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{{Short description|1688-1763 series of military conflicts in North America}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[French and Indian War]], the name given to the fourth conflict in this series of wars}}

{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
The '''French and Indian Wars''' were a series of conflicts in [[North America]] between 1688 and 1763, some of which indirectly were related to the European dynastic wars. The title ''[[French and Indian War]]'' in the singular is used in the [[United States]] specifically for the warfare of 1754–1763, which composed the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]] and the aftermath of which led to the [[American Revolution]]. The French and Indian Wars were preceded by the [[Beaver Wars]].

In [[Quebec]], the various wars are generally referred to as the Intercolonial Wars. Some conflicts involved Spanish and Dutch forces, but all pitted the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], [[British America|its colonies]], and their [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]] allies on one side against the [[Kingdom of France]], [[French colonization of the Americas|its colonies]], and its Indigenous allies on the other. A driving cause behind the wars was the desire of each country to take control of the interior territories of America, as well as the region around [[Hudson Bay]]; both were deemed essential to domination of the [[fur trade]].

==Overview==
{{Refimprovesection|date=December 2024}}
The North American wars, and their associated [[Europe]]an wars, in sequence, are:

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! Years of war
! US name
! Global name
! Treaty
|-
| align=center valign=center|1688–1697
| valign=top| {{plainlist|
* '''[[King William's War]]'''
* ''1st Intercolonial War'' (in [[French language|French]])<ref>Auguste Carlier, "Histoire du peuple américain. États-Unis, Volume 2", Paris, 1863, p.128 [https://books.google.com/books?id=qqcyAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22Guerres+intercoloniales%22+amerique&pg=PA128]</ref>
}}
| valign=top|[[Nine Years' War]]
| valign=top|[[Treaty of Ryswick]] (1697)
|-
| align=center valign=center|1702–1713
| valign=top| {{plainlist|
* '''[[Queen Anne's War]]'''
* ''2nd Intercolonial War''
* '''[[Dummer's War]]'''
}}
| valign=top|[[War of the Spanish Succession]]
| valign=top|[[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)]]
|-
| align=center valign=center|1744–1748
| valign=top| {{plainlist|
* '''[[King George's War]]'''
* ''3rd Intercolonial War''
* '''[[War of Jenkins' Ear]]'''
}}
| valign=top|[[War of the Austrian Succession]]
| valign=top|[[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)]]
|-
| align=center valign=center|1754–1763
| valign=top|  {{plainlist|
* '''[[French and Indian War]]''' (in the U.S.)
* '''[[Seven Years' War]]''' (in Canada)
* ''4th Intercolonial War'' or ''War of the Conquest'' (in Quebec)<ref>Marcel Trudel, Guy Frégault, "La guerre de la conquête, 1754–1760", Montréal, 1955 [https://books.google.com/books?id=pO80AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Guerre+de+la+conquete%22]</ref> 
* '''[[Father Le Loutre's War]]'''
}}
| valign=top|[[Seven Years' War]]
| valign=top|[[Treaty of Paris (1763)]]
|}

Naming conflicts after the British monarch of the day is a convention in United States history related to its early European settlement as majority-English colonies. Canadian convention uses the name of the larger European conflict (e.g., the "War of the Grand Alliance" rather than "King William's War") or refers to the wars as the Intercolonial Wars.

As the wars proceeded, the military advantage moved toward the British side. This was chiefly the result of the greater population and productive capacity of the British colonies compared with those of France. In addition, the British had the greater ability to resupply their colonies and project military power by sea. In the first three conflicts, the French were able to offset these factors largely by more effective [[mobilization]] of Indigenous allies, but they were finally overwhelmed in the fourth and last war.

The overwhelming victory of the British played a role in the eventual loss of their thirteen American colonies. Without the threat of French invasion, the American colonies saw little need for British military protection. In addition, the American people resented British efforts to limit their colonization of the new French territories to the west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], as stated in the [[Proclamation of 1763]], in an effort to relieve encroachment on Indigenous territory. These pressures contributed to the [[American Revolutionary War]].

The first three of the French and Indian Wars followed the same basic pattern: they all started in Europe and then moved to North America. Once the conflict broke out in North America, it was mostly fought by colonial militias. The final conflict broke this pattern by beginning in North America. In addition, the British used more regular troops alongside colonial militia. They returned almost none of the French territory seized during the war. France was forced to cede its extensive territory in present-day Canada and ''Louisiane''. The British victory in the French and Indian Wars reduced France's New World empire to [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]] (two islands off [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]), a few [[West Indies|West Indian]] islands, and [[French Guiana]].

[[File:Imperial Wars timeline.png|center|600px|Timeline]]

==Warfare==
===Operational goals===
[[File:Fort Carillon.JPG|thumb|[[Fort Carillon]] controlled the [[portage]] between [[Lake George (lake), New York|Lake George]] and [[Lake Champlain]].]]

The belligerents strove in general to control the major transportation and trade routes, not just the sea routes that connected the colonies with the mother country, or the land routes that existed between the different colonies, but also the major fur trade routes leading to the interior of North America. These were normally along lakes and rivers and stretching from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Many indigenous Nations lived by these routes, and became involved in the wars between the great powers of Europe. The belligerents built fortified positions at major transportation hubs and requested the help of the local indigenous population to defend these, and to attack enemy positions.<ref name="Leach">Douglas E. Leach (1988). "Colonial Indian Wars." ''Handbook of North American Indians 4: History of Indigenous-White Relations.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 128-143.</ref>

===European tactics===
[[File:La victoire des troupes de Montcalm à Carillon.JPG|thumb|At [[Battle of Carillon|Carillon]] the French won a rare victory in a battle fought according to European tactical doctrines.]]

A common view is that European [[combat|combat methods]] and [[military tactics]] were not adapted to the American forests and to the indigenous art of war. It is therefore conjectured that the English colonists designed new combat techniques, inspired by the Indigenous combat methods. These techniques, which included cover and stressed [[ambush]]es, is supposed to have been the reason why the colonists finally defeated the French, and then the British army during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. In reality, however, the French and Indian wars were finally won by Britain through the application of traditional European tactics. The [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] surrendered twice after [[siege]]s conducted according to the rules of European warfare, and the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] 1759 was a European battle fought in closed formations in the open.<ref>[http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=9031 Lance Janda. Review of: Guy Chet (2003). ''Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast'' Amherst.] Retrieved 2017-02-10.</ref><ref>[https://news.unt.edu/news-releases/warfare-tactics-british-not-those-tribes-helped-americans-win-war-independence-histori "Warfare tactics from British, not those of tribes, helped Americans win War of Independence, historian says." ''University of North Texas.''] Retrieved 2017-02-10.</ref>

===Petty warfare===

Although ultimately futile, the French fought according to the tactical doctrine contemporaries called ''[[Petty warfare|la Petite guerre]]'', or today's [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla warfare]]. The numerical inferiority of the French forces in North America made it impossible to fight a war according to standard European tactics. Hence the French to a large extent made use of indigenous allies (see below). The small French population; New France's dependence on the [[fur trade]], mutually profitable for both French and indigenous peoples; and the common threat from the British colonies, made the indigenous peoples willing allies. The [[Battle of the Monongahela]] was the largest achievement of the petty warfare tactics. But at the end of the French and Indian War British numerical superiority became overwhelming, in spite of almost the whole male population of Canada being mobilized, and standard European tactics won the day and the war.<ref>Rene Chartrand (1993–2000). ''Canadian Military History.'' Montreal: Art Global, vol. 1, pp. 74-76, 88-91, 94-95; vol. 2., pp. 20, 32.</ref>

==European military forces==

===British===
The British military forces consisted of the [[British Army]]'s regular regiments and independent companies; the provincial regiments raised by the several colonies in [[British America]], and the [[Militia (United States)|colonial militia]].

====British Army====
{{main|British soldiers in the eighteenth century}}
The British Army had two types of units in North America: regular regiments serving in the colonies for a longer or shorter period of time, normally sent there only after the war had begun, and [[British Army Independent Companies of Foot in South Carolina, 1721-1763|independent companies]], permanently based in the colonies as [[garrison]]s of forts and fortresses. The British Army was largely recruited among the poor and the criminal classes; yet, the independent companies had lower status. Their ranks were often filled with people who had left the regular service – former soldiers mainly, but also [[deserter]]s. The officers were often promoted [[non-commissioned officers]]. The independent companies became rooted in the local society, often transforming the military service into a sideline of a civilian occupation, and remaining in the colonies after expiration of the enlistment period.<ref name="Offen">[http://historyreconsidered.net/Brittish_Military_Presence_in_America.html Lee Offen, ''The British Military Presence in America, 1660-1720''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522085846/http://historyreconsidered.net/Brittish_Military_Presence_in_America.html |date=2011-05-22 }} Retrieved 2017-02-11.</ref>

====Provincial troops====
{{Main|Provincial troops in the French and Indian Wars}}

When war began, the several colonies organized their own military forces, provincial troops, through temporary enlistments. The soldiers came from the lower orders of society, which did not strengthen their reliability or efficiency. [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts Bay]], [[Province of New York|New York]] and [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] usually mobilized large contingents, while the southern colonies always very reluctantly contributed to the imperial cause. The British Army did not have high opinions of the battleworthiness of the provincial troops, with the exception of the [[Roger's Rangers|ranger units]]. During conjoint operations the provincial troops were subject to the very strict British [[Articles of War]]. The officers of the provincial troops had lower relative rank than the officers of the regular army; a provincial [[field officer]] ranked as a senior British captain, although these officers were members of the colonial elite, often members of colonial [[legislature]]s. Disputes concerning rank and precedent between regular and provincial officers were common. Junior provincial officers were often popular militia officers, who easily could recruit a company of men.<ref name="Stacey">C.P. Stacey (1974). "The British Forces in North America during the Seven Years' War." ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, vol. 3: xxiv–xxx.</ref><ref name="Wright">[http://www.colonialwarsct.org/colonial_military_experience.htm Robert K.Wright Jr, "Colonial Military Experience." ''The Society of Colonial Wars in Connecticut.''] Retrieved 2017-02-11.</ref>

====Colonial militia====
{{main|Militia (United States)}}
Each colony had its own militia, which in principle contained all able-bodied men 16 to 60 years of age. In reality, however, membership in the militia was restricted to the more substantial members of society, since every militiaman had to provide himself with a musket, knapsack, powder, bullets, flints, and sword. Each local community organized its own militia. The officers were either appointed by the governor or elected by the men. The main task of the local militia was local defense, rarely serving in the field but acting as a more or less efficient [[home guard]].<ref name="Stacey"/><ref name="Wright"/>

===France===
{{main|Military of New France}}
The [[Compagnies Franches de la Marine]], the colonial marines, contained the core of the military forces of [[New France]]. It was only during the [[French and Indian War]] that units from the [[French Royal Army]] were transferred to Canada. The colonial militia was more important than its counterpart in British America.

====Marines====
{{main|Compagnies Franches de la Marine}}
The French colonies were administered through the secretary of state for the navy, and naval troops garrisoned New France. The French marines were organized into independent companies called ''Compagnies franches.'' During the French and Indian War, naval gunner-bombardier companies were also stationed in North America. The other ranks of the marines were enlisted in France, but the officer corps became increasingly Canadian through recruitment of officers' sons. All promotions were by merit; purchase of commissions was prohibited. The British rangers were an attempt to replicate the tactics of the French colonial marines. The [[Swiss regiment de Karrer]] also operated under the Royal French Navy. Its depot was in [[Rochefort (Charente-Maritime)|Rochefort]], but its companies served in North American and the Caribbean.<ref name="Stacey"/><ref name="Eccles"/><ref name="Chartrand">René Chartrand (1984). ''The French Soldier in Colonial America.'' Bloomfield, Ont.: Museum Restoration Service.</ref><ref name="Morton">Desmond Morton (1985). ''A Military History of Canada.'' Edmonton: Hurtig, pp. 18-23.</ref>

====French Army====
{{main|French Royal Army (1652–1830)}}
In 1754 six battalions from the regiments [[Régiment d'Artois|Artois]], [[Régiment de Béarn|Béarn]], [[Régiment de Bourgogne|Bourgogne]], [[Régiment de Guyenne|Guyenne]], [[Régiment de Languedoc|Languedoc]], and [[Régiment de la Reine|La Reine]] were transferred to New France. In 1757 two additional battalions arrived from [[Régiment Royal Roussillon|Royal Roussilon]] and [[Régiment La Sarre|La Sarre]], followed the next year by two battalions from [[Régiment de Berry|de Berry]]. An artillery company was also sent over the Atlantic.<ref name="Eccles">W. J. Eccles (1974). "The French forces in North America during the Seven Years' War." ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press, vol. 3: xv–xxiii.</ref>

====Colonial militia====
{{main|Colonial militia in Canada}}
The Canadian colonial militia enjoyed a substantially higher morale and battleworthiness than the British provincial troops and the militia of the British colonies. This was only true, however, when they were employed as home guard or as wilderness warriors. Besides a combat role, the Canadian militia also fulfilled important tasks behind the lines, such as transportation and road building.<ref name="Eccles"/><ref name="Morton"/>

==Indigenous allies==
===British allies===
The [[Iroquois|Iroquois League]] played an important strategic role in the struggle between Britain and France over northeastern America because of its location east and south of [[Lake Ontario]]. The League's aggressive military and commercial policy gave the five Iroquois nations control over large parts of the country, forcing many smaller Indigenous nations into submission. The Iroquois used the [[Covenant Chain]] to join with the colony of New York and other British colonies in a compact that generally benefitted the parties and ultimately was disastrous for France.<ref name="Leach"/>

===French allies===
{{main|Franco-Indian alliance}}
France recognized the independence of the Indigenous tribes while claiming sovereignty over their territory at the same time, as well as the right to plead the cause of their Indigenous allies in the face of other European powers. The French allies accepted this [[protectorate]] since it permitted self-government and a traditional lifestyle. The [[Mi'kmaq]] and the [[Abenaki]] accepted [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] as it confirmed their alliance with the French against British colonists in Nova Scotia. Alongside the Mi'kmaq and the Abenaki, France's chief allies were the ''indiens domiciliés'' (resident Indians) who lived at the Catholic missions in New France. Many of these were Mohawk from their earlier territory in central New York, but there were also members of other tribes from New England. Fleeing attacks by New England colonists during and after King Philip's War motivated their displacement to French territory. At the end of the French and Indian wars, all resident Indigenous peoples were joined in the confederation of the [[Seven Nations of Canada]].<ref>[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/aboriginal-french-relations/ "Indigenous-French Relations." ''Canadian Encyclopedia.''] Retrieved 2017-02-12.</ref>

===Indigenous-White warfare===
A pattern of warfare emerged during the clashes between the European colonial powers and the American Indigenous peoples which characterized the four major French and Indigenous wars. The complex network of relations was fundamental between some Indigenous tribes and some colonies, the Indigenous tribes becoming the allies of the colonial powers. These alliances were a result of the economic ties that had been formed by the [[fur trade]] and by the Indigenous tribes' need for allies against their Indigenous rivals. The warfare included the widespread and escalating abuse of civilians on all sides, in which settlements were attacked, both Colonial and Indigenous, the residents killed or abducted, and houses and crops burned.<ref name="Leach"/>

==See also==

{{Portal|France|North America|History|Canada}}
*[[American Indian Wars]]
*[[British colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Colonial American military history]]
*[[Great Britain in the Seven Years' War]]
*[[French colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Military history of Canada]]
*[[Military history of France]]
*[[Military history of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Military history of the United States]]
*[[Second Hundred Years' War]]
*[[Sixty Years' War]]
*[[French presence in the Ohio Valley]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*Robert Leckie, ''A Few Acres of Snow: The Saga of the French and Indian Wars'' Wiley & Son; Hardcover: {{ISBN|0-471-24690-5}}; Paperback: {{ISBN|0-471-39020-8}}

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060213193437/http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/encyclopedia/SevenYearsWar-FrenchandIndianWar-TheWaroftheConquest.htm "The Seven Years' War in Canada"], ''The Quebec History Encyclopedia''

{{New France}}
{{Canadian military history}}
{{History of North America}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:French And Indian Wars}}
[[Category:Military history of the Thirteen Colonies]]
[[Category:Conflicts in Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous conflicts in Canada]]
[[Category:17th century in North America]]
[[Category:18th century in North America]]