View source for Formosan languages

{{Short description|Austronesian languages of Taiwan}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Languages of Taiwan]] or the constructed Formosan language invented by [[George Psalmanazar]]}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Paiwanic languages|Paiwan language}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Formosan
| acceptance = geographic
| ethnicity = [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwanese Aborigines]] (Formosan people)
| region = {{flagicon|TW}} [[Taiwan]]
| familycolor = Austronesian
| child1 = [[East Formosan languages|East Formosan]]
| child2 = [[Northern Formosan languages|Northwest Formosan]]
| child3 = Western Plains
| child4 = [[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]
| child5 = ''[[Bunun language|Bunun]]''
| child6 = [[Tsouic]]
| child7 = ''[[Rukai language|Rukai]]''
| child8 = ''[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]''
| child9 = ''[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]''
| protoname = [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]]
| iso5 = fox
| glotto = none
| map = Formosan languages en.svg
| mapcaption = Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, per {{harvp|Blust|1999}}. Malayo-Polynesian (red) may lie within Eastern Formosan (purple).
The white section is unattested; some maps fill it in with Luiyang, Kulon or as generic 'Ketagalan'.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-08-06 |title=Táiwān yuánzhùmín píngpǔ zúqún bǎinián fēnlèi shǐ xìliè dìtú |script-title=zh:臺灣原住民平埔族群百年分類史系列地圖 (A history of the classification of Plains Taiwanese tribes over the past century) |url=http://blog.xuite.net/hqq.hqq/blog/25870376-%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E5%B9%B3%E5%9F%94%E6%97%8F%E7%BE%A4%E7%99%BE%E5%B9%B4%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E5%8F%B2%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E5%9C%B0%E5%9C%96 |access-date=2017-03-04 |website=blog.xuite.net |language=zh |last1=(Hqq. Hqq) |first1=hqq }}</ref> 
| ancestor = 
| glottoname = 
| glottorefname = 
| notes = 
}}

The '''Formosan languages''' are a geographic grouping comprising the languages of the [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples of Taiwan]], all of which are [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather up to nine separate primary subfamilies. The [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples#Indigenous ethnic groups recognized by Taiwan|Taiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government]] are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries of [[language shift]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sui |first=Cindy |date=2010-07-14 |title=Taiwan Seeks to Save Indigenous Languages |language=en |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10602697}}</ref> Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten are [[extinct language|extinct]], another four (perhaps five) are [[Endangered language|moribund]],<ref name="zeit">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeitoun |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Yu |first2=Ching-Hua |date=2005 |title=The Formosan Language Archive: Linguistic Analysis and Language Processing |journal=International Journal of Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=167–200 |doi=10.30019/ijclclp.200507.0002 |s2cid=17976898}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Paul Jen-kuei |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Kavalan-fulltext-1130-backup.pdf |title=Kavalan Dictionary |last2=Tsuchida |first2=Shigeru |date=2006 |publisher=Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica |isbn=9789860069938 |location=Taipei |language=en,zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503191457/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Kavalan-fulltext-1130-backup.pdf |archive-date=2021-05-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and all others are to some degree endangered. They are [[national language]]s of Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Languages Development Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123845/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The aboriginal languages of [[Taiwan]] have great significance in [[historical linguistics]] since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is the [[Austronesian languages#Homeland|place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family]]. According to American linguist [[Robert Blust]], the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blust |first=Robert |title=Selected Papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics |date=1999 |publisher=Academia Sinica |isbn=9789576716324 |editor-last=Zeitoun |editor-first=Elizabeth |location=Taipei |language=en |chapter=Subgrouping, Circularity and Extinction: Some Issues in Austronesian Comparative Linguistics |author-link=Robert Blust |editor-last2=Li |editor-first2=Jen-kuei}}</ref> while the one remaining principal branch, [[Malayo-Polynesian]], contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Diamond |first=Jared M. |date=2000 |title=Taiwan's Gift to the World |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=403 |issue=6771 |pages=709–710 |doi=10.1038/35001685 |pmid=10693781 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..709D |doi-access=free |s2cid=4379227}}</ref> Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan,<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Fox|first1=James|title=Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies|journal=ANU Research Publications |conference=Symposium Austronesia, Pascasarjana Linguististik dan Kajian Budaya Universitas Udayana |place=Bali |date=19–20 August 2004 |url=https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/43158|oclc=677432806}}</ref> and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Trejaut |first1=Jean A |last2=Kivisild |first2=Toomas |last3=Loo |first3=Jun Hun |last4=Lee |first4=Chien Liang |last5=He |first5=Chun Lin |last6=Hsu |first6=Chia Jung |last7=Li |first7=Zheng Yuan |last8=Lin |first8=Marie |last9=Penny |first9=David |display-authors=3 |date=2005 |title=Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations |journal=PLOS Biology |language=en |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e247 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247 |pmc=1166350 |pmid=15984912 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<!-- <ref>Whyte, A. L. H. ''[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/human_biology/v077/77.2whyte.pdf "Human Evolution in Polynesia"]''. [http://wsupress.wayne.edu/journals/humanbio/humanbiologyj.html Human Biology], Volume 77, Number 2, April 2005, pp. 157–177.
</ref><ref>Underhill, P. A. ''et al.'' ''"Maori origins, Y-chromosome haplotypes and implications for human history in the Pacific"''. Human Mutation,
Volume 17, Issue 4, pp. 271–280. {{doi|10.1002/humu.23}}</ref><ref>Chu C. C. ''et al.'' ''[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/tan/2001/00000058/00000001/art00002 "Diversity of HLA among Taiwan’s indigenous tribes and the Ivatans in the Philippines"]''. [http://journals.munksgaard.dk/tissueantigens Tissue Antigens], Volume 58, Number 1, July 2001, pp. 9–18(10).</ref>  -->

==Recent history==
{{main|Taiwanese indigenous peoples}}
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant [[Taiwanese Mandarin]]. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan [[first language]]s in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://www.sil.org/silesr/2003/silesr2003-012.pdf |title=Sociolinguistic Survey Report for the Tona and Maga Dialects of the Rukai Language |last=Huteson |first=Greg |date=2003 |publisher=SIL International |issue=SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2003-012 |location=Dallas, TX |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905141336/http://www-01.sil.org/silesr/2003/silesr2003-012.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-05 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established a [[Writing systems of Formosan languages|Romanized writing system]] for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hsu |first=Jenny W. |date=2010-06-07 |title=Aboriginal Language Classes Open to Public |language=en |work=Focus Taiwan |url=http://www.galdu.org/web/?odas=4584&giella1=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129021424/http://www.galdu.org/web/?odas=4584&giella1=eng |archive-date=2014-11-29 |via=galdu.org}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{Main|Austronesian languages#Classification}}
Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian).

==List of languages==
It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct or [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below,<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://ilrdc.tw/achievement/106_write/pdf/106%E5%B9%B4%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1%E5%BB%BA%E8%AD%B0%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E7%89%88%E6%9C%AC%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A-%E7%B6%B2%E8%B7%AF%E7%89%88.pdf |title=Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán shūxiě xìtǒng jiànyì xiūzhèng bǎnběn bàogào |last=Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán yánjiū fāzhǎn zhōngxīn <!--原住民族語言研究發展中心--> |date=2018 |language=zh |script-title=zh:原住民族語言書寫系統建議修正版本報告}}</ref> but the list should not be considered exhaustive.

===Living languages===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Language!! [[List of ISO 639-3 codes|Code]] !! No. of<br>dialects!!Dialects!!Notes
|-
|[[Amis language|Amis]]|| [[ISO 639:ami|ami]] ||align=center|5||'Amisay a Pangcah, Siwkolan, Pasawalian, Farangaw, Palidaw||
|-
|[[Atayal language|Atayal]]|| [[ISO 639:tay|tay]] ||align=center|6||Squliq, Skikun, Ts'ole', Ci'uli, Mayrinax, Plngawan||high dialect diversity, sometimes considered separate languages
|-
|[[Bunun language|Bunun]]|| [[ISO 639:bnn|bnn]] ||align=center|5||Takitudu, Takibakha, Takivatan, Takbanuaz, Isbukun||high dialect diversity
|-
|[[Kanakanavu language|Kanakanavu]]|| [[ISO 639:xnb|xnb]] ||align=center|1|| ||moribund
|-
|[[Kavalan language|Kavalan]]|| [[ISO 639:ckv|ckv]] ||align=center|1|| ||listed in some sources<ref name="zeit" /> as moribund, though further analysis may show otherwise{{sfnp|Li|Tsuchida|2006}}
|-
|[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]|| [[ISO 639:pwn|pwn]] ||align=center|4||Eastern, Northern, Central, Southern||
|-
|[[Puyuma language|Puyuma]]|| [[ISO 639:pyu|pyu]] ||align=center|4||Puyuma, Katratripul, Ulivelivek, Kasavakan||
|-
|[[Rukai language|Rukai]]|| [[ISO 639:dru|dru]] ||align=center|6||Ngudradrekay, Taromak Drekay, Teldreka, Thakongadavane, 'Oponoho||
|-
|[[Saaroa language|Saaroa]]|| [[ISO 639:sxr|sxr]] ||align=center|1|| ||moribund
|-
|[[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]]|| [[ISO 639:xsy|xsy]] ||align=center|1|| ||
|-
|[[Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]|| [[ISO 639:szy|szy]] ||align=center|1|| ||
|-
|[[Seediq language|Seediq]]|| [[ISO 639:trv|trv]] ||align=center|3||Tgdaya, Toda, (Truku)||
|-
|[[Thao language|Thao]]|| [[ISO 639:ssf|ssf]] ||align=center|1|| ||moribund
|-
|[[Truku language|Truku]]||[[ISO 639:trv|trv]]||align=center|1|| ||
|-
|[[Tsou language|Tsou]]|| [[ISO 639:tsu|tsu]] ||align=center|1|| ||
|-
|[[Yami language|Yami/Tao]]||[[ISO 639:tao|tao]] ||align=center|1|| ||also called Tao. Linguistically, not a member of the "Formosan languages", but a [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] language.
|}
* Although [[Yami language|Yami]] is geographically in Taiwan, it is not classified as Formosan in linguistics.

===Extinct languages===
<!-- I grouped into dialects group based on isocode being shared. No certainty. -->
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Language!! [[List of ISO 639-3 codes|Code]] !! No. of<br>dialects!!Dialects!!Extinction date & notes
|-
| [[Basay language|Basay]] || [[ISO 639:byq|byq]] ||align=center| 1 || || Mid-20th century
|-
| [[Babuza language|Babuza]] || [[ISO 639:bzg|bzg]] ||align=center| 3? || Babuza, Takoas, Favorlang (?). || Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.
|-
| [[Kulon language|Kulon]]||  [[ISO 639:uon|uon]] || align="center" | 1 ||  || Mid-20th century
|-
|[[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]||[[ISO 639:pzh|pzh]] ||align=center|2||Pazeh, Kaxabu|| 2010. Ongoing revival efforts.
|-
| [[Luilang language|Ketagalan]] || [[ISO 639:kae|kae]] ||align=center| 1 || || Mid-20th century
|-
| [[Papora-Hoanya language|Papora]] || [[ISO 639:ppu|ppu]] || align="center" | 2? || Papora, Hoanya (?). || 
|-
| [[Siraya language|Siraya]]|| [[ISO 639:fos|fos]] || align="center" | 2? || Siraya, Makatao (?). || Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.
|-
| [[Taivoan language|Taivoan]]|| [[ISO 639:tvx|tvx]] || align="center" | 1 ||  || Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.
|}

==Grammar==
Verbs typically are not inflected for person or number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of the [[symmetrical voice]], in which a noun is marked with the [[direct case]] while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a unique [[morphosyntactic alignment]]. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed by [[coverbs]].

Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself.

In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of some [[Northern Formosan languages]], such as [[Thao language|Thao]], [[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]], and [[Pazih language|Pazih]], possibly from influence from Chinese.

Li (1998) lists the [[word order]]s of several Formosan languages.<ref>Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (1998). "Táiwān nándǎo yǔyán 台灣南島語言 [The Austronesian Languages of Taiwan]." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (2004). ''Selected Papers on Formosan Languages''. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica</ref>

*Rukai: VSO, VOS
*Tsou: VOS
*Bunun: VSO
*Atayal: VSO, VOS
*Saisiyat: VS, SVO
*Pazih: VOS, SVO
*Thao: VSO, SVO
*Amis: VOS, VSO
*Kavalan: VOS
*Puyuma: VSO
*Paiwan: VSO, VOS

==Sound changes==
Tanan [[Rukai language|Rukai]] is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while [[Kanakanavu language|Kanakanavu]] and [[Saaroa language|Saaroa]] have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels.<ref>{{harvp|Blust|2009|p=165}}</ref>

===Wolff===
The tables below list the [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolff |first=John U. |title=Proto-Austronesian Phonology with Glossary |date=2010 |publisher=Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications |location=Ithaca, NY |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+PAn reflexes in Northwest Formosan languages
!c=01| Proto-Austronesian
!c=02| Pazih
!c=03| Saisiat
!c=04| Thao
!c=05| Atayalic
|-
!c=01| *p
|c=02| p
|c=03| p
|c=04| p
|c=05| p
|-
!c=01| *t
|c=02| t, s
|c=03| t, s, ʃ
|c=04| t, θ
|c=05| t, c (s)
|-
!c=01| *c
|c=02| z [dz]
|c=03| h
|c=04| t
|c=05| x, h
|-
!c=01| *k
|c=02| k
|c=03| k
|c=04| k
|c=05| k
|-
!c=01| *q
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| ʔ
|c=04| q
|c=05| q, ʔ
|-
!c=01| *b
|c=02| b
|c=03| b
|c=04| f
|c=05| b-
|-
!c=01| *d
|c=02| d
|c=03| r
|c=04| s
|c=05| r
|-
!c=01| *j
|c=02| d
|c=03| r
|c=04| s
|c=05| r
|-
!c=01| *g
|c=02| k-, -z- [dz], -t
|c=03| k-, -z- [ð], -z [ð]
|c=04| k-, -ð-, -ð
|c=05| k-<ref>There are several outcomes of *g as onset or coda of the final syllable.</ref>
|-
!c=01| *ɣ
|c=02| x
|c=03| l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ)
|c=04| ɬ
|c=05| ɣ, r, Ø
|-
!c=01| *m
|c=02| m
|c=03| m
|c=04| m
|c=05| m
|-
!c=01| *n
|c=02| n
|c=03| n
|c=04| n
|c=05| n
|-
!c=01| *ŋ
|c=02| ŋ
|c=03| ŋ
|c=04| n
|c=05| ŋ
|-
!c=01| *s
|c=02| s
|c=03| ʃ
|c=04| ʃ
|c=05| s
|-
!c=01| *h
|c=02| h
|c=03| h
|c=04| Ø
|c=05| h
|-
!c=01| *l
|c=02| r
|c=03| l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ)
|c=04| r
|c=05| l
|-
!c=01| *ɬ
|c=02| l
|c=03| ɬ
|c=04| ð
|c=05| l
|-
!c=01| *w
|c=02| w
|c=03| w
|c=04| w
|c=05| w
|-
!c=01| *y
|c=02| y
|c=03| y
|c=04| y
|c=05| y
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+PAn reflexes in non-Northwest Formosan languages
!c=01| Proto-Austronesian
!c=02| Saaroa
!c=03| Kanakanavu
!c=04| Rukai
!c=05| Bunun
!c=06| Amis
!c=07| Kavalan
!c=08| Puyuma
!c=09| Paiwan
|-
!c=01| *p
|c=02| p
|c=03| p
|c=04| p
|c=05| p
|c=06| p
|c=07| p
|c=08| p
|c=09| p
|-
!c=01| *t
|c=02| t, c
|c=03| t, c
|c=04| t, c
|c=05| t
|c=06| t
|c=07| t
|c=08| t, ʈ
|c=09| tj [č], ts [c]
|-
!c=01| *c
|c=02| s, Ø
|c=03| c
|c=04| θ, s, Ø
|c=05| c ([s] in Central & South)
|c=06| c
|c=07| s
|c=08| s
|c=09| t
|-
!c=01| *k
|c=02| k
|c=03| k
|c=04| k
|c=05| k
|c=06| k
|c=07| k, q
|c=08| k
|c=09| k
|-
!c=01| *q
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| ʔ
|c=04| Ø
|c=05| q (x in Ishbukun)
|c=06| ɦ
|c=07| Ø
|c=08| ɦ
|c=09| q
|-
!c=01| *b
|c=02| v
|c=03| v [β]
|c=04| b
|c=05| b
|c=06| f
|c=07| b
|c=08| v [β]
|c=09| v
|-
!c=01| *d
|c=02| s
|c=03| c
|c=04| ḍ
|c=05| d
|c=06| r
|c=07| z
|c=08| d, z
|c=09| dj [j], z
|-
!c=01| *j
|c=02| s
|c=03| c
|c=04| d
|c=05| d
|c=06| r
|c=07| z
|c=08| d, z
|c=09| dj [j], z
|-
!c=01| *g
|c=02| k-, -ɬ-
|c=03| k-, -l-, -l
|c=04| g
|c=05| k-, -Ø-, -Ø
|c=06| k-, -n-, -n
|c=07| k-, -n-, -n
|c=08| h-, -d-, -d
|c=09| g-, -d-, -d
|-
!c=01| *ɣ
|c=02| r
|c=03| r
|c=04| r, Ø
|c=05| l
|c=06| l [ḷ]
|c=07| ɣ
|c=08| r
|c=09| Ø
|-
!c=01| *m
|c=02| m
|c=03| m
|c=04| m
|c=05| m
|c=06| m
|c=07| m
|c=08| m
|c=09| m
|-
!c=01| *n
|c=02| n
|c=03| n
|c=04| n
|c=05| n
|c=06| n
|c=07| n
|c=08| n
|c=09| n
|-
!c=01| *ŋ
|c=02| ŋ
|c=03| ŋ
|c=04| ŋ
|c=05| ŋ
|c=06| ŋ
|c=07| ŋ
|c=08| ŋ
|c=09| ŋ
|-
!c=01| *s
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| s
|c=04| s
|c=05| s
|c=06| s
|c=07| Ø
|c=08| Ø
|c=09| s
|-
!c=01| *h
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| Ø
|c=04| Ø
|c=05| Ø
|c=06| h
|c=07| Ø
|c=08| Ø
|c=09| Ø
|-
!c=01| *l
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| Ø, l
|c=04| ñ
|c=05| h-, -Ø-, -Ø
|c=06| l [ḷ]
|c=07| r, ɣ
|c=08| l [ḷ]
|c=09| l
|-
!c=01| *ɬ
|c=02| ɬ
|c=03| n
|c=04| ɬ
|c=05| n
|c=06| ɬ
|c=07| n
|c=08| ɬ
|c=09| ɬ
|-
!c=01| *w
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| Ø
|c=04| v
|c=05| v
|c=06| w
|c=07| w
|c=08| w
|c=09| w
|-
!c=01| *y
|c=02| ɬ
|c=03| l
|c=04| ð
|c=05| ð
|c=06| y
|c=07| y
|c=08| y
|c=09| y
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+PAn reflexes in Malayo-Polynesian languages
!c=01| Proto-Austronesian
!c=02| Tagalog
!c=03| Chamorro
!c=04| Malay
!c=05| Old Javanese
|-
!c=01| *p
|c=02| p
|c=03| f
|c=04| p
|c=05| p
|-
!c=01| *t
|c=02| t
|c=03| t
|c=04| t
|c=05| t
|-
!c=01| *c
|c=02| s
|c=03| s
|c=04| s
|c=05| s
|-
!c=01| *k
|c=02| k
|c=03| h
|c=04| k
|c=05| k
|-
!c=01| *q
|c=02| ʔ
|c=03| ʔ
|c=04| h
|c=05| h
|-
!c=01| *b
|c=02| b
|c=03| p
|c=04| b, -p
|c=05| b, w
|-
!c=01| *d
|c=02| d-, -l-, -d
|c=03| h
|c=04| d, -t
|c=05| ḍ, r
|-
!c=01| *j
|c=02| d-, -l-, -d
|c=03| ch
|c=04| j, -t
|c=05| d
|-
!c=01| *g
|c=02| k-, -l-, -d
|c=03| Ø
|c=04| d-, -r-, -r
|c=05| g-, -r-, -r
|-
!c=01| *ɣ
|c=02| g
|c=03| g
|c=04| r
|c=05| Ø
|-
!c=01| *m
|c=02| m
|c=03| m
|c=04| m
|c=05| m
|-
!c=01| *n
|c=02| n
|c=03| n
|c=04| n
|c=05| n
|-
!c=01| *ŋ
|c=02| ŋ
|c=03| ŋ
|c=04| ŋ
|c=05| ŋ
|-
!c=01| *s
|c=02| h
|c=03| Ø
|c=04| h
|c=05| h
|-
!c=01| *h
|c=02| Ø
|c=03| Ø
|c=04| Ø
|c=05| Ø
|-
!c=01| *l
|c=02| l
|c=03| l
|c=04| l
|c=05| l
|-
!c=01| *ɬ
|c=02| n
|c=03| ñ, n, l
|c=04| l-/ñ-, -ñ-/-n-, -n
|c=05| n
|-
!c=01| *w
|c=02| w
|c=03| w
|c=04| Ø, w
|c=05| w
|-
!c=01| *y
|c=02| y
|c=03| y
|c=04| y
|c=05| y
|}

===Blust===
The following table lists reflexes of [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j
!c=01| Language
!c=02| Reflex
|-
|c=01| Tsou
|c=02| Ø
|-
|c=01| Kanakanavu
|c=02| l
|-
|c=01| Saaroa
|c=02| ɬ (-ɬ- only)
|-
|c=01| Puyuma
|c=02| d
|-
|c=01| Paiwan
|c=02| d
|-
|c=01| Bunun
|c=02| Ø
|-
|c=01| Atayal
|c=02| r (in Squliq), g (sporadic), s (sporadic)
|-
|c=01| Sediq
|c=02| y (-y- only), c (-c only)
|-
|c=01| Pazeh
|c=02| z ([dz]) (-z- only), d (-d only)
|-
|c=01| Saisiyat
|c=02| z ([ð])
|-
|c=01| Thao
|c=02| z ([ð])
|-
|c=01| Amis
|c=02| n
|-
|c=01| Kavalan
|c=02| n
|-
|c=01| Siraya
|c=02| n
|}

The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ
!c=01| Language
!c=02| Reflex
|-
|c=01| Paiwan
|c=02| Ø
|-
|c=01| Bunun
|c=02| l
|-
|c=01| Kavalan
|c=02| ʀ (contrastive uvular rhotic)
|-
|c=01| Basay
|c=02| l
|-
|c=01| Amis
|c=02| l
|-
|c=01| Atayal
|c=02| g; r (before /i/)
|-
|c=01| Sediq
|c=02| r
|-
|c=01| Pazeh
|c=02| x
|-
|c=01| Taokas
|c=02| l
|-
|c=01| Thao
|c=02| lh (voiceless lateral)
|-
|c=01| Saisiyat
|c=02| L (retroflex flap)
|-
|c=01| Bashiic (extra-Formosan)
|c=02| y
|}

[[Lenition]] patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):

* '''*b, *d''' in [[Proto-Austronesian language|Proto-Austronesian]] 
** *b > f, *d > c, r in Tsou
** *b > v, *d > d in Puyuma
** *b > v, *d > d, r in Paiwan
** *b > b, *d > r in Saisiyat
** *b > f, *d > s in Thao
** *b > v, *d > r in Yami (extra-Formosan)

==Distributions==
===Gallery===
{{gallery
|width=225
|File:Formosan Distribution 01.png|The Formosan languages
|File:Formosan languages.png|The Formosan languages, per Blust (1999)
|File:Formosan languages 2005.png|The Formosan languages, per Li (2008)
|File:Formosan languages 2008.png|The Formosan languages, per the ''Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database'' (Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2008).
|File:Formosan languages 2009.png|The Formosan languages, per Ross (2009)
}}

===Information===
Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Paul Jen-kuei |date=2001 |title=The Dispersal of the Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/j2001_1_15_4392.pdf |journal=Languages and Linguistics |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=271–278 |access-date=2020-06-02 |archive-date=2020-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808011144/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/Docments/Journals/j2001_1_15_4392.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

*[[Tsou language|Tsou]]: southwestern parts of central Taiwan; [[Yushan (mountain)|Yushan]] (oral traditions)
*[[Saisiyat language|Saisiyat]] and [[Kulon language|Kulon]]: somewhere between [[Tatu River]] and [[Tachia River]] not far from the coast
*[[Thao language|Thao]]: [[Choshui]] River
*Qauqaut: mid-stream of Takiri River (Liwuhsi in Chinese)
*[[Siraya language|Siraya]]: [[Chianan Plain]]s
*Makatau: [[Pingtung City|Pingtung]]
*[[Bunun language|Bunun]]: [[Xinyi, Nantou|Hsinyi]] (信義鄉) in [[Nantou County]]
*[[Paiwan language|Paiwan]]: [[Ailiao River]], near the foot of the mountains

==See also==
* [[Wiktionary:Appendix:Cognate sets for Formosan languages|Cognate sets for Formosan languages]] (Wiktionary)
* [[Demographics of Taiwan#Indigenous Taiwanese|Demographics of indigenous Taiwanese]]
* [[Writing systems of Formosan languages]]
* [[Austronesian personal pronouns#Formosan languages|Personal pronoun systems of Formosan languages]]
* [[Fossilized affixes in Austronesian languages]]
* [[Proto-Austronesian language]]
* [[Tsou language]] for an example of the unusual phonotactics of the Formosan languages
* [[Sinckan Manuscripts]]
* [[Naming customs of Taiwanese indigenous peoples]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last=Blust | first=Robert A. | title=The Austronesian languages | publisher=Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University | publication-place=Canberra | date=2009 | isbn=978-0-85883-602-0 | oclc=320478203}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Blundell, David (2009), ''Austronesian Taiwan: Linguistics, History, Ethnology, Prehistory''. Taipei, Taiwan: SMC Publishing
*Happart, G., & Hedhurst, W. H. (1840). ''Dictionary of the Favorlang dialect of the Formosan language''. Batavia: printed at Parapattan.
*Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2004). "Basic Vocabulary for Formosan Languages and Dialects." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. ''Selected Papers on Formosan Languages'', vol. 2. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.
* {{Cite book |last=Mackay |first=G. L. |title=Chinese Romanized Dictionary of the Formosan Vernacular |date=1893 |publisher=Presbyterian Mission Press |location=Shanghai |language=en |oclc=47246037 |author-link=George Leslie Mackay}}
*Tsuchida, S. (2003). ''Kanakanavu texts (Austronesian Formosan)''. [Osaka?: Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim].
*Zeitoun, E. (2002). ''Nominalization in Formosan languages''. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131006062613/http://www.joao-roiz.jp/OGV/ Ogawa's Vocabulary of Formosan Dialects 小川尚義 (臺灣蕃語蒐録)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060502112916/http://formosan.sinica.edu.tw/formosan/en/intro.htm Academia Sinica's Formosan Language Archive project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070514210436/http://tmnall.iweb.bsu.edu/default.htm Linguistics and Formosan Languages]
* [https://e-dictionary.ilrdf.org.tw Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典] {{in lang|zh}} – "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
* [http://web.klokah.tw/ Zú yǔ E lèyuán 族語E樂園] {{in lang|zh}} – Educational site maintained by Taiwan's Council of Indigenous Peoples
** [http://web.klokah.tw/en T.A.I.W.A.N. – Taiwan-Austronesion Indigenous Words and Narrations] – English counterpart of Zú yǔ E lèyuán
* Map: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703012805/http://www.ecai.org/area/areateamexamples/austronesia/images/aust2.pdf  ''Formosan Languages and Yami''] (PDF)

{{Formosan languages}}
{{Austronesian languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Formosan Languages}}
[[Category:Formosan languages| ]]
[[Category:Austronesian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Endangered Austronesian languages]]