the Celtic Race,'' 1911. An artistic depiction of [[Iron Age]] Chariot warfare, though archaeological evidence of chariots have not been found in [[Ireland]].<ref>E. Estyn Evans, The Personality of Ireland, Cambridge University Press (1973), {{isbn|0-521-02014-X}}</ref>]]

The [[Gaelic Ireland|Gaelic Irish]] preferred [[hit-and-run tactics]] and [[shock tactics]] like [[ambush]]es and [[Raid (military)|raids]] (''the crech''), which involved catching the enemy unaware. One of the most common causes of conflict in Gaelic Ireland was cattle raiding. [[Cattle]] were the main form of wealth in Gaelic Ireland, as it was in many parts of Europe, as currency had not yet been introduced, and the aim of most wars was the capture of the enemy's cattle. If this worked, the raiders would then seize any valuables (mainly [[livestock]]) and potentially valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape.<ref>Ó Cléirigh, Cormac (1997). Irish frontier warfare: a fifteenth-century case study (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2010.</ref>

Indeed, [[cattle raiding]] was a [[social institution]] within Gaelic culture and newly crowned [[Lists of Irish kings|kings]] would carry out raids on traditional rivals upon coronation. The [[Gaelic languages|Gaelic]] term ''creach rígh'', or "king's raid", was used to describe the event, implying it was a customary tradition.<ref>{{Cite web | title = Cattle in Early Ireland | work = Celtic Well | author = Shae Clancy | url = http://www.applewarrior.com/celticwell/ejournal/beltane/cattle_early_ireland.htm | url-status = usurped | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131017101831/http://www.applewarrior.com/celticwell/ejournal/beltane/cattle_early_ireland.htm | archive-date=17 October 2013}}</ref>

The cattle raid was often called a ''[[Táin Bó]]'' and was an important aspect of [[early irish literature|Gaelic literature]] and [[Gaelic Ireland|culture]], with the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' and ''[[Táin Bó Flidhais]]'' as important examples. 
Gaelic warfare was [[Guerilla warfare|anything but static]], as [[Gaels|Gaelic]] soldiers frequently [[looting|looted]] or bought the newest and most effective weaponry. 
Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred Gaelic tactic in the [[Middle Ages]], there were also [[pitched battle]]s to settle larger disputes.

Especially [[Viking expansion|following the arrival]] of the [[Vikings]] from [[Lochlann]], who brought their own style of [[Viking raid warfare and tactics|warfare]], [[Viking raid warfare and tactics#Raids|raiding]] and [[Longphort|settlements]]. Over time these [[Dubgaill and Finngaill|newcomers]] founded their own [[Early Scandinavian Dublin|kingdom]], began a [[Ui Imair|dynastic line]] and developed a distinct [[Norse–Gaels|culture]] of their own.

===Armour===
[[File:O'Donovan's Shield.png|thumb|Irish round shield.]]
It's often stated that for the most part, the Gaelic Irish fought without armour, instead wearing saffron coloured belted [[tunic]]s called ''léine'' (pronounced 'laynuh'), the plural being ''léinte'' (pronounced 'layntuh/laynchuh'). According to [[Gerald of Wales]] who wrote propaganda (in the early 12th century), the Gaels preferred to not wear armour, as they deemed it burdensome to wear and one to be "brave and honourable" to fight without it.<ref>The Topography of Ireland by Giraldus Cambrensis Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (English translation)</ref> [[Armour]] was usually a simple affair: the poorest might have worn [[Gambeson|padded coats]], the wealthier might have worn boiled leather armour called ''[[cuir bouilli]]'', and the wealthiest might have had access to [[Breastplate|bronze chest plates]], [[Jack of plate|padded textile armour]] or maybe perhaps [[Chain mail|mail]] or [[scale armour]]s (though they did exist in Ireland, they were quite rare). However this appears to be all incorrect as the Irish did have heavly armored knights as mentioned in the [[Visio Tnugdali]] long before the gallowglass came to Ireland. [[Gallowglass]] mercenaries of the early 13th century have been depicted as having worn [[Hauberk|mail tunics]] and steel [[burgonet]] helmets but the overall majority of [[Kern (soldier)|Gaelic warriors]] would have been protected only by a [[targe|small shield]]. Gaelic [[shield]]s were usually round, with a spindle shaped [[Shield boss|boss]], though later the regular iron boss models were introduced by the [[Anglo-Saxon]]s, [[Vikings]] and [[Normans]]. A few shields were also oval in shape or square, but most of the native shields were small and round, like [[buckler]]s, to better enable agility and a quick escape.

===Customs===

[[File:Ferdiafalls.jpg|thumb|left|A depiction of [[Cú Chulainn]] slaying [[Ferdiad]] during [[champion warfare]] from the [[Ulster cycle]] of [[Irish mythology]]. Illustration by [[Stephen Reid (artist)|Stephen Reid]] from [[Eleanor Hull]]'s ''The Boys' Cuchulain'', 1904.]]

[[Celtic warfare#Continuation in Ireland|Clan warfare]] was an important aspect of life in [[Gaelic Ireland]], especially before the [[Viking Age]], when [[Vikings]] brought [[Viking Age arms and armor|new forms of technology]], [[Norsemen|culture]], [[Viking raid warfare and tactics|warfare]] and [[Longphort|settlements]] to Ireland.

Before the [[Viking Age]], there was a heavy importance placed on [[Irish clans|Gaelic clan]] wars and [[ritual combat]]. 
Another very important aspect of Gaelic ritual warfare at this time was [[single combat]]. In order to settle a dispute or merely to measure one's prowess, it was customary to challenge another individual warrior from the other army to ritual single combat to the death, while being cheered on by the opposing hosts.

[[Champion warfare]] was an important aspect of [[Irish mythology]], [[Early Irish literature|literature]], and [[Gaelic Ireland|culture]], particularly in the [[Ulster cycle]] with [[Cú Chulainn]] and ''the [[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'', where the hero from [[Ulster]] defeats an entire army from [[Connacht]] one by one. Such single combats were common before a [[pitched battle]], and for ritual purposes they tended to occur at [[Ford (crossing)|river fords]].

The spirit and traditions of [[single combat]] would live on and manifest itself in other ways in Modern Gaelic cultures. In [[Scotland]] with events like [[Scottish Backhold|Scottish Wrestling]], the [[Highland Games]] and [[Scottish Martial Arts]] like the [[duel]]ing of the 18th century. Where the victor was determined by who made the first-cut. However, this was not always observed, and at times the duel would continue to the death. In [[Ireland]], the spirit of ritual combat has also manifested itself as single combat style [[combat sport|sporting events]] and [[Irish martial arts]] such as [[Irish martial arts#Boxing|Irish boxing (''Dornálaíocht'')]], [[Barróg|Irish wrestling (''Barróg'')]], [[Bataireacht|stick fighting (''Bataireacht'')]] and [[Collar-and-elbow|scuffling (''Coiléar agus Uille'')]].

=== Urban defense ===
{{Main article|Gaelic Ireland#Settlements and architecture}}

[[File:Griahan of aileach.jpg|thumb|right| An example of a Gaelic Irish stone [[ringfort]]. [[Grianan of Aileach]] (see [[:File:Grainan of aileach.jpg|inside]])]]

Many of the towns in Gaelic Ireland had some type of defense in the form of walls or ditches. For most of the Gaelic period, dwellings and buildings were [[Roundhouse (dwelling)|circular]] with conical thatched roofs.<ref>Joyce, Patrick Weston (1906). "Chapter XVI: The House, Construction, Shape, and Size". A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland. Library Ireland. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2012.</ref> Many towns and dwellings in Gaelic Ireland were often surrounded by a [[circular rampart]] called a "[[ringfort]]".<ref>Connolly, Sean J (2007). "Chapter 2: Late Medieval Ireland: The Irish". Contested island: Ireland 1460–1630. Oxford University Press. pp. 20–24.</ref> There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century some [[List of monastic houses in Ireland|monasteries]] became the heart of small "monastic towns",<ref>Connolly, Sean J (2007). "Chapter 2: Late Medieval Ireland: The Irish". Contested island: Ireland 1460–1630. Oxford University Press. pp. 20–24.</ref><ref>O'Keeffe, Tadhg (1995). Rural settlement and cultural identity in Gaelic Ireland (PDF). Ruralia 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2010.</ref> many of the [[Irish round towers]] were built after this period.

[[File:Irish tower house.jpg|thumb|left| A [[tower house]] in Ireland. The [[Normans]] consolidated their presence throughout Ireland by building hundreds of [[castles]] and towers such as this.]]

Following the [[Norman invasion of Ireland]], the [[Normans]] built [[motte-and-bailey]] castles in the areas they occupied,<ref>Glasscock, Robin Edgar (2008) [1987]. "Chapter 8: Land and people, c.1300". In Cosgrove, Art (ed.). A New History of Ireland, Volume II: Medieval Ireland 1169–1534. Oxford University Press. pp. 205–239. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199539703.003.0009.</ref> some of which were converted from [[ringforts]].<ref>O'Keeffe, Tadhg (1995). Rural settlement and cultural identity in Gaelic Ireland (PDF). Ruralia 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2010.</ref> Within Gaelic Ireland, many of the areas conquered by [[Anglo-Normans]] often had defense walls due to the frontier type of lifestyle. Some had these walls built assuming that the town had no adequate defense with only using a ditch. The masonry walls on some towns had not been completed due to the economics of the time. While many of the towns often constructed what looks to be a defensive walls, this can sometimes not be the case. Towns constructed walls and town gates at times as merely a symbol of lordly wealth; or as a physical expression of power, the defensive aspects of some of these walls and gates would become a secondary role.<ref>McKeon, Jim (2011). "Urban Defences in Anglo-Norman Ireland: Evidence from South Connacht". Eolas: The Journal of the American Society of Irish Medieval Studies. 5: 146–190. JSTOR 41585270.</ref>

By the 12th century, "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by the Gaelic Irish in imitation" of the Normans.<ref>Glasscock, Robin Edgar (2008) [1987]. "Chapter 8: Land and people, c.1300". In Cosgrove, Art (ed.). A New History of Ireland, Volume II: Medieval Ireland 1169–1534. Oxford University Press. pp. 205–239. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199539703.003.0009.</ref>
The [[Hiberno-Normans]] gradually replaced these wooden motte-and-baileys with [[Fortified house|stone castles]] and [[tower houses]].<ref>Glasscock, Robin Edgar (2008) [1987]. "Chapter 8: Land and people, c.1300". In Cosgrove, Art (ed.). A New History of Ireland, Volume II: Medieval Ireland 1169–1534. Oxford University Press. pp. 205–239. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199539703.003.0009.</ref> Square and rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings completely.<ref>Joyce, Patrick Weston (1906). "Chapter XVI: The House, Construction, Shape, and Size". A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland. Library Ireland. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2012.</ref>

[[File:RockOfCashel.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Rock of Cashel]], the citadel in which the defenders attempted to hold off the assault during the [[Sack of Cashel]].]]

Starting in the late 16th century, an era of [[Siege warfare]] began in Ireland. During this period, urban defense came to the forefront of Gaelic warfare and became increasingly important. Following shocking atrocities at the [[Sack of Cashel]] and [[Oliver Cromwell]]’s [[Siege of Drogheda|siege and massacre at Drogheda]]. Gaelic Irish rebels, realizing that they could not expect or trust any quarter to be given upon surrender, began to improvise and set traps for armies besieging their towns.

At both the [[siege of Clonmel]] and [[siege of Charlemont]], [[Gaelic Ireland|Irish]] rebel defenders were able exact a heavy toll on [[Commonwealth of England|English]] forces. During Clonmel, Cromwell's [[New Model Army]] and 8,000 men eventually took the town from its 2,000 Irish defenders, but not before suffering heavy losses of around 2,000 soldiers or a quarter of their total force, their largest ever loss in a single action.<ref>Plant, David (28 February 2008). "The Siege of Clonmel, 1650". BCW Project. David Plant. Retrieved 13 July 2020.</ref> At Charlemont, a small force of less than 200 defenders and townsfolk was able to hold off the New Model Army for two months through heavy fighting after arming the entire town's populace including women.<ref>Manning, Roger (2000). An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army 1585-1702. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> In both engagements, the English, with overwhelming forces, surrounded the fortifications and created a breach in the defenses using cannon fire and then assaulted the breach. Both times, the town’s people and defenders set a trap within. At Clonmel, they built a [[coupure]] within the breach and lined it with artillery, muskets, and pikemen, thus creating a [[killing field]] just inside the walls. In both instances, Irish defenders were able to compel the superior English forces into granting surrender agreements with generous terms through heavy fighting and attrition to the besieging armies.<ref>Wheeler, James Scott (1999). Cromwell in Ireland. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. ISBN 0-7171-2884-9.</ref><ref>"Clonmel: Its Monastery, and Siege by Cromwell". Duffy's Hibernian Magazine. III (14). August 1861. Retrieved 13 July 2020.</ref>

===Tactics and organisation===

[[File:The Image of Irelande - plate02.jpg|thumb|right|A raid depicted in [[The Image of Irelande, with a Discoverie of Woodkarne|''The Image of Irelande'']] (1581). [[Kern (soldier)|''Ceithearn'']] or Kern made up the bulk of Gaelic armies, as levied [[Skirmisher|light infantrymen]]. Note the [[Bagpipes|Bagpiper]] leading the troops.]]

Initially [[kern (soldier)|Kern]] or ''ceithern'' were members of individual tribes, but later, when the [[Vikings]] and [[Anglo-Normans|English]] came to Ireland, they introduced new systems of [[billet]]ing soldiers, the kern became billeted [[soldier]]s and [[mercenary|mercenaries]] who served the highest bidder. Because Kern were equipped and trained as light [[skirmisher]]s, they faced a severe disadvantage in [[pitched battle]]. In battle, the kern and lightly armed [[Light cavalry|horsemen]] would charge the enemy line after intimidating them with [[shock tactics]], [[Battle cry|war cries]], [[Carnyx|horns]] and [[Wind instrument|pipes]].<ref>Fergus Cannan, 'HAGS OF HELL': Late Medieval Irish Kern. History Ireland , Vol. 19, No. 1 (January/February 2011), pp. 17</ref>

If the kern failed to break an enemy line after the charge, they were liable to flee. If the enemy formation did not break under the kern's charge, then heavily armed and armoured Irish soldiers were moved forward and would advance from the rear lines and attack, these units were replaced in the late 13th century by the [[Gallowglass]] or ''Gallóglaigh'', who at first were [[Norse-Gael]]ic [[mercenaries]] but by the 15th century most large [[túath]]a in [[Ireland]] had fostered and developed their own hereditary forces of Gallowglass. The primary function of Gaelic [[Heavy infantry]] was so lighter combatants such as Kern and Hobelars caught in thick fighting could strike, break free, re-group and tactically retreat behind the newly formed [[Line (formation)|battle line]] if they needed to.

By the time of [[Tudor conquest of Ireland|the Tudor reconquest of Ireland]], the forces under [[Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone]] had adopted [[Mainland Europe|Continental]] [[pike-and-shot]] tactics. Indeed, from the 16th century on, the Gaelic Irish fought with the most up-to-date methods of warfare, including full reliance on firearms and modern tactics. Their formations consisted of a mix of [[Pikemen]], [[musketeers]] and [[Gallowglass|Gaelic swordsmen]] who began [[Basket-hilted sword#Scottish broadsword|to be equipped]] and fight more like the continental units like the [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] [[Landsknecht]] or the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] [[Rodelero]]. They used these tactics to fight the [[Kingdom of England|invading English forces]], however these formations proved vulnerable without adequate [[cavalry]] support. [[Muskets]] and other [[Firearm]]s  were widely used in combination with traditional Gaelic [[shock tactics|shock]] and [[hit and run tactics]], often in [[ambush]]es against enemy [[Column (formation)|columns]] on the march.<ref>G. A. Hayes-McCoy, "Strategy and Tactics in Irish Warfare, 1593–1601." Irish Historical Studies , Vol. 2, No. 7 (Mar. 1941), pp. 255</ref>

===Adaptations===
[[File:Britain.Deisi.Laigin.jpg|thumb|A map of the early [[Gaelic Ireland|Irish]] raids and colonies of [[Great Britain|Britain]] during and following [[Roman Britain|Roman rule]] in Britain.]]

As time went on, the Gaels [[Great Conspiracy|began intensifying]] [[End of Roman rule in Britain|their raids and colonies]] in [[Roman Britain]] (c. 200–500 AD). Naval forces were necessary for this, and, as a result, large numbers of small boats, called [[currach]]s, were employed. Gaelic forces were so frequently at sea (especially the [[Dál Riata]] Gaels), weaponry had to change. [[Javelins]] and [[sling (weapon)|sling]]s became more uncommon, as they required too much space to launch, which the small currachs did not allow. Instead, more and more Gaels were armed with [[Bow and arrow|bows and arrows]].

The [[Dál Riata]], for example, after colonizing [[Scottish Highlands|the west of Scotland]] and becoming a [[maritime power]], became an army composed completely of [[Archery|archers]]. Slings also went out of use, replaced by both bows and a very effective naval weapon called the ''crann tabhaill'', a kind of [[catapult]].

Later, when the [[Gaels]] came into contact with the [[Early Scandinavian Dublin#Early Viking raids|Vikings]], they realized the need for heavier weaponry, so as to make hacking through the much larger [[Viking shield|Norse shield]]s and heavy mail-coats possible.

Heavier hacking-swords and [[polearm]] weapons became more frequent, as did Iron [[Bascinet|helmets]] and [[hauberk|mail-coats]]. Gaels began to regularly use the double-handed "[[Dane Axe]]", wielded by the [[Vikings]]. Irish and [[Warfare in Medieval Scotland|Scottish]] infantry troops fighting with the [[Claymore]], [[polearm|axes]] and [[Chainmail|heavier armour]], in addition to their own [[dart (missile)|native darts]] and [[History of archery#Medieval history|bows]]. These heavy troops became known as the ''{{lang|gd|Gallòglaigh}}'' ([[Gallowglass]]), or "[[Norse-Gaels|foreign soldiers]]", and formed an important part of Gaelic armies in the future.

The [[Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland|coming of the Normans]] into Ireland [[Norman Conquest|and Britain]] several hundred years later also forced the [[Gaelic Ireland|Irish]] and [[Kingdom of Alba|Scots]] to use an increasingly large number of more heavily armoured [[Gallowglass|warriors]] combined quick [[skirmisher]] [[hobelars|cavalry]] in order to effectively deal with the mail-clad [[Normans]].

During the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Scottish Wars of Independence]], the [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scots]] had to develop a means to counter the [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] [[Kingdom of England|English]] and their devastating combined use of [[heavy cavalry]] and the [[Longbow]]. Which had dominated almost every battlefield in [[Great Britain]] since [[Battle of Hastings|Hastings]].

The Scottish rebels [[Andrew de Moray]], [[William Wallace]] and Scottish King [[Robert the Bruce]] can all be credited with the development of the [[Schiltron]] as a counter to the [[Normans]] and their early use of [[combined arms]] warfare. English Chroniclers of the era said of the warriors in the Schiltrons:

*"They were all on foot; picked men they were, enthusiastic, armed with keen axes, and other weapons, and with their shields closely locked in front of them, they formed an impenetrable phalanx ..."<ref>Trokelowe, quoted in Brown, op.cit, p. 90</ref>
* "They had axes at their sides and lances in their hands. They advanced like a thick-set hedge and such a phalanx could not easily be broken."<ref>Vita Edwardi Secundi, quoted in Brown, Chris (2008). Bannockburn 1314. Stroud: History press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7524-4600-4.</ref>

[[File:Battle_of_Bannockburn_-_Bruce_addresses_troops.jpg|thumb|left| A depiction of [[Robert the Bruce]] directing his men on the field at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] from [[John Cassell|Cassell]]'s ''Illustrated History of England''.]]

[[Andrew de Moray]] is credited with using the Schiltron early on in [[Scottish Wars of Independence|the campaign]] but he died shortly after sustaining a mortal injury at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]].<ref>Duncan, A.A.M. (2007). Cowan, Edward (ed.). William, Son of Alan Wallace: The Documents, in The Wallace Book. Edinburgh: John Donald. p.&nbsp;42. {{ISBN|9781906566241}}.</ref><ref>Watson, Fiona (2007). Cowan, Edward (ed.). Sir William Wallace: What We Do – and Don't – Know, in The Wallace Book. Edinburgh: John Donald. pp.&nbsp;31–34. {{ISBN|9781906566241}}.</ref>

In early engagements, like when Schiltrons were used by [[William Wallace]] at the [[Battle of Falkirk]], the immobile [[Phalanx]]-like formations proved vulnerable to the English [[Longbowmen]] without adequate [[cavalry]] support. But the Scots learned from this and by the time [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] met the Scots at Bannockburn, [[Robert the Bruce]] had adapted the [[Schiltron]] and turned it into a more mobile offensive formation (much like the later [[Pike Square]] of [[Battle of Nancy|continental fame]]). With these tight mobile formations and adequate [[cavalry]] support. The Scots were able to use this innovative adaptation to pin the [[Heavy cavalry|English heavy horse]] against the [[Bannock Burn|Bannockburn]] on the second day of the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] and routed the army of [[Edward II of England]] paving the way for eventual [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton|Scottish Independence]].

===Standards and music===
{{Main|Great Irish Warpipes}}

[[File:Derrickepiper.jpg|thumb|A [[Bagpipes|Bagpiper]] as depicted in [[The Image of Irelande, with a Discoverie of Woodkarne|''The Image of Irelande'']] (1581).]]

Many Gaelic clans each had their own distinct [[Irish clans|cultures]], [[coat of arms|symbols]], [[heraldic flag|heraldry]], [[banner|flags]] and [[War flag|battle standards]]. Wind instruments such as hollowed-out bull horns were often carried into battle by [[Chief of the Name|Chieftains]] or War leaders and used as a means to rally men into combat. [[Bagpipes]] would eventually gain popularity among Gaelic clans and replaced other rallying instruments such as the [[blowing horn]] or [[carnyx]], it can be attributed as being used from as early on as the 14th century. Most notably the [[Great Irish Warpipes]] which would go on to be used by [[Gallowglass|Gaelic mercenaries]] in European conflicts and would eventually develop into ceremonial instruments. Bagpipes have since become an important symbol of [[Gaels|Gaelic culture]] as a whole. With both the [[Uilleann pipes]] and the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]] playing important roles in the culture of their respective nations.

==Exported Gaelic warfare==

===Gallowglass===
{{Main|Gallowglass}}

[[File:Roscommon St. Mary's Priory Choir Tomb 2014 08 28 crop 2.jpg|thumb|Fifteenth-century sculpted figures of [[Gallowglass]]es,<ref>Halpin; Newman (2006) p. 244; Simms (1998) p. 78; Simms (1997) pp. 111 fig. 5.3, 114 fig. 5.6; Halpin (1986) p. 205; Crawford, HS (1924).</ref> as depicted upon the apparent effigy of [[Felim O'Connor (d. 1265)|Feidhlimidh Ó Conchobhair]], [[List of kings of Connacht|King of Connacht]]<ref>Halpin; Newman (2006) p. 244; Verstraten (2002) p. 11; Crawford, HS (1924).</ref> and father of [[Áed na nGall]], victor of [[Battle of Áth an Chip|the Battle of Connacht]].]]

The most prolific [[Norsemen|Norse]] legacy in Gaelic warfare was the introduction of the [[Gallowglass]],  ''gallóglaigh'' ([[Irish language|Irish]]) or ''gallòglaich'' ([[Scottish Gaelic]]), a kind of [[heavy infantry]], [[Shock troops|shock troop]] and [[Bodyguards|elite bodyguard]] for the [[Gaelic nobility of Ireland|Gaelic Nobility]]. Similar in function to the [[Housecarls]] of the [[House of Wessex|English nobility]] or the [[Varangian Guard]] of [[Byzantine Empire|Constantinople]]. The original Gallowglass were [[Norse–Gaels|Norse–Gaelic]] [[mercenaries]] who came from the [[Hebrides]] and [[Kingdom of the Isles|the Isles]]. They appeared in Ireland in the 13th century, following the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] and [[Bruce campaign in Ireland|the Bruce campaign]] but by the 15th century most large [[túath]]a had their own hereditary force of Gallowglass.<ref>Ó Cléirigh, Cormac (1997). Irish frontier warfare: a fifteenth-century case study (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2010.</ref> They fought and trained in a combination of [[Gaels|Gaelic]] and [[Norsemen|Norse]] techniques, and were highly valued; they were hired throughout the [[British Isles]] at different times, though most famously in [[Gaelic Ireland|Ireland]].

[[File:MacDonald of the Isles (MacIan).jpg|thumb|left| A [[Norse-Gael|Norse-Gaelic Chieftain]] from [[Clan Donald|Clan MacDonald]] wearing [[Chain mail|Mail]] and wielding a [[Claymore]] as depicted by [[R. R. McIan|R.R. McIan]]]]

One of the first battles believed to have to included Gallowglass was the [[Battle of Ath an Chip|Battle of Connacht]]. As [[Áed na nGall|Áed na nGall Ó Conchobair]], the [[List of kings of Connacht|King of Connacht]] who defeated the [[Anglo-Normans]], was known to travel with a retinue of 160 Gallowglass that he received as a dowry.<ref>Duffy. The World of the Galloglass: Kings, Warlords and Warriors in Ireland and Scotland, 1200–1600. 2007 p. 1.</ref> Gallowglass usually wore [[Chain mail|mail]] and [[basinet|iron helmets]] and wielded heavy weaponry such as the [[Dane axe]], [[Sparth axe]]s, [[Lochaber axe]]s, [[Oakeshott typology|Longswords]], [[Claymore#Two-handed (Highland) claymore|Claymores]] and sometimes [[spear]]s or [[lance]]s. These [[Gallowglass|Gallóglaigh]] furnished the retreating Gaels with a "moving [[Defense line|line of defense]] from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind which they could retreat when pursued". Their heavy armour made them less nimble than [[Kern (soldier)|kern]], so they were sometimes placed at strategic spots along the [[Withdrawal (military)|line of retreat]].<ref>Ó Cléirigh, Cormac (1997). Irish frontier warfare: a fifteenth-century case study (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 December 2010.</ref>

Gallowglasses were frequently hired and served as [[mercenaries]] in [[Mainland Europe|continental]] armies and units, such as the [[Dutch Blue Guards]], [[Swiss Guard]], the [[Kingdom of France|French]] [[Scottish Guard]], and the forces of King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] in his invasion of [[Livonia]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Gallowglass later became a caste of warrior rather than a indicator of a norse gaelic origin, with Irish Gallowglass clans producing their own.

Despite the increased usage of [[firearm]]s in Irish warfare following the 16th century, Gallowglass remained an integral part of [[Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone|Hugh Ó Neill]]'s forces during the [[Nine Years' War (Ireland)|Nine Years' War]]. Following the combined Irish defeat at the [[Battle of Kinsale]] in 1601, the recruitment of the heavily armoured warriors finally waned.

===Hobelars===
{{Main|Hobelar}}

[[Hobelars]] were a mounted, highly mobile [[skirmisher]] unit. Some were [[Mounted archery|mounted archers]], some were merely [[light cavalry]]. These Gaelic horsemen were utilitarian and could fill multiple roles on the battlefield, including as mobile skirmisher [[infantry]] used to [[Flanking maneuver|outmaneuver]] enemy units or that of skirmisher [[cavalry]], used for [[Hit-and-run tactics|quick and abrupt attacks]].

[[File:Connemara pony.jpg|thumb|left| A [[Connemara pony]], modern descendant of the [[Irish Hobby]] Horse which was used for skirmishing and light cavalry.]]

Early Hobelars wore little armour, they typically rode on smaller quicker unarmoured [[Irish Hobby|hobby horse]]s and [[pony|ponies]] rather than the full sized horses that [[Men-at-arms]] rode. Hobelars would typically dismount to fight, harry their opponents and then utilize their mounts as a quick getaway. As time went on, Hobelars began to be utilized for more and more cavalry tasks and functions.<ref>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 1, Page 267-268, ''Hobelars''</ref>

During his [[Warfare in Medieval Scotland|conflicts with the English crown]], [[Robert the Bruce]] deployed the [[irish hobby|hobby]] for his campaign of [[guerilla warfare]] and mounted [[raid (military)|raids]] to great success, covering 60 to 70 miles (100 to 110&nbsp;km) a day. They were so successful that [[Edward I of England]] prevented Irish&nbsp;[[exports]]&nbsp;of [[Irish hobby|hobbies]] to [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] in order to gain an advantage in the conflict.<ref>Hyland (1998), p 32, 14, 37</ref> 
Hobelars were highly proficient at [[Reconnaissance|scouting]], [[patrolling]] and [[ambush]]ing in areas typically unreachable by cavalry units such a mountainous areas, thick forests and boggy swamps.<ref>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 1, Page 267-268,''Hobelars''</ref> Within [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]] [[Mainland Europe|and beyond]], the skirmisher cavalry were a well-known and highly valued as a light and mobile unit.

After the successful and effective deployment of these horsemen by both the English and Scottish during the [[Scottish Wars of Independence]].<ref>Hyland (1998), p 32, 14, 37</ref> Belligerents in [[100 Years War|continental conflicts]] also began to hire [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] Gaels as [[mercenary]] troops for their armies. Both the [[Angevin Empire|English]] and [[Kingdom of France|French]] hired these Gaelic horsemen and both eventually duplicated the concept themselves.<ref>Lydon (1954)</ref> Hobelars were principally utilized in engagements during the [[Scottish Wars of Independence]] and [[Hundred Years' War]]. After time the Hobelars slowly adapted from mounted [[skirmisher]]s much like [[Kern (soldier)|kern]] into a more basic form of [[light cavalry]]. On [[Continental Europe|the continent]], from 1311 on continental Hobelars became more and more [[armoured]] and less distinguishable from other [[cavalry]] units.<ref>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 1, Page 267-268, ''Hobelars''</ref>

[[File:WatHarden.jpg|thumb|right|[[Auld Wat of Harden]], both a famous and notorious Scottish [[Border reiver]].]]

In [[Scotland]], Hobelars served as the offensive arm of castle [[garrison]]s. Hobelars were utilized as raiders across the border by both the [[Angevin Empire|English]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scots]], they can be viewed as early predecessors to [[Border reivers|the reivers]] and [[moss-trooper]]s of the [[Anglo-Scottish border|Scottish borderlands]].<ref>''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology'', Volume 1, Page 267-268, ''Hobelars''</ref>

===Later Weaponry===

[[File:Two-handed Highland sword.JPG|thumb|left| The Great Sword (''Claideamh Mòr'') or [[claymore]] was a [[two-handed sword]] favored by both [[Scottish Highlands|Scottish Highlanders]] and the [[Gallowglass]] in Ireland. ]]

During the [[Late Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]] period, weapon imports from [[Mainland Europe|Europe]] influenced Gaelic weapon design. Take for example the German [[Zweihänder]] sword, a long [[Classification of swords#Great sword|double-handed weapon]] used for quick, powerful cuts and thrusts. Irish swords were copied from these models, which had unique furnishings. Many, for example, often featured [[Hilt#Hilt ring|open rings]] on the [[Hilt|pommel]]. On any locally designed Irish sword in the Middle Ages, this meant you could see the end of the [[Tang (tools)|tang]] go through the pommel and cap the end. These swords were often of very fine construction and quality. [[Claymore|Scottish swords]] continued to use the more traditional "V" cross-guards that had been on pre-Norse Gaelic swords, culminating in such pieces as the now famous "[[claymore]]" design. This was an outgrowth of numerous earlier designs, and has become a symbol of Scotland. The claymore was used together with the typical [[dane axe|axes]] of the [[Gallowglass]] until the 18th century, but began to be replaced by [[pistol]]s, [[musket]]s and [[basket-hilted sword]]s, which were shorter versions of the claymore which were used with one hand in conjunction with a shield. 
These [[Basket-hilted sword#Scottish broadsword|basket-hilted broadswords]] are still a symbol of [[Scotland]] to this day, as is the typical small round shield known as a "[[targe]]."

===Redshanks===
{{Main|Redshank (soldier)}}

[[File: Mac_Laurin_(R._R._McIan).jpg|thumb|left|[[Scottish Highlands|Highlanders]], like the one depicted here by [[R. R. McIan|R.R. McIan]] were hired by [[Irish Clans|Gaelic clans]] and [[Gaelic nobility of Ireland|nobility]] to fight the English crown in the [[Tudor conquest of Ireland|Tudor conquest]] and [[Irish Confederate Wars|Confederate Wars.]]]]

[[Redshank (soldier)|Redshank]] was a nickname for Scottish or Ulster [[mercenaries]] from the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and [[Outer Hebrides|Western Isles]] contracted to fight in [[Ireland]]; they were a prominent feature of Irish armies throughout the 16th century. They were called redshanks because similarly to the Irish they went dressed in [[plaids]] and waded bare-legged through rivers in the coldest weather. The term was not derogatory however, as the [[English people|English]] were in general impressed with the redshanks' qualities as soldiers.<ref>Falls, Elizabeth's Irish Wars, p.79</ref>

[[File: Scottish mercenaries in the Thirty Years War.jpg|thumb|right|Scottish [[mercenaries]] known as [[Redshank (soldier)|Redshanks]], were highly sought after. Shown here fighting in [[the Thirty Years War]].]]

The redshanks were usually armed alike, principally with [[Bow and arrows|bows]] (the [[short bow]] of Scotland and Ireland, rather than the [[longbow]] of Wales and England) and, initially, two-handed weapons like [[claymores]], [[battle axe]]s or [[Lochaber axe]]s. [[English people|English]] observers reported that some [[Scottish Highlands|Highlanders]] fighting in [[Ireland]] wore [[chain mail]], long obsolete elsewhere.<ref>Fforde, The Great Glen, 2011</ref>

Later in the period, they may have adopted the [[targe]] and [[Basket-hilted sword|single-handed broadsword]], a style of weaponry originally fashionable in early [[Hapsburg Spain|16th-century Spain]] from where its use could have spread to [[Ireland]].<ref>Stevenson, Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century, 1980, p.83</ref> Combined with the use of [[muskets]], this could have influenced the development of what was later referred to as the "''[[highland charge]]''", a tactic of firing a single coordinated musket volley before closing at a run with [[Basket-hilted sword|sword]] and [[targe]].<ref>Stevenson, Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates, 1981, p.4</ref> Many [[Scottish clan|Gaelic clan]] levies, called [[Cateran]]s, would have remained relatively poorly armed.

[[File:The Battle of Culloden.jpg|thumb|right| [[Scottish Highlands|Scottish Highlanders]] conducting a [[Highland Charge]] at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.]]

By the mid-17th century, a large number of [[Scottish Highlanders]], also often called "[[Redshank (soldier)|redshanks]]", fought in the [[Irish Confederate War]]s, notably the clansmen serving under [[Alasdair Mac Colla]], himself a member of a minor Hebridean branch of [[Clan Donald]] (a cadet family of [[Clan MacDonald of Dunnyveg]]).<ref>Hill, James Michael, Celtic warfare, 1595–1763 (2003),J. Donald</ref> However, the Highlanders who fought at the [[Battle of Dungan's Hill]] and [[Battle of Knocknanuss]] were to be the last of the redshanks.<ref>Carlton, Charles (2002). Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638–1651. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-84935-2., page 135</ref>

The subsequent [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|Cromwellian conquest]] and [[Williamite War in Ireland|Williamite War]] brought an end to Irish employment of Scottish Highland [[mercenaries]] through the destruction of their employers, the [[Gaelic nobility of Ireland|Gaelic nobility]] and by the pacification of the [[Scottish Highlands|Scottish Gaels]] with the [[Statutes of Iona]] and the [[Act of Proscription 1746|Highland clearances]].

==List of Gaelic conflicts and battles==
This is a list of battles or conflicts in which the [[Gaels]] had a leading or crucial role.

{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
*106 CE: [[Mal mac Rochride|Magh Line]]
*157 CE: [[Tipraiti Tireach|Battle of Tuath Amrois]]
*195 CE: [[Cath Maige Mucrama|Battle of Maigh Mucruimhe]]
*225 CE: [[Cormac mac Airt#Rise to power|Battle of Crinna]]
*283 CE: [[Cath Gabhra]]
*331 CE: [[Achaidh Leithdeircc]]
*493 CE: [[Saint Patrick#Battle for the Body of St Patrick|Battle for the Body of St. Patrick]]
*596 CE: [[Battle of Raith]]
*561 CE: [[Battle of Cúl Dreimhne]]
*603 CE: [[Battle of Degsastan]]
*629 CE: [[Battle of Fid Eoin]]
*637 CE: [[Battle of Moira]]
*735 CE: [[Timeline of Scottish history#8th Century|Óengus campaigns against Dál Riata]]
*736 CE: [[Timeline of Scottish history#8th Century|Battle of Cnoc Coirpi]]
*741 CE: [[Timeline of Scottish history#8th Century|Battle of Druimm Cathmail]]
*841 CE: [[MacAlpin's treason]]
*795 CE: [[Early Scandinavian Dublin#Early Viking raids|Early Viking raids in Ireland]]
*868 CE:  [[Conchobar mac Taidg Mór#Biography|Battle of Cell Ua nDaigri]] 
*877 CE: [[Battle of Strangford Lough]]
*908 CE: [[Battle of Ballaghmoon]]
*915 CE: [[Battle of Confey]]
*917 CE: [[Battle of Mag Femen]]
*919 CE: [[Battle of Islandbridge]]
*968 CE: [[Battle of Sulcoit]]
*968 CE: [[Burning of Luimnech]]
*977 CE: [[Battle of Cathair Cuan]]
*978 CE: [[Battle of Belach Lechta]]
*980 CE: [[Battle of Tara (Ireland)|Battle of Tara]]
*999 CE: [[Battle of Glenmama]]
*1014 CE: [[Battle of Clontarf]]
*1130 CE: [[Battle of Stracathro]]
*1132 CE: [[Sieges of Galway#O Brian's siege of 1132|O'Brian's siege of Galway]]
*1149 CE: [[Sieges of Galway#O Brian's siege of 1149|O'Brian's second siege of Galway]]
*1151 CE: [[Battle of Móin Mhór]]
*1164 CE: [[Battle of Renfrew]]
*1169 CE: [[Siege of Wexford (1169)|Siege of Wexford]]
*1171 CE: [[Siege of Dublin (1171)|Siege of Dublin]]
*1174 CE: [[Battle of Thurles]]
*1185 CE: [[John's first expedition to Ireland|Prince John's Expedition]]
*1230 CE: [[Sieges of Galway#De Burgh's siege of 1230|De Burgh's siege of Galway]]
*1234 CE: [[Battle of the Curragh]]
*1245 CE: [[Battle of Embo]]
*1247 CE: [[Battle of Ballyshannon (1247)|Battle of Ballyshannon]]
*1247 CE: [[Sack of Dun Gallimhe]]
*1249 CE: [[First Battle of Athenry]]
*1256 CE: [[Battle of Magh Slecht]]
*1257 CE: [[Battle of Creadran Cille]]
*1260 CE: [[Battle of Down]]
*1261 CE: [[Battle of Callann]]
*1262 CE: [[Mangerton Mountain#Tooreencormick battle site|Battle of Tooreencormick]]
*1263 CE: [[Battle of Largs]]
*1270 CE: [[Battle of Áth an Chip|Battle of Connacht]]
*1275 CE: [[Manx revolt of 1275|Manx revolt]]
*1275 CE: [[Battle of Ronaldsway]]
*1294 CE: [[Battle of Red Ford]]
*1296 CE: [[Sack of Berwick (1296)|Sack of Berwick]]
*1297 CE: [[Action at Lanark|Lanark]]
*1297 CE: [[Raid on Scone]]
*1297 CE: [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]]
*1298 CE: [[Battle of Falkirk]]
*1303 CE: [[Battle of Roslin]]
*1304 CE: [[Battle of Happrew]]
*1304 CE: [[Sieges of Stirling Castle#Siege of 1304|Siege at Stirling Castle]]
*1304 CE: [[Action at Earnside|Earnside]]
*1306 CE: [[Battle of Dalrigh]]
*1307 CE: [[Battle of Loch Ryan]]
*1307 CE: [[Battle of Turnberry]]
*1307 CE: [[Battle of Glen Trool]]
*1307 CE: [[Battle of Loudoun Hill]]
*1307 CE: [[Battle of Slioch]]
*1308 CE: [[Battle of Inverurie (1308)|Battle of Barra]]
*1308 CE: [[Harrying of Buchan]]
*1308 CE: [[Battle of the River Dee]]
*1308 CE: [[Battle of the Pass of Brander]]
*1314 CE: [[Capture of Roxburgh (1314)|Capture of Roxburgh]]
*1314 CE: [[Battle of Bannockburn]]
*1315 CE: [[Battle of Moiry Pass]]
*1315 CE: [[Battle of Connor]]
*1315 CE: [[Battle of Kells]]
*1316 CE: [[Battle of Skerries]]
*1316 CE: [[Second Battle of Athenry]]
*1317 CE: [[Battle of Lough Raska]]
*1318 CE: [[Battle of Dysert O'Dea]]
*1318 CE: [[Battle of Faughart]]
*1327 CE: [[Battle of Fiodh-an-Átha]]
*1328 CE: [[Battle of Thomond]]
*1329 CE: [[Braganstown massacre]]
*1329 CE: [[Battle of Ardnocher]]
*1337 CE: [[Battle of Drumlui]]
*1370 CE: [[Battle of Invernahavon]]
*1385 CE: [[Battle of Tochar Cruachain-Bri-Ele]]
*1391 CE: [[Raid of Angus]]
*1394 CE: [[Battle of Ros-Mhic-Thriúin]]
*1396 CE: [[Battle of the North Inch]]
*1399 CE: [[Battle of Tragh-Bhaile]]
*1402 CE: [[Battle of Drumoak]]
*1406 CE: [[Battle of Cluain Immorrais]]
*1406 CE: [[Battle of Tuiteam Tarbhach]]
*1411 CE: [[Battle of Dingwall]]
*1411 CE: [[Battle of Harlaw]]
*1426 CE: [[Battle of Harpsdale]]
*1429 CE: [[Battle of Lochaber]]
*1429 CE: [[Battle of Mamsha]]
*1429 CE: [[Battle of Palm Sunday]]
*1429 CE: [[Siege of Inverness (1429)|Siege of Inverness]]
*1430 CE: [[Battle of Drumnacoub]]
*1431 CE: [[Battle of Inverlochy (1431)|Battle of Inverlochy]]
*1437 CE: [[Sandside Chase]]
*1438 CE: [[Battle of Tannach]]
*1439 CE: [[Battle of Craignaught Hill]]
*1441 CE: [[Battle of Craig Cailloch]]
*1445 CE: [[Battle of Arbroath]]
*1452 CE: [[Battle of Bealach nam Broig]]
*1452 CE: [[Battle of Brechin]]
*1454 CE: [[Battle of Clachnaharry]]
*1455 CE: [[Battle of Arkinholm]]
*1470 CE: [[Battle of Corpach]]
*1478 CE: [[Battle of Champions]]
*1480 CE: [[Battle of Bloody Bay]]
*1480 CE: [[Battle of Lagabraad]]
*1480 CE: [[Battle of Skibo and Strathfleet]]
*1485 CE: [[Battle of Blar Na Pairce]]
*1486 CE: [[Battle of Tarbat]]
*1487 CE: [[Battle of Aldy Charrish]]
*1490 CE: [[Massacre of Monzievaird]]
*1491 CE: [[Battle of Blar Na Pairce]]
*1491 CE: [[Raid on Ross]]
*1497 CE: [[Battle of Drumchatt (1497)|Battle of Drumchatt]]
*1499 CE: [[Battle of Daltullich]]
*1501 CE: [[Dubh's Rebellion]]
*1504 CE: [[Battle of Knockdoe]]
*1504 CE: [[Cairnburgh Castle]]
*1505 CE: [[Achnashellach]]
*1513 CE: [[Battle of Glendale (Skye)|Battle of Glendale]]
*1522 CE: [[Battle of Knockavoe]]
*1534 CE: [[Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare#Kildare rebellion (1534–1535)|Kildare rebellion]]
*1539 CE: [[Battle of Belahoe]]
*1544 CE: [[Battle of the Shirts]]
*1544 CE: [[Raids of Urquhart]]
*1559 CE: [[Battle of Spancel Hill]]
*1569 CE: [[Desmond Rebellions#First Desmond Rebellion|First Desmond Rebellion]]
*1565 CE: [[Battle of Glentaisie]]
*1567 CE: [[Battle of Farsetmore]]
*1570 CE: [[Battle of Bun Garbhain]]
*1570 CE: [[Battle of Torran-Roy]]
*1572 CE: [[Sack of Athenry]]
*1574 CE: [[Clandeboye massacre]]
*1575 CE: [[Rathlin Island massacre]]
*1577 CE: [[Eigg#Massacre and pillage|Sack of Eigg]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-07-24|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Eigg#Massacre and pillage|reason= The anchor (Massacre and pillage) [[Special:Diff/1235856498|has been deleted]].}}
*1577 CE: [[Massacre of Mullaghmast]]
*1578 CE: [[Battle of the Spoiling Dyke]]
*1579 CE: [[Second Desmond Rebellion]]
*1580 CE: [[Battle of Glenmalure]]
*1580 CE: [[Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle]]
*1580 CE: [[Siege of Smerwick]]
*1585 CE: [[Battle of the Western Isles]]
*1590 CE: [[Battle of Doire Leathan]]
*1590 CE: [[Battle of Clynetradwell]]
*1593 CE: [[Battle of Belleek]]
*1594 CE: [[Siege of Enniskillen (1594)|Siege of Enniskillen]]
*1594 CE: [[Battle of the Ford of the Biscuits]]
*1594 CE: [[Battle of Glenlivet]]
*1595 CE: [[Assault on the Blackwater Fort]]
*1595 CE: [[Battle of Clontibret]]
*1596 CE: [[Sieges of Galway#O Donnell's siege of 1596|O'Donnell's siege of Galway]]
*1597 CE: [[Dublin gunpowder explosion]]
*1597 CE: [[Battle of Carrickfergus (1597)|Battle of Carrickfergus]]
*1598 CE: [[Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart]]
*1598 CE: [[Battle of Benbigrie]]
*1598 CE: [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]]
*1599 CE: [[Battle of Deputy's Pass]]
*1599 CE: [[Siege of Cahir Castle]]
*1600 CE: [[Battle of Curlew Pass]]
*1600 CE: [[Battle of Moyry Pass]]
*1600 CE: [[Battle of Lifford]]
*1601 CE: [[Battle of Carinish]]
*1601 CE: [[Battle of Coire Na Creiche]]
*1601 CE: [[Siege of Donegal]]
*1601 CE: [[Siege of Kinsale]]
*1601 CE: [[Battle of Castlehaven]]
*1602 CE: [[Siege of Dunboy]]
*1602 CE: [[Dursey massacre]]
*1602 CE: [[Burning of Dungannon]]
*1641 CE: [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]]
*1641 CE: [[Portadown massacre]]
*1641 CE: [[Siege of Drogheda (1641)|Siege of Drogheda]]
*1641 CE: [[Battle of Julianstown]]
*1642 CE: [[Battle of Kilrush]]
*1642 CE: [[Rathlin Island massacre]]
*1645 CE: [[Battle of the Braes of Strathdearn]]
*1645 CE: [[Battle of Inverlochy (1645)|Battle of Inverlochy]]
*1646 CE: [[Battle of Benburb]]
*1646 CE: [[Battle of Lagganmore]]
*1646 CE: [[Dunoon massacre]]
*1646 CE: [[Battle of Rhunahaorine Moss]]
*1647 CE: [[Sack of Cashel]]
*1647 CE: [[Battle of Dunaverty]]
*1649 CE: [[Siege of Drogheda|Drogheda massacre]]
*1650 CE: [[Siege of Clonmel]]
*1650 CE: [[Siege of Charlemont]]
*1655 CE: [[Stand-off at the Fords of Arkaig]]
*1680 CE: [[Battle of Altimarlach]]
*1688 CE: [[Battle of Mulroy]]
*1692 CE: [[Massacre of Glencoe]]
*1715 CE: [[Siege of Brahan]]
*1715 CE: [[Battle of Sheriffmuir]]
*1719 CE: [[Capture of Eilean Donan Castle]]
*1719 CE: [[Battle of Glen Shiel]]
*1721 CE: [[Battle of Glen Affric]]
*1721 CE: [[Battle of Coille Bhan]]
*1745 CE: [[Highbridge Skirmish]]
*1745 CE: [[Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1745)|First siege of Ruthven Barracks]]
*1745 CE: [[Battle of Prestonpans]]
*1745 CE: [[Siege of Culloden House (1745)|Siege of Culloden House]]
*1745 CE: [[Siege of Carlisle (November 1745)|First siege of Carlisle]]
*1745 CE: [[Clifton Moor Skirmish]]
*1745 CE: [[Siege of Carlisle (December 1745)|Second siege of Carlisle]]
*1745 CE: [[Siege of Fort Augustus (December 1745)|First siege of Fort Augustus]]
*1745 CE: [[Battle of Inverurie (1745)|Battle of Inverurie]]
*1746 CE: [[Battle of Falkirk Muir]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Stirling Castle (1746)|Siege of Stirling Castle]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Ruthven Barracks (1746)|Second siege of Ruthven Barracks]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Inverness (1746)|Siege of Inverness]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Fort Augustus (March 1746)|Second siege of Fort Augustus]]
*1746 CE: [[Atholl raids]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Blair Castle]]
*1746 CE: [[Skirmish of Keith]]
*1746 CE: [[Siege of Fort William]]
*1746 CE: [[Battle of Dornoch]]
*1746 CE: [[Skirmish of Tongue]]
*1746 CE: [[Battle of Littleferry]]
*1746 CE: [[Battle of Culloden]]
}}

== See also ==
*[[Gaels]]
*[[Gaelic Ireland]]
*[[Celtic warfare]]
*[[Kern (soldier)|''Ceithearn'' (Kern)]]
*[[Cateran|''Ceathairne'' (Cateran)]]
*[[Gallowglass|''Gallóglaigh ''(Gallowglass)]]
*[[Hobelar]]
*[[Fianna]]
*[[Redshank (soldier)|Redshank]]
*[[Military History]]
*[[Warfare in Medieval Scotland]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* G. A. Hayes-McCoy, "Strategy and Tactics in Irish Warfare, 1593–1601". ''Irish Historical Studies'', Vol. 2, No. 7 (Mar. 1941), pp.&nbsp;255–279
* Fergus Cannan, "'HAGS OF HELL': late medieval Irish kern". ''History Ireland'', Vol. 19, No. 1 (January/February 2011), pp.&nbsp;14–17
* The Barbarians, Terry Jones
*[[Julius Caesar]], "De Bello Gallico"
*"Tain Bo Cuailnge", From the [[Book of Leinster]]
*[[Geoffrey Keating]], "History of Ireland"
*"The Wars of the Gaels with the Foreigners"
*http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_armies_irish.html
*http://www.myarmoury.com/feature_armies_scots.html

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{{Gaels}}
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{{Connachta}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Gaelic Warfare}}
[[Category:Ancient Celtic warfare]]
[[Category:Gaels|Warfare]]
[[Category:Warfare of the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Military history of Ireland]]