View source for Florence Nightingale

{{Short description|English founder of modern nursing (1820–1910)}}
{{redirect|The Lady with the Lamp|the 1951 film|The Lady with a Lamp|the 1891 painting|Miss Nightingale at Scutari, 1854|other uses|Florence Nightingale (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Florence Nightingale
| honorific_suffix  = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM|RRC|DStJg}}
| image             = Florence Nightingale (H Hering NPG x82368).jpg
| caption           = Nightingale, {{c.|1860}}
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1820|5|12|df=y}}
| birth_place       = [[Florence]], [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]]
| death_date        = {{death date and age|1910|8|13|1820|5|12|df=y}}
| death_place       = [[Mayfair]], London, England
| resting_place     = St Margaret's Church, [[East Wellow]], Hampshire
| resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|50|58|55|N|1|34|11|W|display=inline}}
| other_names       = {{ubl|Miss Smith<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cook |first=Edward Tyas |url=http://archive.org/details/lifeofflorenceni01cookuoft |title=The life of Florence Nightingale |date=1913 |publisher=London Macmillan |others=Robarts - University of Toronto |pages=303 |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>|The [[Lady with the Lamp]]}}
| nationality       = British
| doctoral_students = {{plainlist|*[[Linda Richards]]
*[[Ethel Gordon Fenwick]]
*[[Alice Fisher (nurse)|Alice Fisher]]
*[[Isla Stewart]]
*[[Eva Luckes]]
}}
| known_for         = {{plainlist|*Pioneering modern [[nursing]]
*[[Polar area diagram]]}}
| field             = {{plainlist|*Hospital [[hygiene]] 
*[[Sanitation]]
*[[Statistics]]}}
| work_institutions = {{ubl|[[Selimiye Barracks]], [[Üsküdar|Scutari]] | [[St Thomas' Hospital]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kcl.ac.uk/aboutkings/history/famouspeople/florencenightingale.aspx |title=Florence Nightingale |work=King's College London |access-date=30 November 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208095032/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/aboutkings/history/famouspeople/florencenightingale.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| awards            = {{ubl|[[Royal Red Cross]] (1883)|[[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Lady of Grace of the Order of St&nbsp;John (LGStJ)]] (1904)|[[Order of Merit]] (1907)}}
| father            = [[William Edward Nightingale]]
| mother            = Frances Nightingale Smith
| relatives         = [[Frances Parthenope Verney|Frances Parthenope]]
| signature         = Florence Nightingale Signature.svg
| signature_type    = Handwritten Signature
| module            = {{Listen| embed=yes |filename = Florence Nightingale voice - 1576A 2nd Rendition Crop.ogg |title = Nightingale's voice |type = speech |description = Recorded to wax cylinder on 30 July 1890, to raise money for veterans of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/FlorenceNightingale2ndRendition1890GreetingsToTheDearOldComradesOf |title=Florence Nightingale 2nd rendition, 1890 – greetings to the dear old comrades of Balaclava |work=[[Internet Archive]] |access-date=13 February 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Buhnemann |first1=Kristin |title=Florence Nightingale's Voice, 1890 |url=https://www.florence-nightingale.co.uk/florence-nightingales-voice-1890/ |website=florence-nightingale.co.uk |date=17 February 2020 |publisher=Florence Nightingale Museum London |access-date=7 April 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412051034/https://www.florence-nightingale.co.uk/florence-nightingales-voice-1890/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
}}

'''Florence Nightingale''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|aɪ|t|ᵻ|ŋ|ɡ|eɪ|l}}; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English [[Reform movement|social reformer]], [[statistician]] and the founder of modern [[nursing]]. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during the [[Crimean War]], in which she organised care for wounded soldiers at [[Constantinople]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Strachey |first=Lytton |title=Eminent Victorians |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.225424 |publisher=Chatto and Windus |location=London |year= 1918| page=123}}</ref> She significantly reduced death rates by improving hygiene and living standards. Nightingale gave nursing a favourable reputation and became an icon of [[Victorian culture]], especially in the persona of "'''The Lady with the Lamp'''" making rounds of wounded soldiers at night.<ref>{{cite book |last=Swenson |first=Kristine |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalwomenvict00swen_0 |title=Medical Women and Victorian Fiction |publisher=University of Missouri Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8262-6431-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/medicalwomenvict00swen_0/page/15 15] |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref name="Parragon">{{cite book |last=Ralby |first=Aaron |title=Atlas of Military History |publisher=Parragon |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4723-0963-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldmili0000ralb/page/281 281] |chapter=The Crimean War 1853–1856 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldmili0000ralb |via=[[Internet Archive]] |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>

Recent commentators have asserted that Nightingale's Crimean War achievements were exaggerated by the media at the time, but critics agree on the importance of her later work in professionalising nursing roles for women.{{Efn|Attributed to multiple sources:<ref name="BBC 2017">{{cite news |last1=Bostridge |first1=Mark |title=Florence Nightingale: the Lady with the Lamp |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/nightingale_01.shtml |publisher= BBC |date=17 February 2011 |access-date=20 December 2019 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225134336/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/nightingale_01.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Beyond" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name="FlorenceNightingale" />}} In 1860, she laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of [[Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery|her nursing school]] at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world and is now part of [[King's College London]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=5195090 |volume=17 |issue=8 |title=The first nursing school in the world{{snd}}St. Thomas Hospital School in London |year=1969 |journal=Munca Sanit |pages=449–454 |last=Petroni |first=A}}</ref> In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the [[Nightingale Pledge]] taken by new nurses, and the [[Florence Nightingale Medal]], the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual [[International Nurses Day]] is celebrated on her birthday.<ref name=":3" /> Her social reforms included improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to [[abolitionism (prostitution)|abolish prostitution laws]] that were harsh for women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.<ref>{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale on Health in India: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, volume 9 |date=2012 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |volume=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale on Social Change in India: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, volume 10 |date=2012 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |volume=10}}</ref>

Nightingale was an innovator in statistics; she represented her analysis in graphical forms to ease drawing conclusions and actionables from data. She is famous for usage of the [[polar area diagram]], also called the Nightingale rose diagram, which is equivalent to a modern circular [[histogram]] or pie chart. This diagram is still regularly used in [[data visualisation]].<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Florence Nightingale: The Pioneer Statistician |url=https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/florence-nightingale-pioneer-statistician |website=Science Museum UK}}</ref>

Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer. In her lifetime, much of her published work was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her tracts were written in [[plain English|simple English]] so that they could easily be understood by those with poor literary skills. Much of her writing, including her extensive work on religion and [[mysticism]], has only been published posthumously.<ref>{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale's Spiritual Jorney: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, volume 2 |date=2012 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |volume=2}}</ref>

== Early life ==
[[File:Embley Park.jpg|thumb|[[Embley Park]] in Hampshire, now a school, one of the family homes of [[William Nightingale]]|alt=Embley Park was a family home of William Nightingale.]]
Florence Nightingale was born on 12&nbsp;May 1820 into a wealthy and well-connected British family at the ''Villa Colombaia'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/house.htm |title=The true Florence: Exploring the Italian birthplace of Florence Nightingale |date=1 December 2007 |first=Joy |last=Shiller |access-date=16 March 2015 |archive-date=10 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610031533/http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/house.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://jmvh.org/article/florence-nightingale/ "Florence Nightingale"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303135917/https://jmvh.org/article/florence-nightingale/ |date=3 March 2020 }}. JMVH.org. Retrieved 17 June 2020</ref> in [[Florence]], Tuscany, Italy, and was named after the city of her birth. Florence's older sister [[Frances Parthenope Verney|Frances Parthenope]] had similarly been named after her place of birth, ''[[History of Naples|Parthenope]]'', a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] settlement now part of the city of [[Naples]]. The family moved back to England in 1821, with Nightingale being brought up in the family's homes at [[Embley, Hampshire]], and [[Dethick, Lea and Holloway|Lea Hurst, Derbyshire]].<ref name="NightingaleonMysticism">{{cite book |author=Nightingale, Florence |editor=Vallee, Gerard |title=Florence Nightingale on Mysticism and Eastern Religions |chapter=Introduction, ''passim'' |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |volume=4 |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-88920-413-3 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]}}</ref><ref name="NightingaleCrimeanColectedWorkds">{{cite book |author=Nightingale, Florence |editor=McDonald, Lynn |title=Florence Nightingale: The Crimean War |chapter=An introduction to volume&nbsp;14 |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |volume=14 |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-88920-469-0 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]}}</ref>

Florence inherited a liberal-humanitarian outlook from both sides of her family.<ref name="BBC 2017"/> Her parents were [[William Nightingale|William Edward Nightingale, born William Edward Shore]] (1794–1874) and Frances ("Fanny") Nightingale ({{nee}} Smith; 1788–1880).<ref name=":2" /> William's mother Mary ({{nee}} Evans) was the niece of Peter Nightingale, under the terms of whose will William inherited his estate at Lea Hurst, and assumed the name and arms of Nightingale. Fanny's father (Florence's maternal grandfather) was the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] [[William Smith (abolitionist)|William Smith]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/genealogy/shore.htm |title=Pedigree of Shore of Sheffield, Meersbrook, Norton and Tapton |publisher=Rotherham Web |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202758/http://www.rotherhamweb.co.uk/genealogy/shore.htm |archive-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> Nightingale's father educated her.<ref name="NightingaleCrimeanColectedWorkds"/>

A [[BBC]] documentary reported that:<blockquote>"Florence and her older sister Parthenope benefited from their father's advanced ideas about women's education. They studied history, mathematics, Italian, classical literature, and philosophy, and from an early age Florence, who was the more academic of the two girls, displayed an extraordinary ability for collecting and analysing data which she would use to great effect in later life."<ref name="BBC 2017" /></blockquote>In 1838, her father took the family on a tour in Europe where she was introduced to the English-born Parisian hostess [[Mary Elizabeth Mohl|Mary Clarke]], with whom Florence bonded. She recorded that "Clarkey" was a stimulating hostess who did not care for her appearance, and that while her ideas did not always agree with those of her guests, "she was incapable of boring anyone." Her behaviour was said to be exasperating and eccentric and she had little respect for upper-class British women, whom she regarded generally as inconsequential. She said that if given the choice between being a woman or a galley slave, then she would choose the freedom of the galleys. She generally rejected female company and spent her time with male intellectuals. Clarke made an exception, however, in the case of the Nightingale family and Florence in particular. She and Florence remained close friends for 40&nbsp;years despite their 27-year age difference. Clarke demonstrated that women could be equal to men, an idea that Florence had not learned from her mother.<ref name="cromwell">{{cite book |last1=Cromwell |first1=Judith Lissauer |title=Florence Nightingale, feminist |year=2013 |publisher=McFarland et Company |location=Jefferson, NC [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-7864-7092-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/florencenighting0000crom/page/28 28] |url=https://archive.org/details/florencenighting0000crom/page/28 }}</ref>

[[File:Florence Nightingale - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Young Florence Nightingale|alt=Young Florence Nightingale]]

Nightingale underwent the first of several experiences that she believed were calls from God in February&nbsp;1837 while at [[Embley Park]], prompting a strong desire to devote her life to the service of others. In her youth she was respectful of her family's opposition to her working as a nurse, only announcing her decision to enter the field in 1844. Despite the anger and distress of her mother and sister, she rejected the expected role for a woman of her status to become a wife and mother. Nightingale worked hard to educate herself in the art and science of nursing, in the face of opposition from her family and the restrictive social code for affluent young English women.<ref name="Small's bio">{{cite book |last1=Small |first1=Hugh |title=Florence Nightingale and Her Real Legacy |year=2017 |publisher=Robinson |location=London |pages=1–19}}</ref>
As a young woman, Nightingale was described as attractive, slender, and graceful. While her demeanour was often severe, she was said to be very charming and to possess a radiant smile. Her most persistent suitor was the politician and poet [[Richard Monckton Milnes]], but after a nine-year courtship, she rejected him, convinced that marriage would interfere with her ability to follow her calling to nursing.<ref name="Small's bio"/>

In Rome in 1847, she met [[Sidney Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Lea|Sidney Herbert]], a politician who had been [[Secretary at War]] (1845–1846) who was on his honeymoon. He and Nightingale became lifelong close friends. Herbert would be Secretary of War again during the [[Crimean War]] when he and his wife would be instrumental in facilitating Nightingale's nursing work in Crimea. She became Herbert's key adviser throughout his political career, though she was accused by some of having hastened Herbert's death from [[Bright's disease]] in 1861 because of the pressure her programme of reform placed on him. Nightingale also much later had strong relations with academic [[Benjamin Jowett]], who may have wanted to marry her.<ref>Bostridge, Mark (2008). Florence Nightingale. pg. 8. London</ref>

Nightingale continued her travels (now with Charles and [[Selina Bracebridge]]) as far as Greece and Egypt. While in Athens, Greece, Nightingale rescued a juvenile [[little owl]] from a group of children who were tormenting it, and she named the owl Athena. Nightingale often carried the owl in her pocket, until the pet died (shortly before Nightingale left for Crimea).<ref>{{cite web |title=Life and death of Florence Nightingale's beloved pet |url=https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/news/nightingales-owl-in-the-wren/ |website=Trinity College, Cambridge |date=28 December 2016 |access-date=3 October 2019 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522092829/https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/news/nightingales-owl-in-the-wren/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Her writings on Egypt, in particular, are testimony to her learning, literary skill, and philosophy of life. Sailing up the Nile as far as Abu Simbel in January 1850, she wrote of the [[Abu Simbel temples]], "Sublime in the highest style of intellectual beauty, intellect without effort, without suffering ... not a feature is correct — but the whole effect is more expressive of spiritual grandeur than anything I could have imagined. It makes the impression upon one that thousands of voices do, uniting in one unanimous simultaneous feeling of enthusiasm or emotion, which is said to overcome the strongest man."<ref name="Chaney39-74">{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Chaney |chapter=Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution |title=Sites of Exchange European Crossroads and Faultlines |editor1=Ascari, M. |editor2=Corrado, A. |publisher=Rodopi |location=Amsterdam and New York |year=2006 |pages=39–74}}</ref>

[[File:Florence Nightingale by Augustus Egg.jpg|thumb|upright|Painting of Nightingale by [[Augustus Egg]], {{circa}}&nbsp;1840s|alt=Painting by Augustus Egg.]]

At Thebes, she wrote of being "called to God", while a week later near Cairo she wrote in her diary (as distinct from her far longer letters that her elder sister Parthenope was to print after her return): "God called me in the morning and asked me would I do good for him alone without reputation."<ref name="Chaney39-74" /> Later in 1850, she visited the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] religious community at [[Düsseldorf-Kaiserswerth|Kaiserswerth-am-Rhein]] in Germany, where she observed Pastor [[Theodor Fliedner]], [[Friederike Fliedner]] and the [[deaconess]]es working for the sick and the deprived. She regarded the experience as a turning point in her life and issued her findings anonymously in 1851; ''The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, etc.'' was her first published work.<ref name=":2" /> She also received four months of medical training at the institute, which formed the basis for her later care.

On 22&nbsp;August 1853, Nightingale took the post of superintendent at the [[Nightingale Hospital (Marylebone)|Institute for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen]] in [[Upper Harley Street]], London, a position she held until October&nbsp;1854.<ref name=hsguide>{{cite web |url=http://www.harleystreetguide.co.uk/about/history/ |title=History of Harley Street |website=Harley Street Guide |access-date=9 November 2009 |archive-date=7 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107032005/http://www.harleystreetguide.co.uk/about/history/ |url-status=live }} (commercial website)</ref> Her father had given her an annual income of {{Currency|500|GBP}} ({{Inflation|UK|500|1854|r=0|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}), which allowed her to live comfortably and to pursue her career.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shining a light on 'The Lady with the Lamp' |url=https://magazine.unison.org.uk/2020/04/01/shining-a-light-on-the-lady-with-the-lamp/ |access-date=17 June 2020 |magazine=Unison magazine |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617092544/https://magazine.unison.org.uk/2020/04/01/shining-a-light-on-the-lady-with-the-lamp/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Crimean War ==
[[File:Nightingale jewel awarded to Florence Nightingale .JPG|thumb|upright|A jewel awarded to Nightingale by [[Queen Victoria]] for her services to the soldiers in the war|left|alt=A medal awarded to Nightingale by Queen Victoria]]

Florence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the [[Crimean War]], which became her central focus when reports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded at the military hospital on the Asiatic side of the [[Bosporus]], opposite [[Constantinople]], at Scutari (modern-day [[Üsküdar]] in [[Istanbul]]). Britain and France entered the war against Russia on the side of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. On 21&nbsp;October 1854, she and the staff of 38&nbsp;women volunteer nurses including her head nurse [[Eliza Roberts (British nurse)|Eliza Roberts]] and her aunt Mai Smith,<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Gill| first1 = Christopher J.| title =Nightingale in Scutari: Her Legacy Reexamined| journal =Clinical Infectious Diseases| volume =40| issue =12| pages =1799–1805| date=June 2005| doi =10.1086/430380| pmid = 15909269| last2 = Gill| first2 = Gillian C.| issn = 1058-4838| doi-access =free}}</ref> and 15 Catholic nuns (mobilised by [[Henry Edward Manning]])<ref>{{cite book |author=Mary Jo Weaver |title=New Catholic Women: a Contemporary Challenge to Traditional Religious Authority |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper and Row |year=1985 |page=31}} citing {{cite book |first=Olga|last=Hartley |title=Women and the Catholic Church |location=London |publisher=Buns, Oates & Washbourne |year=1935 |pages=222–223}}</ref> were sent (under the authorisation of Sidney Herbert) to the Ottoman Empire. On the way, Nightingale was assisted in Paris by her friend [[Mary Elizabeth Mohl|Mary Clarke]].<ref>Patrick Waddington (January 2007) [first published 2004]. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18880 "Mohl, Mary Elizabeth (1793–1883)"]. ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (online ed.). Oxford University Press. Accessed 7 February 2015.</ref> The volunteer nurses worked about {{convert|295|nmi|km mi|lk=in}} away from the main British camp across the [[Black Sea]] at [[Balaklava]], in the [[Crimea]].

Nightingale arrived at [[Selimiye Barracks]] in Scutari early in November&nbsp;1854. Her team found that poor care for wounded British soldiers was being delivered by overworked medical staff in the face of official indifference. Medicines were in short supply, [[hygiene]] was being neglected, and mass infections were common, many of them fatal. There was no equipment to process food for the patients:

{{quote|text=This frail young woman ... embraced in her solicitude the sick of three armies.|author=[[Lucien Baudens]]|source=''La guerre de Crimée, les campements, les abris, les ambulances, les hôpitaux'', p. 104.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baudens |first=Lucien |title=La Guerre de Crimée. Les campements, les bris, iles ambulances, les hôpitaux, etc. |year=1858 |publisher=Michel Lévy frères |location=Paris, France |via=Google Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O81EAAAAcAAJ |language=fr |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310020012/https://books.google.com/books?id=O81EAAAAcAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

After Nightingale sent a plea to ''[[The Times]]'' for a government solution to the poor condition of the facilities, the British Government commissioned [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] to design a [[prefabricated building|prefabricated]] hospital that could be built in England and shipped to the [[Dardanelles]]. The result was [[Renkioi Hospital]], a civilian facility that, under the management of [[Edmund Alexander Parkes]], had a death rate less than one tenth of that of Scutari.<ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/battles/crimea/popup/medical.htm "Report on Medical Care"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202150422/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/battles/crimea/popup/medical.htm |date=2 February 2012 }}. United Kingdom: The National Archives (WO 33/1 ff.119, 124, 146–7). 23 February 1855.</ref>

[[Stephen Paget]] in the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'' asserted that Nightingale reduced the death rate from 42% to 2%, either by making improvements in hygiene herself, or by calling for the Sanitary Commission.<ref>{{cite DNB12 |wstitle= Nightingale, Florence |volume=3}}</ref> For example, Nightingale implemented [[handwashing]] in the hospital where she worked.<ref>{{cite web |title = History |date=19 March 2015 |publisher=The Global Handwashing Partnership |url = http://globalhandwashing.org/about-handwashing/history-of-handwashing/ |access-date = 18 April 2015 |archive-date = 18 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150418020430/http://globalhandwashing.org/about-handwashing/history-of-handwashing/ |url-status = live }}</ref>

During her first winter at Scutari, 4,077&nbsp;British soldiers died there. Ten times more soldiers died from illnesses such as [[typhus]], [[typhoid]], [[cholera]], and [[dysentery]] than from battle wounds. With overcrowding, defective [[sanitary sewer|sewers]] and lack of ventilation, the Sanitary Commission had to be sent out by the British government to Scutari in March&nbsp;1855, almost six months after Nightingale had arrived. The commission flushed out the sewers and improved ventilation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale: Measuring Hospital Care Outcomes |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86688-559-1 |author=Nightingale, Florence |publisher=Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations }}</ref> Death rates were sharply reduced, but she never claimed credit for helping to reduce the death rate.<ref name=Constable1998>{{cite book |url=http://www.florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk/?p=861 |title=Florence Nightingale, Avenging Angel |first=Hugh |last=Small |publisher=Constable |year=1998 |page=861 |access-date=18 August 2014 |archive-date=27 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027112458/http://www.florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk/?p=861 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Florence Nightingale to Her Nurses (1914)">{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale to Her Nurses: A Selection From Miss Nightingale's Addresses to Probationers and Nurses of the Nightingale School at St&nbsp;Thomas's Hospital |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |place=London |publisher=Macmillan |year=1914}}</ref> Head Nurse Eliza Roberts nursed Nightingale through her critical illness of May 1855.<ref>McDonald, Lynn, ed. ''Florence Nightingale: The Crimean War in Collected Works''. vol. xiv, 2010, pp. 65, 384 & 1038</ref>

In 2001 and [[Florence Nightingale (2008 film)|2008]], the [[BBC]] released documentaries that were critical of Nightingale's performance in the Crimean War, as were some follow-up articles published in ''The Guardian'' and the ''Sunday Times''.{{Efn|Attributed to multiple sources:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-09-28 |title=BBC accused of 'belittling' Florence Nightingale |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/8792420/BBC-accused-of-belittling-Florence-Nightingale.html |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dowell |first=Ben |date=2008-06-02 |title=TV ratings: Florence Nightingale drama brings healthy result for BBC1 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2008/jun/02/tvratings.television1 |access-date=2025-05-28 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Nursing's Bitter Rivalry' – The Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |url=https://cwfn.uoguelph.ca/nursing-health-care/nursings-bitter-rivalry/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=cwfn.uoguelph.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-06-01 |title=The Weekend's TV: Florence Nightingale Sun, BBC1Tony Robinson's |url=https://www.the-independent.com/arts-entertainment/tv/reviews/the-weekend-s-tv-florence-nightingale-sun-bbc1tony-robinson-s-crime-and-punishment-sun-channel-4-838063.html |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>}} Nightingale scholar [[Lynn McDonald]] has dismissed these criticisms as "often preposterous", arguing they are not supported by primary sources.<ref name="NightingaleCrimeanColectedWorkds"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Florence Nightingale and her Crimean War Statistics: Lessons for hospital safety, public administration and nursing. |url=https://www.gresham.ac.uk/watch-now/florence-nightingale-and-her-crimean-war-statistics-lessons-hospital-safety |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=www.gresham.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>

Nightingale still believed that the death rates were due to poor nutrition, lack of supplies, stale air, and overworking of the soldiers.<!-- not consistent with her belief in the Miasma theory of disease stated earlier ??? check --> After she returned to Britain and began collecting evidence before the Royal Commission on the Health of the Army, she came to believe that most of the soldiers at the hospital were killed by poor living conditions. This experience influenced her later career when she advocated sanitary living conditions as of great importance. Consequently, she reduced peacetime deaths in the army and turned her attention to the sanitary design of hospitals and the introduction of sanitation in working-class homes (see [[#Statistics and sanitary reform|Statistics and Sanitary Reform]]).<ref name="Small 2017">{{cite book |last1=Small |first1=Hugh |title=Florence Nightingale and Her Real Legacy |year=2017 |publisher=Robinson |location=London |pages=171–179}}</ref>

[[File:Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari by Jerry BarrettFXD.jpg|thumb|''[[Florence Nightingale Receiving the Wounded at Scutari|The Mission of Mercy: Florence Nightingale receiving the Wounded at Scutari]]'' ([[Jerry Barrett]], 1857)|alt=A painting of Florence Nightingale by Jerry Barrett in 1857.]]

According to some secondary sources, Nightingale had a frosty relationship with her fellow nurse [[Mary Seacole]], who ran a hotel/hospital for officers in the Crimea itself, many miles east of Scutari. Seacole's own memoir, ''Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands'', records only one, friendly, meeting with her, when she asked her for a bed for the night and got it; Seacole was in Scutari en route to the Crimea to join her business partner and start their business. However, Seacole pointed out that when she tried to join Nightingale's group, one of Nightingale's colleagues rebuffed her, and Seacole inferred that racism was at the root of that rebuttal.<ref>Mary Seacole, ''Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands'', Chapter VIII (London: James Blackwood, 1857), pp. 73–81</ref> Nightingale told her brother-in-law, in a private letter, that she was worried about contact between her work and Seacole's business, claiming that while "she was very kind to the men and, what is more, to the Officers – and did some good (she) made many drunk".<ref>letter 4&nbsp;August 1870, Wellcome Ms 9004/59).</ref> Nightingale reportedly wrote, "I had the greatest difficulty in repelling Mrs. Seacole's advances, and in preventing association between her and my nurses (absolutely out of the question!)&nbsp;... Anyone who employs Mrs. Seacole will introduce much kindness – also much drunkenness and improper conduct".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Tan-Feng |last=Chang |date=Fall 2017 |title=Creolizing the White Woman's Burden: Mary Seacole Playing "Mother" at the Colonial Crossroads Between Panama and Crimea |journal=College Literature |volume=44 |number=4 |pages=527–557 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |doi=10.1353/lit.2017.0033 |jstor=48553646 |issn=1542-4286 }}</ref> On the other hand, Seacole told the French chef [[Alexis Soyer]] that "You must know, M Soyer, that Miss Nightingale is very fond of me. When I passed through Scutari, she very kindly gave me board and lodging."

The arrival of two waves of Irish nuns, the [[Sisters of Mercy]], to assist with nursing duties at Scutari met with different responses from Nightingale. [[Mary Clare Moore]] headed the first wave and placed herself and her Sisters under the authority of Nightingale. The two were to remain friends for the rest of their lives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Irish Nurses at the Crimean War |url=https://www.carefulnursing.ie/go/background/irish_nurses_at_the_crimean_war |website=Careful Nursing: Philosophy & Professional Practice Model |access-date=8 March 2020 |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324210954/https://www.carefulnursing.ie/go/background/irish_nurses_at_the_crimean_war |url-status=live }}</ref> The second wave, headed by [[Mary Francis Bridgeman]] met with a cooler reception as Bridgeman refused to give up her authority over her Sisters to Nightingale while at the same time not trusting Nightingale, whom she regarded as ambitious.<ref>Bridgeman, M. F. (1854–1856). "An Account of the Mission of the Sisters of Mercy in the Military Hospitals of the East, Beginning December 1854 and Ending May 1856". Unpublished manuscript, Archives of the Sisters of Mercy, Dublin, p. 18</ref><ref name="Beyond">{{Cite book |last=Helmstadter |first=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X3C9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT134 |title=Beyond Nightingale: Nursing on the Crimean War battlefields |date=2019-11-11 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-1-5261-4053-1 |language=en}}</ref>

=== The Lady with the Lamp ===
[[File:Florence Nightingale. Coloured lithograph. Wellcome V0006579.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Miss Nightingale at Scutari (1854)|The Lady with the Lamp]] or Miss Nightingale at Scutari.'' Popular lithograph reproduction of a painting of Nightingale by [[Henrietta Rae]], 1891.{{Efn|The original painting was created in 1854; the date 1891 refers to the widely circulated lithograph version.}}|alt=A painting by Henritta Rae called The Lady with the Lamp.]]

During the Crimean War, Nightingale gained the nickname "The Lady with the Lamp" from a phrase in a report in ''[[The Times]]'':<ref>{{Cite news |last=McDonald |first=John |date=1855-02-08 |editor-last=Delane |editor-first=John Thadeus |editor-link=John Thadeus Delane |title=The Sick And Wounded Fund. |url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS118000712/TTDA |url-access=subscription |access-date=2025-07-31 |work=[[The Times]] |pages=7–8 |via=[[Gale]] |issue=21972}}</ref>

{{quote|text=She is a "ministering angel" without any exaggeration in these hospitals, and as her slender form glides quietly along each corridor, every poor fellow's face softens with gratitude at the sight of her. When all the medical officers have retired for the night and silence and darkness have settled down upon those miles of prostrate sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds.|author=William Russell|title=|source=Cited in Cook, E. T. (1913). ''The Life of Florence Nightingale''. Vol. 1, p. 237.}}

The phrase was further popularised by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]'s 1857 poem "Santa Filomena":<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/poetry/nov1857/filomena.htm |date=November 1857 |title=Santa Filomena |first=Henry Wadsworth |last=Longfellow |pages=22–23 |work=The Atlantic Monthly |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514235021/http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/poetry/nov1857/filomena.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{poemquote|Lo! in that house of misery
A lady with a lamp I see
Pass through the glimmering gloom,
And flit from room to room.}}

Nightingale was nicknamed "the lady with the hammer" by the troops after using a hammer to break into locked storage to access medicine to treat the wounded. However, Russell thought the behaviour was unladylike, and invented an alternative, leading to "The Lady with the Lamp".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.virago.co.uk/virago-news/2020/04/23/rebel-women-florence-nightingale/ |title=Rebel Women, Florence Nightingale |last=Miles |first=Rosalind |date=23 April 2020 |website=[[Hachette UK]] |publisher=[[Little, Brown Book Group]] |access-date=19 March 2024 |via=[[Virago Press]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite journal |last1=Martini |first1=Mariano |last2=Lippi |first2=Donatella |date=15 September 2021 |title=SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) and the Teaching of Ignaz Semmelweis and Florence Nightingale: a Lesson of Public Health from History, after the "Introduction of Handwashing" (1847) |url=https://www.jpmh.org/index.php/jpmh/article/view/2161/908 |journal=Journal of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=621–624 |doi=10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2021.62.3.2161 |pmid=34909488 |pmc=8639136 |access-date=March 19, 2024}}</ref>

== Later career ==
In the [[Crimea]] on 29&nbsp;November 1855, the Nightingale Fund was established for the training of nurses during a public meeting to recognise Nightingale for her work in the war. There was an outpouring of generous donations. Sidney Herbert served as honorary secretary of the fund and the [[Prince George, Duke of Cambridge|Duke of Cambridge]] was chairman. In her 1856 letters she described spas in the [[Ottoman Empire]], detailing the health conditions, physical descriptions, dietary information, and other vital details of patients whom she directed there. She noted that the treatment there was significantly less expensive than in Switzerland.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Role of Anesthesiology in Global Health: A Comprehensive Guide |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |page=9}}</ref>

Nightingale had {{Currency|45000|GBP}} ({{Inflation|UK|45000|1860|r=0|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}) at her disposal from the Nightingale Fund to set up the first nursing school, the Nightingale Training School, at [[St Thomas' Hospital]] on 9&nbsp;July 1860.<ref>{{cite news |title=Florence Nightingale: The Mother of Nursing |work=[[National Institutes of Health]]|year=2015 |pmc=4557413 |last1=Karimi |first1=H. |last2=Masoudi Alavi |first2=N. |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e29475 |pmid=26339672 }}</ref> The first trained Nightingale nurses began work on 16&nbsp;May 1865 at the Liverpool Workhouse Infirmary. Now called the [[Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery]], the school is part of [[King's College London]]. In 1866 she said the [[Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital]] in [[Aylesbury]] near her sister's home [[Claydon House]] would be "the most beautiful hospital in England", and in 1868 called it "an excellent model to follow".<ref name=":5">{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale and Hospital Reform: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, volume 16 |date=2012 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press}}</ref>

Nightingale wrote ''[[Notes on Nursing]]'' (1859). The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools, though it was written specifically for the education of those nursing at home. Nightingale wrote:<blockquote>"Every day sanitary knowledge, or the knowledge of nursing, or in other words, of how to put the constitution in such a state as that it will have no disease, or that it can recover from disease, takes a higher place. It is recognised as the knowledge which every one ought to have – distinct from medical knowledge, which only a profession can have".<ref name="FlorenceNightingale">{{cite book |title=Notes on Nursing: What it is and what it is not |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |chapter=Preface |year=1974 |orig-year=1859 |publisher=Blackie & Son |location= Glasgow and London  |isbn=978-0-216-89974-2}}</ref></blockquote>''Notes on Nursing'' also sold well to the general reading public and is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightingale spent the rest of her life promoting and organising the nursing profession. In the introduction to the 1974 edition, Joan Quixley of the Nightingale School of Nursing wrote: <blockquote>"The book was the first of its kind ever to be written. It appeared at a time when the simple rules of health were only beginning to be known, when its topics were of vital importance not only for the well-being and recovery of patients, when hospitals were riddled with infection, when nurses were still mainly regarded as ignorant, uneducated persons. The book has, inevitably, its place in the history of nursing, for it was written by the founder of modern nursing".<ref name="QuixleyonNightingale">{{cite book |title=Notes on Nursing: What it is and what it is not |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |chapter=Introduction by Joan Quixley |year=1974 |orig-year=1859 |publisher= Blackie & Son |isbn=978-0-216-89974-2}}</ref></blockquote>As [[Mark Bostridge]] has demonstrated, one of Nightingale's signal achievements was the introduction of trained nurses into the [[workhouse]] system in Britain from the 1860s onwards.<ref name="Bostridge" /> This meant that sick paupers were no longer being cared for by other, able-bodied paupers, but by properly trained nursing staff. In the first half of the 19th century, nurses were usually former servants or widows who found no other job and therefore were forced to earn their living by this work. [[Charles Dickens]] caricatured the standard of care in his 1843–1844 published novel ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]'' in the figure of [[Sarah Gamp]] as being incompetent, negligent, alcoholic and corrupt. According to Caroline Worthington, director of the [[Florence Nightingale Museum]]:<blockquote>"When she [Nightingale] started out there was no such thing as nursing. The Dickens character Sarah Gamp, who was more interested in drinking gin than looking after her patients, was only a mild exaggeration. Hospitals were places of last resort where the floors were laid with straw to soak up the blood. Florence transformed nursing when she got back [from Crimea]. She had access to people in high places and she used it to get things done. Florence was stubborn, opinionated, and forthright but she had to be those things in order to achieve all that she did."<ref name="Express" /></blockquote>

[[File:Florence Nightingale salicylic silk letter.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Letter from Nightingale advocating for the use of salicylic acid, an antiseptic, in dressings for cancer patients, 1886<ref>{{Cite web |title=2013.0503 {{!}} Collections Online |url=https://collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk/object-2013-0503 |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk}}</ref>|alt=Letter from Nightingale for an antiseptic]]

Though Nightingale is sometimes said to have denied the theory of infection for her entire life, a 2008 biography disagrees,<ref name="Bostridge">Mark Bostridge (2008). ''Florence Nightingale, the Woman and her Legend''. Viking.</ref> saying that she was simply opposed to a precursor of germ theory known as [[Contingent contagionism|contagionism]]. This theory held that diseases could only be transmitted by touch. Before the experiments of the mid-1860s by [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]] and [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Lister]], hardly anyone took germ theory seriously; even afterwards, many medical practitioners were unconvinced. Bostridge points out that in the early 1880s Nightingale wrote an article for a textbook in which she advocated strict precautions designed, she said, to kill germs. Nightingale's work served as an inspiration for nurses in the [[American Civil War]]. The [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] government approached her for advice on organising field medicine. Her ideas inspired the volunteer body of the [[United States Sanitary Commission]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The Sanitary Commission—The Red Cross |agency=JSTOR |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1910|jstor=2186240 }}</ref>

Nightingale advocated autonomous nursing leadership, and that her new style of matrons had full control and discipline over their nursing staff.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vicinus |first=Martha |title=Independent Women, Work and Community for Single Women, 1850–1920 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1985 |location=London |pages=109}}</ref> The infamous "[[Guy's Hospital]] dispute" in 1879–1880 between matron Margaret Burt and hospital medical staff highlighted how doctors sometimes felt that their authority was being challenged by these new style Nightingale matrons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Waddington |first=Keir |title='The Nursing Dispute at Guy's Hospital, 1879–1880' |publisher=The Journal of The Society for The Social History of Medicine |year=1995 |pages=211–230}}</ref> This was not an isolated episode and other matrons experienced similar issues, such as [[Eva Luckes]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, Vol. 13: Extending Nursing |date=2012 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |volume=13}}</ref>

In the 1870s, Nightingale mentored [[Linda Richards]], "America's first trained nurse", and enabled her to return to the United States with adequate training and knowledge to establish high-quality nursing schools.<ref>{{cite book |title=Role Development for Doctoral Advanced Nursing Practice |date=15 December 2010 |publisher=Springer Publishing Company |page=325}}</ref> Richards went on to become a nursing pioneer in the US and Japan.<ref>Linda Richards (1915) [https://archive.org/details/reminiscencesli02richgoog ''Reminiscences of Linda Richards''], Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston {{oclc|1350705}}</ref> In 1873, [[Elizabeth Christophers Hobson]] co-founded the [[Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing|Bellevue Training School for Nurses]] in New York, setting the trend for nursing training practices in the US according to the Nightingale plan.<ref>{{Cite book |ref={{harvid|James|1971}} |last1=James |first1=Edward T. |url=http://archive.org/details/notableamericanw02jame_0 |title=Notable American women, 1607–1950; a biographical dictionary |last2=James |first2=Janet Wilson |last3=Boyer |first3=Paul S. |last4=Radcliffe College |date=1971 |page=195 |publisher=Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press}}</ref>

By 1882, several Nightingale nurses had become matrons at several leading hospitals, including, in London ([[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]], Westminster Hospital, St&nbsp;Marylebone Workhouse Infirmary and the [[Royal Hospital for Neuro-disability|Hospital for Incurables]] at [[Putney]]) and throughout Britain ([[Netley Hospital|Royal Victoria Hospital]], [[Netley]]; [[Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh|Edinburgh Royal Infirmary]]; Cumberland Infirmary and Liverpool Royal Infirmary), as well as at [[Sydney Hospital]] in [[New South Wales]], Australia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bicentenary of a hospital built from a rum deal |url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/bicentenary-of-a-hospital-built-from-a-rum-deal-20111028-1moaj.html |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald |date=26 October 2017 |access-date=26 October 2017 |archive-date=27 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027132700/http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/bicentenary-of-a-hospital-built-from-a-rum-deal-20111028-1moaj.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:F. Nightingale and Sir H. Verney; Claydon House Wellcome L0010473.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Florence Nightingale (middle) in 1886 with Miss Mary Crossland of the [[Nightingale Training School]], [[Sir Harry Verney, 2nd Baronet|Sir Harry Verney]] and a group of Nightingale Nurses from [[St Thomas' Hospital|St Thomas']]. Pictured outside [[Claydon House]], Buckinghamshire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=534004 {{!}} Collections Online |url=https://collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk/object-534004 |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk}}</ref>|alt=Florence Nightingale in 1886 with the Nightingale Training School nurses.]]

In 1883, Nightingale became the first recipient of the [[Royal Red Cross]]. In 1904, she was appointed a [[Order of Saint John (chartered 1888)|Lady of Grace of the Order of St John (LGStJ)]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=27677 |date=17 May 1904 |page=3185}}</ref> In 1907, she became the first woman to be awarded the [[Order of Merit]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28084 |date=29 November 1907 |page=8331}}</ref> In the following year she was given the [[Freedom of the City|Honorary Freedom]] of the [[City of London]]. Her birthday is now celebrated as [[International May 12th Awareness Day]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.may12th.org/ |title=May 12th International Awareness Day |access-date=12 May 2015 |archive-date=18 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718185451/http://www.may12th.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1857 onwards, Nightingale was intermittently bedridden and suffered from depression. A recent biography cites [[brucellosis]] and associated [[spondylitis]] as the cause.<ref name="Bostridge" /> Most authorities today accept that Nightingale suffered from a particularly extreme form of brucellosis, the effects of which only began to lift in the early 1880s. Despite her symptoms, she remained phenomenally productive in social reform. During her bedridden years, she also did pioneering work in the field of hospital planning, and her work propagated quickly across Britain and the world. From home, she was able to select and purchase [[flannel]] via [[mail order]], a then-new method of retail conceived by Welsh entrepreneur [[Pryce Pryce-Jones]], who would use Nightingale's name as a customer in his advertising.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The mail-order pioneer who started a billion-pound industry |last=Shuttleworth |first=Peter |website=BBC News |date=25 December 2020 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-55244397 |access-date=10 February 2025 |archive-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127002807/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-55244397 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pryce-Jones: Pioneer of the Mail Order Industry |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/wales/w_mid/article_3.shtml |accessdate=10 February 2025 |agency=BBC}}</ref> Nightingale's output slowed down considerably in her last decade. She wrote very little during that period due to blindness and declining mental abilities, though she still retained an interest in current affairs.<ref name="NightingaleCrimeanColectedWorkds"/>

== Relationships ==
Although much of Nightingale's work improved the lot of women everywhere, Nightingale believed that women craved [[sympathy]] and were not as capable as men.{{efn|In an 1861 letter Nightingale wrote, "''Women have no sympathy.'' ... Women crave for being loved, not for loving. They scream out at you for sympathy all day long, they are incapable of giving any in return, for they cannot remember your affairs long enough to do so. ... They cannot state a fact accurately to another, nor can that other attend to it accurately enough for it to become information."<ref>{{Gutenberg |no=40058 |name=The Life of Florence Nightingale vol. 2 of 2 by Edward Tyas Cook |bullet=none |pages=pp. 14–17}}</ref>}} She criticised early women's rights activists for decrying an alleged lack of careers for women at the same time that lucrative medical positions, under the supervision of Nightingale and others, went perpetually unfilled.{{efn|In the same 1861 letter she wrote, "It makes me mad, the Women's Rights talk about 'the want of a field' for them – when I would gladly give £500 a year for a Woman secretary. And two English Lady superintendents have told me the same thing. And we can't get ''one''&nbsp;..."<ref>{{Gutenberg|no=40058|name=available|bullet=none}}</ref>}} She preferred the friendship of powerful men, insisting they had done more than women to help her attain her goals, writing: "I have never found one woman who has altered her life by one iota for me or my opinions."<ref>The same 1861 letter published in {{Gutenberg |no=40058 |name=The Life of Florence Nightingale vol. 2 of 2 by Edward Tyas Cook |bullet=none |pages=pp. 14–17}} <!-- | title = The Life of Florence Nightingale, vol 2: 1862–1910 | author1 = Cook | first1 = Sir Edward Tyas | year = 1914 --></ref><ref name="NightingaleonWomen">{{cite book |author=Nightingale, Florence |editor=McDonald, Lynn |title=Florence Nightingale on Women, Medicine, Midwifery and Prostitution |pages=7, 48–49, 414 |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-88920-466-9 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]}}</ref> She often referred to herself as, for example, "a man of action" and "a man of business".<ref>Stark, Myra. "Florence Nightingale's Cassandra". The Feminist Press, 1979, p. 17.</ref>

However, she did have several important and long-lasting friendships with women. Later in life, she kept up a prolonged correspondence with Irish nun [[Mary Clare Moore]], with whom she had worked in Crimea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ourladyofmercy.org.uk |title=Institute of Our Lady of Mercy, Great Britain |publisher=Ourladyofmercy.org.uk |date=8 December 2009 |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=21 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221101027/http://www.ourladyofmercy.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Her most beloved confidante was Mary Clarke, an Englishwoman she met in Paris in 1837 and kept in touch with throughout her life.<ref>Cannadine, David. "Ever Yours, Florence Nightingale: Selected Letters." ''The New Republic''. 203.7 (13 August 1990): 38–42.</ref> She was friends with pioneering computer programmer [[Ada Lovelace]], and upon Lovelace's death from cancer at 36 in 1852 after several months of pain, Nightingale wrote, "They said she could not possibly have lived so long, were it not for the tremendous vitality of the brain, that would not die".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Castaldo |first1=Nancy |title=DK Life Stories Ada Lovelace |date=2019 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page=100}}</ref>

Some scholars of Nightingale's life believe that she remained chaste for her entire life, perhaps because she felt a religious calling to her career.<ref>Dossey, Barbara Montgomery. ''Florence Nightingale: Mystic, Visionary, Reformer''. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999.</ref>

== Death ==
[[File:Florence Nightingale's Grave - geograph.org.uk - 163967.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Nightingale's grave in the churchyard of St&nbsp;Margaret's Church, [[Wellow, Hampshire|East Wellow]], Hampshire|alt=Nightingale's grave in St Margaret's Church.]]

Florence Nightingale died peacefully in her sleep in her room at 10&nbsp;[[South Street, Mayfair]], London, on 13 August 1910, at the age of 90.<ref>{{openplaque|6}}</ref>{{efn|Florence Nightingale, the famous nurse of the Crimean war and the only woman who ever received the Order of Merit, died yesterday afternoon at her London home. Although she had been an invalid for a long time, rarely leaving her room, where she passed the time in a half-recumbent position and was under the constant care of a physician, her death was somewhat unexpected. A week ago she was quite sick, but then improved and on Friday was cheerful. During that night alarming symptoms developed and she gradually sank until 2&nbsp;o'clock Saturday afternoon, when the end came. — ''New York Times'' (15 Aug 1910)<ref>{{cite news |title=Miss Nightingale Dies, Aged Ninety |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0512.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=15 August 1910 |access-date=21 July 2007 |archive-date=18 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060418002441/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0512.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The offer of burial in [[Westminster Abbey]] was declined by her relatives and she is buried in the churchyard of St&nbsp;Margaret's Church in [[Wellow, Hampshire|East Wellow]], Hampshire, near Embley Park with a memorial with just her initials and dates of birth and death.<ref>[http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/joe_grave.jpg Photograph of Nightingale's grave] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023163640/http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/joe_grave.jpg |date=23 October 2006 }}. countryjoe.com</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/wellow.htm |title=Florence Nightingale: The Grave at East Wellow |publisher=Countryjoe.com |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=10 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100910100858/http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/wellow.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She left a large body of work, including several hundred notes that were previously unpublished.<ref name=Kelly>Kelly, Heather (1998). ''[http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/126/ Florence Nightingale's autobiographical notes: A critical edition of BL Add. 45844 (England)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502151729/http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/126/ |date=2 May 2012 }}'' (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University</ref> A monument to Nightingale was created in [[Carrara marble]] by Francis William Sargant in 1913 and placed in the cloister of the [[Santa Croce, Florence|Basilica of Santa Croce]], in Florence, Italy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vojnovic |first1=Paola |title='Florence Nightingale: The Lady of the Lamp' in ''Santa Croce in Pink: Untold Stories of Women and their Monuments'' |year=2013 |publisher=Adriano Antonioletti Boratto |page=27}}</ref>

== Contributions ==

=== Statistics and sanitary reform ===
Florence Nightingale exhibited a gift for mathematics from an early age and excelled in the subject under the tutelage of her father.{{efn|There were rumours that she was tutored by an eminent mathematician who was a friend of the family. Mark Bostridge says, "There appears to be no documentary evidence to connect Florence with [[James Joseph Sylvester|J. J. Sylvester]]."<ref>{{cite book|first=Mark|last=Bostridge|title=Florence Nightingale: The Making of an Icon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M-FEXr2kf7AC&pg=PT1172|year=2008|page=1172|publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9781466802926|access-date=12 December 2015|archive-date=4 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604014110/https://books.google.com/books?id=M-FEXr2kf7AC&pg=PT1172|url-status=live}}</ref>}} Later, Nightingale became a pioneer in the visual presentation of information and [[statistical graphics]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lewi |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul Lewi |title=Speaking of Graphics |year=2006 |url=http://www.datascope.be/sog.htm |access-date=8 May 2008 |archive-date=11 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311012925/http://www.datascope.be/sog.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She used methods such as the [[pie chart]], which had first been developed by [[William Playfair]] in 1801.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Playfair|first1=William|author-link1=William Playfair|last2=Wainer|first2=Howard|author-link2=Howard Wainer|last3=Spence|first3=Ian|author-link3=Ian Spence (psychologist)|title=Playfair's Commercial and Political Atlas and Statistical Breviary|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521855549}}</ref> While common now, it was at the time a relatively novel method of presenting data.<ref name=Cohen1984>{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=I. Bernard |author-link=I. Bernard Cohen |title=Florence Nightingale |journal=Scientific American |volume=250 |pages=128–137 |date=March 1984 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0384-128 |pmid= 6367033 |issue= 3 |bibcode=1984SciAm.250c.128C|s2cid=5409191 }} (alternative pagination depending on country of sale: 98–107, bibliography on p. 114) [http://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/ online article – see documents link at left] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705052627/http://www.unc.edu/~nielsen/soci708/ |date=5 July 2010 }}</ref>

Indeed, Nightingale is described as "a true pioneer in the graphical representation of statistics" and is especially well known for her usage of a [[polar area diagram]],<ref name=Cohen1984/>{{rp|page=107}} or occasionally the ''Nightingale rose diagram'', equivalent to a modern circular [[histogram]], to illustrate seasonal sources of patient mortality in the military field hospital she managed.  While frequently credited as the creator of the polar area diagram, it is known to have been used by André-Michel Guerry in 1829<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friendly |first1=Michael |title=A.-M. Guerry's Moral Statistics of France: Challenges for Multivariable Spatial Analysis |journal=Statistical Science |year=2007 |volume=22 |issue=3 |publisher=Institute of Mathematical Statistics |doi=10.1214/07-STS241 |arxiv=0801.4263 |s2cid=13536171 }}</ref> and Léon Louis Lalanne by 1830.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Leland |title=The Grammar of Graphics |date=28 January 2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |page=209 |isbn=9780387286952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRyGnjeNKJIC&pg=PA209 |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> Nightingale called a compilation of such diagrams a "[[Pie chart|coxcomb]]", but later that term would frequently be used for the individual diagrams.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/small.htm |title=Publication explaining Nightingale's use of 'coxcomb' |access-date=19 August 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126012626/http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/small.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She made extensive use of coxcombs to present reports on the nature and magnitude of the conditions of medical care in the Crimean War to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Members of Parliament]] and civil servants who would have been unlikely to read or understand traditional statistical reports. In 1859, Nightingale was elected the first female member of the [[Royal Statistical Society]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |url=http://www.rss.org.uk/RSS/About/About_the_RSS/RSS/About_the_RSS/About_top.aspx?hkey=679e724a-2a6c-4325-922b-8ac53b9b696a |website=Royal Statistical Society |access-date=26 October 2017 |archive-date=27 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027024716/http://www.rss.org.uk/RSS/About/About_the_RSS/RSS/About_the_RSS/About_top.aspx?hkey=679e724a-2a6c-4325-922b-8ac53b9b696a |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1874 she became an honorary member of the [[American Statistical Association]].<ref>Norman L. Johnson, Samuel Kotz (2011). Leading Personalities in Statistical Sciences: From the Seventeenth Century to the Present". p. 314. John Wiley & Sons.</ref>

Her attention turned to the health of the British Army in [[India]] and she demonstrated that bad drainage, contaminated water, overcrowding, and poor ventilation were causing the high death rate.<ref>Professional Nursing Practice: Concepts and perspective, Koernig & Hayes, sixth edition, 2011, p. 100.</ref> Following the report ''The Royal Commission on India'' (1858–1863), which included drawings done by her cousin, artist [[Bonham Carter family|Hilary Bonham Carter]], with whom Nightingale had lived,{{efn|[many letters were written by Nightingale to her cousin Hilary Bonham-Carter] ... Royal Commission on India (1858–1863) ... feeling that her cousin was neglecting her art, [Nightingale] made Hilary Bonham Carter leave ... the Indian embroidery belonged to dear Hilary&nbsp;...<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mc Donald |first1=L. |title=Florence Nightingale: An Introduction to Her Life and Family: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dJ0CwAAQBAJ&q=hilary+bonham+carter+florence+nightingale++indian&pg=PA37 |access-date=8 August 2019 |pages=36, 37, 429, 449, etc. |isbn=9780889207042 |date=28 January 2010 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015804/https://books.google.com/books?id=2dJ0CwAAQBAJ&q=hilary+bonham+carter+florence+nightingale++indian&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Nightingale concluded that the health of the army and the people of India had to go hand in hand and so campaigned to improve the sanitary conditions of the country as a whole.<ref name="BBC 2017"/>

Nightingale made a comprehensive statistical study of [[sanitation]] in Indian rural life and was the leading figure in the introduction of improved medical care and public health services in India. In 1858 and 1859, she successfully lobbied for the establishment of a Royal Commission into the Indian situation. Two years later, she provided a report to the commission, which completed its own study in 1863. "After 10&nbsp;years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per&nbsp;1,000".<ref name=Cohen1984/>{{rp|page=107}}

The Royal Sanitary Commission of 1868–1869 presented Nightingale with an opportunity to press for compulsory sanitation in private houses. She lobbied the minister responsible, [[James Stansfeld]], to strengthen the proposed Public Health Bill to require owners of existing properties to pay for connection to mains drainage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Florence Nightingale on Public Health Care |last=McDonald |first=Lynn |pages=550}}</ref> The strengthened legislation was enacted in the Public Health Acts of 1874 and 1875. At the same time, she combined with the retired sanitary reformer [[Edwin Chadwick]] to persuade Stansfeld to devolve powers to enforce the law to local authorities, eliminating central control by medical technocrats.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sir John Simon, 1816–1904 |last=Lambert |first=Royston |publisher=McGibbon & Kee |year=1963 |pages=521–523}}</ref> Her Crimean War statistics had convinced her that non-medical approaches were more effective given the state of knowledge at the time. Historians now believe that both drainage and devolved enforcement played a crucial role in increasing average national life expectancy by 20&nbsp;years between 1871 and the mid-1930s during which time medical science made no impact on the most fatal epidemic diseases.<ref name=Constable1998/><ref name="Florence Nightingale to Her Nurses (1914)"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain's Mortality Decline c.&nbsp;1850–1914 |last=Szreter |first=Simon |journal=Soc. Hist. Med. |volume=1 |year=1988 |page=1037}}</ref>

=== Literature and the women's movement ===
Historian of science [[I. Bernard Cohen]] argues:

{{cquote| Nightingale's achievements are all the more impressive when they are considered against the background of social restraints on women in Victorian England. Her father, William Edward Nightingale, was an extremely wealthy landowner, and the family moved in the highest circles of English society. In those days, women of Nightingale's class did not attend universities and did not pursue professional careers; their purpose in life was to marry and bear children. Nightingale was fortunate. Her father believed women should be educated, and he personally taught her Italian, Latin, Greek, philosophy, history, and – most unusual of all for women of the time – writing and mathematics.<ref name=Cohen1984/>{{rp|page=98}} }} [[Lytton Strachey]] was famous for his book debunking 19th-century heroes, ''[[Eminent Victorians]]'' (1918). Nightingale gets a full chapter, but instead of debunking her, Strachey praised her in a way that raised her national reputation and made her an icon for English feminists of the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>James Southern, [https://academic.oup.com/tcbh/article-abstract/28/1/1/2525313 "A Lady 'in Proper Proportions'? Feminism, Lytton Strachey, and Florence Nightingale's Reputation, 1918–39"]. ''Twentieth Century British History'' 28.1 (March 2017): 1–28. {{doi|10.1093/tcbh/hww047}}. {{PMID|28922795}}.</ref>

While better known for her contributions in the nursing and mathematical fields, Nightingale was also an important link in the study of English [[feminism]]. She wrote some 200&nbsp;books, pamphlets and articles throughout her life.<ref name="Express"/> During 1850 and 1852, she was struggling with her self-definition and the expectations of an upper-class marriage from her family. As she sorted out her thoughts, she wrote ''Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth''. This was an 829-page, three-volume work, which Nightingale had printed privately in 1860, but which until recently was never published in its entirety.<ref name=Calabria&Macrae1994>{{cite book |year=1994 |author=Nightingale, Florence |editor1=Calabria, Michael D. |editor2=MacRae, Janet A. |title=Suggestions for Thought: Selections and Commentaries |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1501-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHcm-2Zm5DQC&q=%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015556/https://books.google.com/books?id=CHcm-2Zm5DQC&q=%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> An effort to correct this was made with a 2008 publication by [[Wilfrid Laurier University]], as volume&nbsp;11<ref name=McDonald2008>{{cite book |year=2008 |orig-year=1860 |editor-last=McDonald |editor-first=Lynn |first=Florence |last=Nightingale |title=Suggestions for Thought |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |volume=11 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-465-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mle5Sjixa0cC&q=McDonald++%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015555/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mle5Sjixa0cC&q=McDonald++%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |url-status=live }}</ref> of a 16&nbsp;volume project, the ''Collected Works of Florence Nightingale''.<ref name=WLUPress>{{cite book |title=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |url=http://www.wlupress.wlu.ca/Series/CWFN.shtml |access-date=6 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927174908/http://www.wlupress.wlu.ca/Series/CWFN.shtml |archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref> The best known of these essays, called "Cassandra", was previously published by [[Ray Strachey]] in 1928. Strachey included it in ''The Cause'', a history of the women's movement. Apparently, the writing served its original purpose of sorting out thoughts; Nightingale left soon after to train at the Institute for deaconesses at [[Kaiserswerth]].

"Cassandra" protests the over-feminisation of women into near helplessness, such as Nightingale saw in her mother's and older sister's lethargic lifestyle, despite their education. She rejected their life of thoughtless comfort for the world of social service. The work also reflects her fear of her ideas being ineffective, as were [[Cassandra]]'s. Cassandra was a princess of [[Troy]] who served as a priestess in the temple of [[Apollo]] during the [[Trojan War]]. The god gave her the gift of [[prophecy]]; when she refused his advances, he cursed her so that her prophetic warnings would go unheeded. [[Elaine Showalter]] called Nightingale's writing "a major text of English feminism, a link between [[Mary Wollstonecraft|Wollstonecraft]] and [[Virginia Woolf|Woolf]]".<ref>Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. "Florence Nightingale". ''The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English''. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996. 836–837.</ref> Nightingale was initially reluctant  to join the Women's [[Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom|Suffrage Society]] when asked by [[John Stuart Mill]], but through [[Josephine Butler]] was convinced 'that women's enfranchisement is absolutely essential to a nation if moral and social progress is to be made'.<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 August 1910|title=Miss Nightingale – Suffragist|page=207|work=The Vote|url=https://digital.library.lse.ac.uk/Documents/Detail/the-vote.-aug-27-1910/161198?item=161200|access-date=24 April 2025}}</ref>

In 1972, the poet [[Eleanor Ross Taylor]] wrote "Welcome Eumenides", a poem written in Nightingale's voice and quoting frequently from Nightingale's writings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Eleanor Ross |title=Welcome, Eumenides |url=https://archive.org/details/welcomeeumenides00elea |url-access=registration |year=1972 |publisher=George Braziller |location=New York|isbn=9780807606445 }}</ref> [[Adrienne Rich]] wrote that "Eleanor Taylor has brought together the waste of women in society and the waste of men in wars and twisted them inseparably."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rich |first1=Adrienne |title=On Lies, Secrets, and Silence |url=https://archive.org/details/onliessecretssil00rich |url-access=registration |year=1979 |publisher=W. W. Norton|location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/onliessecretssil00rich/page/87 87]|isbn=9780393012330 }}</ref>

=== Theology ===
Despite being named as a Unitarian in several older sources, Nightingale's own rare references to conventional Unitarianism are mildly negative. She remained in the [[Church of England]] throughout her life, albeit with unorthodox views. Influenced from an early age by the [[Wesleyanism|Wesleyan tradition]],{{efn|Her parents took their daughters to both Church of England and Methodist churches.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |url=https://archive.org/details/florencenighting0000nigh_y4a8/page/n3/mode/2up |title=Florence Nightingale's Spiritual Journey: Biblical Annotations, Sermons and Journal Notes: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, Volume 2 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=9-780889-203662 |editor-last=McDonald |editor-first=Lynn |editor-link=Lynn McDonald |volume=2 |location=Toronto |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>}} Nightingale felt that genuine religion should manifest in active care and love for others.{{efn|Nightingale's rare references to Unitarianism are mildly negative, and while her religious views were heterodox, she remained in the Church of England throughout her life. Her biblical annotations, private journal notes, and translations of the mystics give quite a different impression of her beliefs, and these do have a bearing on her work with nurses, and not only at Edinburgh, but neither [Cecil(ia) Woodham-]Smith nor [her] followers consulted their sources."<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Lynn |editor-last=McDonald |title=Florence Nightingale: Extending Nursing Collected Works of Florence Nightingale, Volume 13 |date=17 November 2009 |page=11 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-088920520-8 }}</ref>}} She wrote a work of theology: ''Suggestions for Thought'', her own [[theodicy]], which develops her [[Heterodoxy|heterodox]] ideas. Nightingale questioned the goodness of a God who would condemn souls to hell and was a believer in [[universal reconciliation]] – the concept that even those who die without being saved will eventually make it to heaven.{{efn|While this has changed by the 21st&nbsp;century, ''[[universal reconciliation]]'' was very far from being mainstream in the [[Church of England]] at the time.}} She would sometimes comfort those in her care with this view. For example, a dying young prostitute being tended by Nightingale was concerned she was going to hell and said to her "Pray God, that you may never be in the despair I am in at this time". The nurse replied "Oh, my girl, are you not now more merciful than the God you think you are going to? Yet the real God is far more merciful than any human creature ever was or can ever imagine."<ref name="NightingaleonMysticism"/><ref name="NightingaleonWomen" />{{efn|"Certainly the worst man would hardly torture his enemy, if he could, forever. Unless God has a scheme that every man is to be saved forever, it is hard to say in what He is not worse than man. For all good men would save others if they could."<ref>{{cite book |year=2002 |title=Florence Nightingale's Theology: Essays, Letters and Journal Notes |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |author=Nightingale, Florence |editor=McDonald, Lynn |volume=3 |page=18 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-371-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcNoBNcV0XsC&q=%22nightingale%27s+theology%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015846/https://books.google.com/books?id=VcNoBNcV0XsC&q=%22nightingale%27s+theology%22 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}{{efn|Although not formally a Universalist by church membership, she had come of a Universalist family, was sympathetic to the tenets of the denomination, and has always been claimed by it.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Russell E. |title=The Larger Hope: The first century of the Universalist Church in America 1770–1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYPZAAAAMAAJ |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-93384-000-3 |oclc=16690792 |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Unitarian Universalist Association |page=124 |access-date=22 August 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121054913/https://books.google.com/books?id=FYPZAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} — Regarding the influence of Florence Nightingale on [[Clara Barton]].</ref>}}

Despite her intense personal devotion to Christ, Nightingale believed for much of her life that the pagan and eastern religions had also contained genuine revelation. She was a strong opponent of discrimination both against Christians of different denominations and against those of non-Christian religions. Nightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work and would ensure the nurses in her care attended religious services. However, she was often critical of organised religion. She disliked the role the 19th century Church of England would sometimes play in worsening the oppression of the poor. Nightingale argued that secular hospitals usually provided better care than their religious counterparts. While she held that the ideal health professional should be inspired by a religious as well as professional motive, she said that in practice many religiously motivated health workers were concerned chiefly in securing their own salvation and that this motivation was inferior to the professional desire to deliver the best possible care.<ref name="NightingaleonMysticism" /><ref name="NightingaleonWomen" />

== Legacy ==

=== Nursing ===
[[File:Nightingaleplaque.JPG|thumb|left|[[Blue plaque]] for Nightingale in [[South Street, Mayfair|South Street]], Mayfair, London|alt=Blue plaque for Nightingale in Mayfair]]

Nightingale's lasting contribution has been her role in founding the modern nursing profession.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090 |title=The Nurse's Uniform as Ethopoietic Fashion |journal=Fashion Theory |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=523–552 |year=2017 |last1=Hardy |first1=Susan |last2=Corones |first2=Anthony|s2cid=192947666 }}</ref> She set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses' training programme, her [[Nightingale School for Nurses]], opened in 1860 and is now called the Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery at [[King's College London]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing & Midwifery: About the School: History |url=http://www.kcl.ac.uk/nursing/About-the-Faculty/index.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703222414/https://www.kcl.ac.uk/nursing/About-the-Faculty/index.aspx |archive-date=3 July 2017 |access-date=13 May 2016 |website=www.kcl.ac.uk}}</ref>

{{Quote box
 |quote = She belongs to that select band of historical characters who are instantly recognisable: the Lady with the Lamp, ministering to the wounded and dying.
 |source = – BBC profile of Nightingale<ref name="BBC 2017"/>
 |salign = right
 |width = 30em
 |align = right
}}
In 1912, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] instituted the [[Florence Nightingale Medal]], which is awarded every two years to nurses or nursing aides for outstanding service.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Medals and Badges: Florence Nightingale Medal |url=http://www.redcross.org.uk/About-us/Who-we-are/Museum-and-archives/Collections/Medals-and-badges |work=[[British Red Cross]] |access-date=15 May 2016 |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403013142/http://www.redcross.org.uk/About-us/Who-we-are/Museum-and-archives/Collections/Medals-and-badges |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve and is awarded to nurses or nursing aides for "exceptional courage and devotion to the wounded, sick or disabled or to civilian victims of a conflict or disaster" or "exemplary services or a creative and pioneering spirit in the areas of public health or nursing education".<ref>{{cite web |title=Florence Nightingale Medal |url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/5QMKDB |work=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |access-date=25 June 2010 |year=2003 |archive-date=1 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701103625/http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/5QMKDB |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 1965, [[International Nurses Day]] has been celebrated on her birthday (12&nbsp;May) each year.<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=2016 – Nurses: A Force for Change: Improving health systems' resilience |url=http://www.icn.ch/publications/2016-nurses-a-force-for-change-improving-health-systems-resilience/ |website=www.icn.ch |access-date=14 May 2016 |archive-date=15 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215223738/http://www.icn.ch/publications/2016-nurses-a-force-for-change-improving-health-systems-resilience/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[President of India]] honours nursing professionals with the "National Florence Nightingale Award" every year on International Nurses Day.<ref name="India Award">{{cite news|title=President gives Florence Nightingale Awards to 35 nurses|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/good-governance/centre/President-gives-Florence-Nightingale-Awards-to-35-nurses/articleshow/47259952.cms|newspaper=Times of India|date=13 May 2016|access-date=13 May 2016|archive-date=2 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502122154/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/good-governance/centre/President-gives-Florence-Nightingale-Awards-to-35-nurses/articleshow/47259952.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The award, established in 1973, is given in recognition of meritorious services of nursing professionals characterised by devotion, sincerity, dedication and compassion.<ref name="India Award"/>

The [[Nightingale Pledge]] is a modified version of the [[Hippocratic Oath]] which nurses in the United States recite at their [[Pinning ceremony (nursing)|pinning ceremony]] at the end of training. Created in 1893 and named after Nightingale as the founder of modern nursing, the pledge is a statement of the ethics and principles of the nursing profession.<ref>{{cite book
  | last = Crathern
  | first = Alice Tarbell
  | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IxgEAAAAMAAJ&q=%22missioner+of+health%22+%22human+welfare%22+%22those+committed+to+my+care%22
  | title = In Detroit Courage Was the Fashion: The Contribution of Women to the Development of Detroit from 1701 to 1951
  | publisher = Wayne University Press
  | chapter = For the Sick
  | pages = 80–81
  | year = 1953
  | isbn = 9780598268259
 | access-date = 2 August 2018
| archive-date = 10 March 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015805/https://books.google.com/books?id=IxgEAAAAMAAJ&q=%22missioner+of+health%22+%22human+welfare%22+%22those+committed+to+my+care%22
  | url-status = live
  }}</ref>

[[File:Pledge of Florence Nightingale. Wellcome L0008728.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Nightingale Pledge]]|alt=Nightingale Pledge]]

The Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nightingaledeclaration.net/ |title=Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign |publisher=Nightingaledeclaration.net |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310170356/http://www.nightingaledeclaration.net/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> established by nursing leaders throughout the world through the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH), aims to build a global grassroots movement to achieve two [[United Nations Resolutions]] for adoption by the UN General Assembly of 2008. They will declare: The International Year of the Nurse–2010 (the centenary of Nightingale's death); The UN Decade for a Healthy World – 2011 to 2020 (the bicentenary of Nightingale's birth). NIGH also works to rekindle awareness about the important issues highlighted by Florence Nightingale, such as preventive medicine and holistic health. As of 2016, the Florence Nightingale Declaration has been signed by over 25,000&nbsp;signatories from 106&nbsp;countries.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nightingale Declaration for A Healthy World |url=http://www.nighvision.net/nightingale-declaration.html |publisher=Nigh vision |date=13 May 2016 |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-date=30 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630190225/http://www.nighvision.net/nightingale-declaration.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[Vietnam War]], Nightingale inspired many [[US Army]] nurses, sparking a renewal of interest in her life and work. Her admirers include [[Country Joe McDonald|Country Joe]] of [[Country Joe and the Fish]], who has assembled an extensive website in her honour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/ |title=Country Joe McDonald's tribute to Florence Nightingale |publisher=Countryjoe.com |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=31 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831104318/http://www.countryjoe.com/nightingale/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Agostino Gemelli Medical School<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www3.unicatt.it/pls/unicatt/consultazione.mostra_pagina?id_pagina=9396&id_lingua=4 |title=Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore – The Rome Campus |publisher=.unicatt.it |access-date=13 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909234310/http://www3.unicatt.it/pls/unicatt/consultazione.mostra_pagina?id_pagina=9396&id_lingua=4 |archive-date=9 September 2010}}</ref> in Rome, the first university-based hospital in Italy and one of its most respected medical centres, honoured Nightingale's contribution to the nursing profession by giving the name "Bedside Florence" to a wireless computer system it developed to assist nursing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crudele.it/papers/00269.pdf |title=Cacace, Filippo ''et. al''. "The impact of innovation in medical and nursing training: a Hospital Information System for Students accessible through mobile devices" |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-date=14 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714214006/http://www.crudele.it/papers/00269.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Hospitals ===
Four hospitals in Istanbul are named after Nightingale: Florence Nightingale Hospital in [[Şişli]] (the biggest private hospital in Turkey), Metropolitan Florence Nightingale Hospital in Gayrettepe, European Florence Nightingale Hospital in [[Mecidiyeköy]], and Florence Nightingale Hospital in [[Kadıköy]], all belonging to the Turkish Cardiology Foundation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.groupflorence.com/ |title=Group Florence Nightingale |publisher=Groupflorence.com |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-date=9 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509182257/http://www.groupflorence.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2011, an appeal was made for the former [[Derbyshire Royal Infirmary]] hospital in Derby, England to be named after Nightingale. It was suggested the name could be either Nightingale Community Hospital or Florence Nightingale Community Hospital. The area where the hospital is situated is sometimes referred to as the "Nightingale Quarter".<ref>{{cite news |title=Hospital name campaign will honour Florence |newspaper=Derby Express |date=18 August 2011}}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]], a number of temporary [[NHS Nightingale Hospitals]] were set up in readiness for an expected rise in the number of patients needing critical care. The first was housed in the [[ExCeL London]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gilroy |first1=Rebecca |title=New temporary coronavirus hospital in name of Florence Nightingale revealed |url=https://www.nursingtimes.net/news/coronavirus/new-temporary-coronavirus-hospital-in-name-of-florence-nightingale-revealed-24-03-2020/ |access-date=28 March 2020 |work=Nursing Times |date=24 March 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328142329/https://www.nursingtimes.net/news/coronavirus/new-temporary-coronavirus-hospital-in-name-of-florence-nightingale-revealed-24-03-2020/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and several others followed across England.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.itv.com/news/2020-03-27/birmingham-nec-and-manchester-central-convention-complex-to-be-converted-into-coronavirus-hospitals/ |title=Two more UK facilities to be converted into 'NHS Nightingale' coronavirus hospitals |date=27 March 2020 |work=[[ITV News]] |access-date=11 May 2020 |archive-date=26 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526201921/https://www.itv.com/news/2020-03-27/birmingham-nec-and-manchester-central-convention-complex-to-be-converted-into-coronavirus-hospitals/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Celebrations to mark her bicentenary in 2020, were disrupted by the coronavirus pandemic and Nightingale's contribution to scientific and statistical analysis of infectious disease and nursing practice may have led to the new temporary hospitals being in her name, in Scotland named the [[NHS Louisa Jordan Hospital|NHS Louisa Jordan]] after a nurse who followed in Nightingale's footsteps in battlefield nursing in [[World War One]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Museums and monuments ===
[[File:Florence_Nightingale_monument_London.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Nightingale by [[Arthur George Walker]] in Waterloo Place, London|alt=Statue of Nightingale in Waterloo Place, London]]A statue of Florence Nightingale by the 20th-century war memorialist [[Arthur George Walker]] stands in [[Waterloo Place]], [[Westminster]], London, just off [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]]. There are three statues of Nightingale in Derby – one outside the [[Derbyshire Royal Infirmary]] (DRI), one in St&nbsp;Peter's Street, and one above the Nightingale-Macmillan Continuing Care Unit opposite the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary. A [[public house|pub]] named after her stands close to the DRI.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.derby-guide.co.uk/florence_nightingale.html |title=Florence Nightingale |publisher=Derby Guide |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=27 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527130555/http://www.derby-guide.co.uk/florence_nightingale.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Nightingale-Macmillan continuing care unit is now at the [[Royal Derby Hospital]], formerly known as The City Hospital, Derby.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nightingale Macmillan Continuing Care Unit |url=https://www.derby.org.uk/info/5327/ |access-date=3 February 2022 |website=Derby.org.uk}}</ref>

A [[stained glass window]] was commissioned for inclusion in the DRI chapel in the late 1950s. When the chapel was demolished the window was removed and installed in the replacement chapel. At the closure of the DRI, the window was again removed and stored. In October&nbsp;2010, {{Currency|6000|GBP}} ({{Inflation|UK|6000|2010|r=0|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}) was raised to reposition the window in [[St Peter's Church, Derby]]. The work features nine panels, of the original ten, depicting scenes of hospital life, Derby townscapes, and Nightingale herself. Some of the work was damaged and the tenth panel was dismantled for the glass to be used in the repair of the remaining panels. All the figures, who are said to be modelled on prominent Derby town figures of the early sixties, surround and praise a central pane of the triumphant Christ. A nurse who posed for the top right panel in 1959 attended the rededication service in October 2010.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-derbyshire-11519689 |title= Nurses attend tribute to Florence Nightingale in Derby |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=11 October 2010 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109214335/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-derbyshire-11519689 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Florence Nightingale Museum]] at [[St Thomas' Hospital]] in London reopened in May&nbsp;2010 in time for the centenary of Nightingale's death.<ref name="Express">{{cite news |title=Florence Nightingale: the medical superstar |url=http://www.express.co.uk/expressyourself/170640/Florence-Nightingale-the-medical-superstar |newspaper=Daily Express |date=12 May 2016 |access-date=12 May 2016 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604022839/http://www.express.co.uk/expressyourself/170640/Florence-Nightingale-the-medical-superstar |url-status=live }}</ref> Another museum devoted to her is at her sister's family home, [[Claydon House]], now a property of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]].<ref>{{NHLE |num=1288461|desc=Claydon House |access-date=26 December 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref><ref>{{NHLE |num=1000597 |desc=Claydon |access-date=26 December 2016 |mode=cs2}}</ref>

Upon the centenary of Nightingale's death in 2010, and to commemorate her connection with [[Malvern, Worcestershire|Malvern]], the [[Malvern Museum]] held a Florence Nightingale exhibit<ref name=MalvernMuseum>{{cite web |title=Malvern Museum's Nightingale Exhibit March – October 2010 |url=http://www.malvernmuseum.co.uk/index.php/events2010.html |access-date=16 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619005209/http://www.malvernmuseum.co.uk/index.php/events2010.html |archive-date=19 June 2010 }}</ref> with a school poster competition to promote some events.<ref name=MalvernGazette21June2010>{{cite news |date=21 June 2010 |title=Chase pupil wins poster competition |newspaper=Malvern Gazette |publisher=Newsquest Media Group |url=http://www.malverngazette.co.uk/news/8230148.Chase_pupil_wins_poster_competition/ |access-date=12 July 2010 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720234038/http://www.malverngazette.co.uk/news/8230148.Chase_pupil_wins_poster_competition/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Istanbul, the northernmost tower of the Selimiye Barracks building is now the Florence Nightingale Museum.<ref name=NightingaleMuseumIstanbul>{{cite news |date=15 September 2007 |title=The Florence Nightingale Museum (Istanbul) |newspaper=Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/turkey/738278/The-Florence-Nightingale-Museum.html |access-date=16 July 2010 |archive-date=7 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307062704/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/turkey/738278/The-Florence-Nightingale-Museum.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and in several of its rooms, relics and reproductions related to Florence Nightingale and her nurses are on exhibition.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk/tower.htm |title=Florence Nightingale |publisher=Florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926130023/http://www.florence-nightingale-avenging-angel.co.uk/tower.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

When Nightingale moved on to the Crimea itself in May&nbsp;1855, she often travelled on horseback to make hospital inspections. She later transferred to a mule cart and was reported to have escaped serious injury when the cart was toppled in an accident. Following this, she used a solid Russian-built black carriage, with a waterproof hood and curtains. The carriage was returned to England by Alexis Soyer after the war and subsequently given to the Nightingale training school. The carriage was damaged when the hospital was bombed during the Second World War. It was restored and transferred to Claydon House and is now displayed at the [[Army Medical Services Museum]] in [[Mytchett]], Surrey, near [[Aldershot]].<ref>{{cite news |title=New Welsh home confirmed for military medical museum |url=https://www.military-history.org/museum-profiles/new-welsh-home-confirmed-for-military-medical-museum.htm |access-date=3 January 2022 |website=Military History.org}}</ref>

[[File:Florence Nightingale Statue, London Road, Derby.jpg|thumb|upright|Florence Nightingale Statue, [[London Road (Sheffield)|London Road]], [[Derby]]|alt=Florence Nightingale Statue in Derby]]

A bronze plaque, attached to the plinth of the Crimean Memorial in the [[Haydarpaşa Cemetery]], Istanbul, Turkey and unveiled on [[Empire Day]], 1954, to celebrate the 100th&nbsp;anniversary of her nursing service in that region, bears the inscription: "To Florence Nightingale, whose work near this Cemetery a century ago relieved much human suffering and laid the foundations for the nursing profession."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/cwgc_haidar.pdf |title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Haidar Pasha Cemetery |access-date=13 March 2010 |archive-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807080236/http://www.cwgc.org/admin/files/cwgc_haidar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Other monuments of Nightingale include a statue at [[Chiba University]] in Japan, a bust at [[Tarlac State University]] in the Philippines, and a bust at [[Gun Hill Park]] in Aldershot in the UK. Other nursing schools around the world are named after Nightingale, such as in [[Anápolis]] in Brazil.<ref>[https://guia-goias.escolasecreches.com.br/escolas-e-creches/ESCOLA-DE-ENFERMAGEM-FLORENCE-NIGHTINGALE-anapolis-anapolis-goias-i52020819.htm "ESCOLA DE ENFERMAGEM FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE em Anápolis, Anápolis"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015951/https://guia-goias.escolasecreches.com.br/escolas-e-creches/ESCOLA-DE-ENFERMAGEM-FLORENCE-NIGHTINGALE-anapolis-anapolis-goias-i52020819.htm |date=10 March 2021 }}. escolasecreches.com. Retrieved 17 February 2021</ref>

=== Audio ===
Florence Nightingale's voice was saved for posterity in a [[phonograph]] recording from 1890 preserved in the [[British Library Sound Archive]]. The recording, made in aid of the [[Charge of the Light Brigade|Light Brigade Relief Fund]] and available to hear online, says:

<blockquote>When I am no longer even a memory, just a name, I hope my voice may perpetuate the great work of my life. God bless my dear old comrades of Balaclava and bring them safe to shore. Florence Nightingale.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/tp9njewm |title=Florence Nightingale |publisher=Wellcome Collection |access-date=8 August 2021 }} <br/> {{cite web |url=https://sounds.bl.uk/Accents-and-dialects/Early-spoken-word-recordings/024M-1CD0239287XX-0214V0 |title="In aid of the Light Brigade Relief Fund" |publisher=British Library |access-date=8 August 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808121404/https://sounds.bl.uk/Accents-and-dialects/Early-spoken-word-recordings/024M-1CD0239287XX-0214V0 |url-status=dead }}</ref></blockquote>

=== Theatre ===
The first theatrical representation of Nightingale was [[Reginald Berkeley]]'s ''The Lady with the Lamp'', premiering in London in 1929 with [[Edith Evans]] in the title role. It did not portray her as an entirely sympathetic character and draws much characterisation from [[Lytton Strachey]]'s biography of her in ''[[Eminent Victorians]]''.<ref>Mark Bostridge, ''Florence Nightingale – The Woman and Her Legend''</ref> 

In 2009, a stage musical play representation of Nightingale entitled ''The Voyage of the Lass'' was produced by the Association of Nursing Service Administrators of the [[Philippines]]. In 2019, ''Nightingale'', a stage musical produced by Pamela Gerke and directed by Rachel Rene, was performed in Seattle, Washington.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nightingale, a musical regarding the life and passion of Florence Nightingale |url=https://www.wsna.org/news/2019/nightingale-a-musical-regarding-the-life-and-passion-of-florence-nightingale |access-date=10 February 2025 |publisher=WSNA}}</ref>

=== Film ===
Florence Nightingale first appeared on screen in the silent era. ''[[Victoria Cross|The Victoria Cross]]'' (1912) starred [[Julia Swayne Gordon]] and was a biographical film; and ''[[Florence Nightingale (1915 film)|Florence Nightingale]]'' (1915) featured [[Elisabeth Risdon]]. In 1936, ''[[The White Angel (1936 film)|The White Angel]]'' starred [[Kay Francis]] as Nightingale,  depicting Florence Nightingale's pioneering work in nursing during the Crimean War.

Her appearances in theatre returned to British cinema in ''[[The Lady with a Lamp]]'' (1951), directed by [[Herbert Wilcox]] and starring [[Anna Neagle]], based on a 1929 stage play.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 April 2009 |title=BFI &#124; Film & TV Database &#124; The LADY WITH THE LAMP (1951) |url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/39605 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114002859/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/39605 |archive-date=14 January 2009 |access-date=21 June 2014 |publisher=Ftvdb.bfi.org.uk}}</ref><ref name="BFIsearch">{{Cite web |title=The Lady with a Lamp |url=https://collections-search.bfi.org.uk/web/Details/ChoiceFilmWorks/150032389 |access-date=17 April 2025 |website=British Film Institute Collections Search}}</ref> In 1993, [[Nest Family Entertainment|Nest Entertainment]] released an animated ''Florence Nightingale'' for younger audiences.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rich |first=Richard |title=Florence Nightingale |date=1993-06-01 |work=Animated Hero Classics |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0956136/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |others=Lisa Hart, Anne Delue, Barry Kraft}}</ref>

=== Television ===
Portrayals of Nightingale on television, in documentary as in fiction, vary – the BBC's 2008 ''[[Florence Nightingale (2008 film)|Florence Nightingale]]'', featuring [[Laura Fraser]],<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2008/02_february/27/nightingale.shtml |title=BBC One presents Florence Nightingale |publisher=[[BBC One]] |date=27 February 2008 |access-date=19 October 2018 |archive-date=14 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714234255/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2008/2_february/27/nightingale.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> emphasised her independence and feeling of religious calling, but in Channel&nbsp;4's 2006 ''Mary Seacole: The Real Angel of the Crimea'', she is portrayed as narrow-minded and opposed to [[Mary Seacole]]'s efforts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maryseacole.info/?Challenging_the_Misinformation:Misinformation_in_the_media:Television_and_Film |title=Mary Seacole Information – Television and Film |website=www.maryseacole.info |access-date=19 October 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020053054/http://www.maryseacole.info/?Challenging_the_Misinformation:Misinformation_in_the_media:Television_and_Film |url-status=live }}</ref>

Other various notable productions are: [[Jaclyn Smith]] in the 1985 television biopic ''Florence Nightingale'', [[Emma Thompson]] in an ITV comedy series ''[[Alfresco (TV series)|Alfresco]]'' episode (1983),<ref>{{cite book |title=Victoria, Queen of the Screen: From Silent Cinema to New Media |date=2020 |publisher=McFarland |page=180}}</ref> [[Janet Suzman]] in the 1974 stage-style biographical production ''Miss Nightingale'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Miss Nightingale |url=https://www.simplymedia.tv/smymedia/miss-nightingale/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020011746/https://www.simplymedia.tv/smymedia/miss-nightingale/ |archive-date=20 October 2018 |access-date=19 October 2018 |website=Simply Media |language=en-US}}</ref> Julie Harris in the ''[[Hallmark Hall of Fame]]'' episode “[[List of Hallmark Hall of Fame episodes|The Holy Terror]]” (1965), and [[Sarah Churchill (actress)|Sarah Churchill]] in the episode “Florence Nightingale” (1952).<ref>{{cite news |date=10 February 1952 |title=Tele-Tips – Today |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/long-beach-press-telegram-feb-10-1952-p-28/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020011606/https://newspaperarchive.com/long-beach-press-telegram-feb-10-1952-p-28/ |archive-date=20 October 2018 |access-date=19 October 2018 |work=[[Press-Telegram]] |via=NewspaperArchive.com}}</ref><ref>{{TCMDb title|id=469443|title=The Holy Terror}}</ref>

=== Banknotes and coins ===
[[File:Florence Nightingale coin.jpg|thumb|[[Commemorative coins of the United Kingdom#Two pounds|£2 coin]] issued in 2010 celebrating Nightingale and nursing<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=2012.0003 {{!}} Collections Online |url=https://collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk/object-2012-0003 |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=collections.thackraymuseum.co.uk}}</ref>|alt=2010 £2 coin celebrating Nightingale.]]
Florence Nightingale's image appeared on the reverse of [[banknotes of the pound sterling#Historical figures|£10 banknotes]] issued by the [[Bank of England note issues|Bank of England]] from 1975 until 1994. As well as a standing portrait, she was depicted on the notes in a field hospital, holding her lamp.<ref name="bankofengland">{{cite web |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/index.htm |title=Withdrawn banknotes reference guide |publisher=Bank of England |access-date=17 October 2008 |archive-date=10 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610131654/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/denom_guide/index.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Nightingale's note was in circulation alongside the images of [[Isaac Newton]], [[William Shakespeare]], [[Charles Dickens]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[Sir Christopher Wren]], the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st&nbsp;Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] and [[George Stephenson]], and prior to 2002, other than the female monarchs, she was the only woman whose image had ever adorned British paper currency.<ref name="BBC 2017"/>

The centenary of Nightingale's death in 2010 was commemorated with a [[Commemorative coins of the United Kingdom#Two pounds|£2 coin]] issued by the [[Royal Mint]] showing her taking a patient's pulse.<ref name=":1" />

=== Photographs ===
Nightingale had a principled objection to having photographs taken or her portrait painted. An extremely rare photograph of her, in May&nbsp;1858 by William Slater, was discovered in 2006 and is now at the [[Florence Nightingale Museum]] in London.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=L. A. Times |date=2006-08-08 |title=Florence Nightingale in rare photo |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-aug-08-et-quick8.2-story.html |access-date=2025-09-30 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> The photo shows her reading outside her family home in Embley Park, Hampshire.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-08-06 |title=New photo of 'Lady of the Lamp' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5250188.stm |access-date=2025-09-30 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

A black-and-white photograph taken in about 1907 by [[Lizzie Caswall Smith]] at Nightingale's London home in South Street, Mayfair, was auctioned on 19 November 2008 by Dreweatts auction house in [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]], Berkshire, England, for {{Currency|5500|GBP}} ({{Inflation|UK|5500|2008|r=0|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}), which is the last currently-known photo of her.<ref name="photograph">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/7737130.stm |title=Rare Nightingale photo sold off |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=19 November 2008 |date=19 November 2008 |archive-date=27 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527072610/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7737130.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The picture shows her in Claydon House, Buckinghamshire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Florence Nightingale - National Portrait Gallery |url=https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw150696/Florence-Nightingale |access-date=2025-09-30 |website=www.npg.org.uk |language=en}}</ref>

=== Biographies ===
The first biography of Nightingale was published in England in 1855. In 1911, [[Edward Tyas Cook]] was authorised by Nightingale's executors to write the official life, published in two volumes in 1913. Nightingale was also the subject of one of Lytton Strachey's four mercilessly provocative biographical essays, ''Eminent Victorians''. Strachey regarded Nightingale as an intense, driven woman who was both personally intolerable and admirable in her achievements.<ref>Florence Nightingale, Monica E. Baly and H. C. G. Matthew, ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', 2015.</ref>

[[Cecil Woodham-Smith]], like Strachey, relied heavily on Cook's ''Life'' in her 1950 biography, though she did have access to new family material preserved at Claydon. In 2008, Mark Bostridge published a major new life of Nightingale, almost exclusively based on unpublished material from the Verney Collections at Claydon and from archival documents from about 200 archives around the world, some of which had been published by Lynn McDonald in her sixteen-volume edition of the ''Collected Works of Florence Nightingale'' (2001—2012).<ref name="BBC 2017"/>

=== Other ===
In 2002, Nightingale was ranked number&nbsp;52 in the BBC's list of the [[100 Greatest Britons]] following a UK-wide vote. In 2006, the Japanese public ranked Nightingale number 17 in [[The Top 100 Historical Persons in Japan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ejje.weblio.jp/content/The+Top+100+Historical+Persons+in+Japan |title=The Top 100&nbsp;Historical Persons in Japan |publisher=Ejje.weblio.jp |access-date=28 March 2017 |archive-date=23 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223112811/http://ejje.weblio.jp/content/The+Top+100+Historical+Persons+in+Japan |url-status=live }}</ref>

Several churches in the [[Anglican Communion]] commemorate Nightingale with a feast day on their [[liturgical calendar]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Church |first=The Episcopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xb5UzwEACAAJ |title=Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2022 |date=24 January 2023 |publisher=Church Publishing, Incorporated |isbn=978-1-64065-627-7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] commemorates her as a [[Renewer of Society]] with [[Clara Maass]] on 13&nbsp;August.<ref>Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Evangelical Lutheran Worship – Final Draft. Augsburg Fortress Press, 2006</ref> [[Florence Li Tim-Oi]], the first woman ordained priest in the Anglican Communion, in 1944, took Florence as her baptismal name after Florence Nightingale.<ref name="Koturbash">{{cite web |last1=Koturbash |first1=Therese |title=Rev. Florence Li Tim-Oi – First Woman Ordained in Anglican Communion 25 January 1944 |url=https://womensordinationcampaign.org/blog-working-for-womens-equality-and-ordination-in-the-catholic-church/2020/1/25/rev-florence-li-tim-oi-first-woman-ordained-in-anglican-communion |website=Women's Ordination Worldwide |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2024}}</ref>

[[Washington National Cathedral]] celebrates Nightingale's accomplishments with a double-lancet stained glass window featuring six scenes from her life, designed by artist Joseph G. Reynolds and installed in 1983.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Brien |first1=Mary Elizabeth |title=Servant Leadership in Nursing: Spirituality and Practice in Contemporary Health Care |date=25 October 2010 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers |page=333}}</ref>

The [[United States Navy|US Navy]] ship the {{USS|Florence Nightingale|AP-70}} was commissioned in 1942. Beginning in 1968, the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] operated a fleet of 20&nbsp;[[McDonnell Douglas C-9|C-9A "Nightingale"]] [[Medical evacuation|aeromedical evacuation]] aircraft, based on the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9]] platform.<ref>[http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/c-9ac-nightingale/ Air Mobility Command Museum: "C-9 Nightingale"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150516034848/http://amcmuseum.org/at-the-museum/aircraft/c-9ac-nightingale/ |date=16 May 2015 }}.</ref> The last of these planes was retired from service in 2005.<ref>"Historic C-9 heads to Andrews for retirement"</ref>

In 1981, the asteroid [[3122 Florence]] was named after her.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (3122) Florence |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz D. |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |page=258 |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-540-00238-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_3123 |chapter=(3122) Florence}}</ref> A Dutch [[KLM]] [[McDonnell-Douglas MD-11]] (registration PH-KCD) was also named in her honour; it served the airline for 20 years, from 1994 to 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airliners.net/photo/KLM---Royal/McDonnell-Douglas-MD-11/1776495/&sid=00ecc2bcf5f2173ce2823ac6b2941168 |title=Photos: McDonnell Douglas MD-11 Aircraft Pictures |publisher=Airliners.net |date=14 August 2010 |access-date=17 May 2012 |archive-date=29 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192044/http://www.airliners.net/photo/KLM---Royal/McDonnell-Douglas-MD-11/1776495/%26sid%3D00ecc2bcf5f2173ce2823ac6b2941168 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nightingale has appeared on international postage stamps, including, the UK, [[List of postage stamps of Alderney|Alderney]], Australia, Belgium, Dominica, Hungary (showing the Florence Nightingale medal awarded by the International Red Cross), and Germany.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |date=14 August 2019 |title=Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-35241 |access-date=27 May 2025 |publisher=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]}}</ref>

Florence Nightingale is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Commemoration (observance)|commemoration]] on 13 August.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=8 April 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref> Celebrations to mark her bicentenary in 2020, were disrupted by the [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]], but the [[COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom|NHS Nightingale]] hospitals were named after her.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=McEnroe|first=Natasha|date=9 May 2020|title=Celebrating Florence Nightingale's bicentenary|url= |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=395|issue=10235 |pages=1475–1478|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30992-2 |issn=0140-6736|pmid=32386583|pmc=7252134|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nightingale Road ({{zh|t=南丁格爾路}}) in [[Hong Kong]], between the [[Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong|Queen Elizabeth Hospital]] and the nursing school, was officially named by the [[Lands Department]] after Florence Nightingale in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www3.ha.org.hk/ehaslink/issue115/en/feature-4.html |title=Secrets about nursing school. History of Nightingale Road |last= |first= |date=July 2012 |website= |publisher=[[Hospital Authority]] |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

== Works ==
*{{cite book |title=Cassandra |publisher=The Feminist Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTOeD4P2DQcC&q=Cassandra+Nightingale |isbn=978-0-912670-55-3 |access-date=6 July 2010 |author1=Nightingale, Florence |year=1979 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310020015/https://books.google.com/books?id=lTOeD4P2DQcC&q=Cassandra+Nightingale |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite journal |title=Notes on Nursing: What Nursing Is, What Nursing is Not |quote=First published London, 1859 |via=[[Internet Archive]] |publisher=Harrison & Sons |pages=9 |journal=Philadelphia, London, Montreal: J.B. Lippincott Co. 1946 Reprint |url=https://archive.org/stream/notesnursingwhat00nigh#page/n5/mode/2up |url-access= |access-date=6 July 2010}}
*{{cite book |year=2001 |title=Florence Nightingale's Spiritual Journey: Biblical Annotations, Sermons and Journal Notes |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |editor=McDonald, Lynn |volume=2 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-366-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4sSIQ7HTUv4C&q=Florence+Nightingale%27s+Spiritual+Journey |access-date=6 July 2010 |author1=Nightingale, Florence |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015947/https://books.google.com/books?id=4sSIQ7HTUv4C&q=Florence+Nightingale%27s+Spiritual+Journey |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]] }}
*{{cite book |year=2002 |title=Florence Nightingale's Theology: Essays, Letters and Journal Notes |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |author=Nightingale |first=Florence |editor=McDonald, Lynn |volume=3 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-371-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcNoBNcV0XsC&q=%22nightingale%27s+theology%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015846/https://books.google.com/books?id=VcNoBNcV0XsC&q=%22nightingale%27s+theology%22 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]] }}
*{{cite book |year=2003 |title=Mysticism and Eastern Religions |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |editor=Vallee, Gerard |volume=4 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-413-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx2kl3UW7qYC&q=%22Mysticism+and+Eastern+Religions%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |author=Nightingale, Florence |archive-date=10 March 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015624/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx2kl3UW7qYC&q=%22Mysticism+and+Eastern+Religions%22 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |year=2008 |title=''Suggestions for Thought'' |series=Collected Works of Florence Nightingale |editor=McDonald, Lynn |volume=11 |place=Ontario, Canada |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-465-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mle5Sjixa0cC&q=McDonald++%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |access-date=6 July 2010 |author1=Nightingale, Florence |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310015555/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mle5Sjixa0cC&q=McDonald++%22suggestions+for+thought%22 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}
*{{cite book |year=1861 |title=Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |url=https://archive.org/stream/notesonnursingf00nighgoog#page/n9/mode/1up |place= |publisher=Harrison |access-date=6 July 2010 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Carlyle |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Carlyle |year=1870 |title=Fraser's Magazine |place=London |url=https://www.forgottenbooks.com/en/books/FrasersMagazine1870_10130801 |url-access=limited |access-date=28 July 2025 |bibcode= |publisher=Forgotten Books |pages= |doi= |isbn=978-0-243-06859-3 |s2cid=}}
*{{cite journal |year=1871 |title=Introductory Notes on Lying-In Institutions <!-- (this is a subtitle for a book of the same name. These two citations may need to be split into two.) |work=together with A Proposal for Organising an Institution for Training Midwives and Midwifery Nurses --> |place=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/introductorynot00nighgoog#page/n6/mode/2up |access-date=6 July 2010 |via=[[Internet Archive]] |bibcode=1871Natur...5...22. |volume=5 |pages=22–23 |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/005022a0 |issue=106 |s2cid=3985727}}
*{{cite book |year=1871 |title=Una and the Lion |place=Cambridge |publisher=Riverside Press |url=https://archive.org/stream/unaandlion00nighgoog#page/n3/mode/2up |access-date=6 July 2010 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
*{{cite book |title=Una and Her Paupers, Memorials of Agnes Elizabeth Jones, by her sister |others=with an introduction by Florence Nightingale |place=New York |publisher=George Routledge and Sons |url=https://archive.org/stream/unaherpaupersmem00jone#page/n11/mode/2up |access-date=6 July 2010 |via=[[Internet Archive]] |year=1872}} {{Efn|See also 2005 publication by Diggory Press, {{ISBN|978-1-905363-22-3}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |title=Letters from Egypt: A Journey on the Nile 1849–1850 |year=1987 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |isbn=1-55584-204-6 |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]] |url=https://archive.org/details/lettersfromegypt0000nigh}}
* {{cite book |last=Nightingale |first=Florence |title=Workhouse nursing |year=1867 |publisher=Macmillan and Co. |location=London |title-link=s:Workhouse nursing}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Mathematics}}
{{col div}}
* [[Crimean War Memorial]]
* [[Dasha from Sevastopol]]
* [[Florence Nightingale effect]]
* [[History of feminism]]
* [[Licensed practical nurse]]
* [[List of suffragists and suffragettes]]
* [[Nightingale's environmental theory]]
* [[Nursing process]]
* [[Cicely Saunders]]
* [[Timeline of women in science]]
* [[Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom]]
{{colend}}

== Explanatory footnotes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|25em}}

== General and cited references ==
=== Primary sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Goldie, Sue, [https://wellcomecollection.org/works/yp69tab7 ''A Calendar of the Letters of Florence Nightingale''], Oxford: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1983.
* McDonald, Lynn, ed., [https://www.wlupress.wlu.ca/Series/C/Collected-Works-of-Florence-Nightingale ''Collected Works of Florence Nightingale'']. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 16 volumes.
{{refend}}

=== Secondary sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Monica Baly|Baly, Monica E.]], and Matthew, H.C.G., [https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-35241?rskey=hTpcCZ&result=2 "Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910)"], ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., January 2011.
* [[Mark Bostridge|Bostridge, Mark (2008)]], ''Florence Nightingale: The Woman and Her Legend''. Viking (2008), Penguin (2009). US title ''Florence Nightingale: The Making of an Icon''. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2008).
* [[Vern Bullough|Bullough, Vern L.]]; [[Bonnie Bullough|Bullough, Bonnie]]; and Stanton, Marieta P., ''Florence Nightingale and Her Era: A Collection of New Scholarship'', New York, Garland, 1990.
* [[Edward Chaney|Chaney, Edward]] (2006), "Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Revolution," in ''Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines'', eds. Ascari, Maurizio, and Corrado, Adriana. Rodopi BV, Amsterdam and New York, 39–74.
* [[Zachary Cope|Cope, Zachary]], ''Florence Nightingale and the Doctors'', London: [[Museum Press]], 1958; Philadelphia: [[J. B. Lippincott & Co.]], 1958.
* {{cite book |last= Davey |first= Cyril J. |title= Lady with a Lamp |year= 1958 | publisher= Lutterworth Press |isbn= 978-0-7188-2641-3 }}
* [[Gillian Gill|Gill, Gillian]] (2004). ''Nightingales: The Extraordinary Upbringing and Curious Life of Miss Florence Nightingale''. Ballantine Books. {{ISBN|978-0-345-45187-3}}
* Magnello, M. Eileen. "Victorian statistical graphics and the iconography of Florence Nightingale's polar area graph," ''BSHM Bulletin: Journal of the British Society for the History of Mathematics'' (2012) 27#1 pp 13–37
* Nelson, Sioban, and [[Anne Marie Rafferty|Rafferty, Anne Marie]], eds. ''Notes on Nightingale: The Influence and Legacy of a Nursing Icon'' (Cornell University Press; 2010) 184 pages. Essays on Nightingale's work in the Crimea and Britain's colonies, her links to the evolving science of statistics, and debates over her legacy and historical reputation and persona.
* [[James Parton|Parton, James]] (1868). "Florence Nightingale," in ''Eminent Women of the Age; Being Narratives of the Lives and Deeds of the Most Prominent Women of the Present Generation'', Hartford, Conn.: S. M. Betts & Company.
* [[Martin Pugh (author)|Pugh, Martin]], ''The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866–1914'', Oxford (2000), at 55.
* [[Joan Rees|Rees, Joan]]. ''Women on the Nile: Writings of [[Harriet Martineau]], Florence Nightingale, and [[Amelia Edwards]]''. London: Rubicon Press (1995, 2008).
* {{cite news
|author=Rehmeyer, Julia
|title=Florence Nightingale: The Passionate Statistician
|date=26 November 2008
|work=[[Science News]]
|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/index/generic/activity/view/id/38937/title/Florence_Nightingale_The_passionate_statistician
|access-date=4 December 2008
|archive-date=2 February 2009
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202124931/http://www.sciencenews.org/index/generic/activity/view/id/38937/title/Florence_Nightingale_The_passionate_statistician
|url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book |last= Richards |first= Linda |author-link= Linda Richards |year= 2006 |title= America's First Trained Nurse: My Life as a Nurse in America, Great Britain and Japan 1872–1911 | publisher= Diggory Press |isbn= 978-1-84685-068-4 }}
* Sokoloff, Nancy Boyd, ''Three Victorian Women Who Changed their World: Josephine Butler, Octavia Hill, Florence Nightingale'', London: MacMillan (1982).
* {{cite book |last= Strachey |first= Lytton |author-link= Lytton Strachey |title= Eminent Victorians |year= 1918 |isbn= 978-0-8486-4604-2 |publisher= Garden City Pub. Co. |location= Garden City, N.Y. |title-link= Eminent Victorians }} Available online at [http://www.bartleby.com/189/201.html Florence Nightingale: Part I. Strachey, Lytton. 1918. Eminent Victorians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130110503/http://bartleby.com/189/201.html |date=30 January 2009 }}.
* Webb, Val, ''The Making of a Radical Theologician'', Chalice Press (2002).
* [[Cecil Woodham-Smith|Woodham-Smith, Cecil]], ''Florence Nightingale'', Penguin (1951), rev. 1955.
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|viaf=54172695}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Andrews |editor-first=R. J. |year=2022 |title=Florence Nightingale: Mortality and Health Diagrams |location=San Francisco |publisher=Visionary Press |isbn=979-8986194516 |oclc=1353186725}}
{{Clear|right}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|n=no|v=no|s=Author:Florence Nightingale}}
* {{Gutenberg author |no=4370}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Florence Nightingale}}
** [//archive.org/details/f_nightingale UCLA Elmer Belt Florence Nightingale Collection], hosted at [[Internet Archive]]
* {{Librivox author |id=847}}
* [http://sounds.bl.uk/Accents-and-dialects/Early-spoken-word-recordings/024M-1CD0239287XX-0214V0 1890 audio recording of Florence Nightingale speaking]
* [http://www.victorians.co.uk/florence-nightingale Victorians.co.uk: Florence Nightingale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401144836/https://www.victorians.co.uk/florence-nightingale |date=1 April 2023 }}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/189/201.html Eminent Victorians: Florence Nightingale] by Lytton Strachey
* {{cite news
|title=New photo of 'Lady of the Lamp'
|date=6 August 2006
|publisher=[[BBC News]]
|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/5250188.stm
|access-date=7 August 2008}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061213074121/http://www.sociology.uoguelph.ca/fnightingale/ University of Guelph: Collected Works of Florence Nightingale project]
* {{UK National Archives ID}}
* [http://www.florence-nightingale-foundation.org.uk/ Florence Nightingale Foundation]
*[http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/223260 Florence Nightingale Correspondence from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society]
* [http://digitalcollections.library.ubc.ca/cdm/landingpage/collection/florence Florence Nightingale Letters Collection] – A collection of letters written by and to Florence Nightingale from the UBC Library Digital Collections
* [http://collections.carli.illinois.edu/cdm4/index_uic_fnlc.php?CISOROOT=/uic_fnlc Florence Nightingale Letters Collection] – correspondence in the University of Illinois at Chicago digital collections
*[http://digital.library.wayne.edu/digitalcollections/item?id=wayne:collectionNightingale Florence Nightingale Collection] at [[Wayne State University]] Library consists primarily of letters written by Florence Nightingale throughout her life.  Major topics of the letters include medical care for the soldiers and the poor, the role of nursing, and sanitation and public works in colonized India.
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070326175201/http://www.nightingaledeclaration.net/ Florence Nightingale Declaration Campaign for Global Health]}} established by the Nightingale Initiative for Global Health (NIGH)
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Nightingale}}
* [https://archive.today/20130423203458/http://www.stpetersderby.org.uk/Heritage.html Florence Nightingale Window at St&nbsp;Peter's, Derby]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140316195943/http://archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb0120-mss.5471-5484,6930and8991-9109 Papers of Florence Nightingale, 1820–1910]
* [http://www.southernstar.ie/News/The-feisty-nun-who-took-on-Florence-Nightingale-24102014.htm Southern Star article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118204257/https://www.southernstar.ie/News/The-feisty-nun-who-took-on-Florence-Nightingale-24102014.htm |date=18 November 2018 }}
* [http://babesofscience.com/episodes/2016/1/18/episode-6-florence-nightingale?rq=Episode%206 Episode 6: Florence Nightingale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401144832/http://babesofscience.com/episodes/2016/1/18/episode-6-florence-nightingale?rq=Episode%206 |date=1 April 2023 }} from [http://babesofscience.com/ Babes of Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329174957/http://babesofscience.com/ |date=29 March 2019 }} podcasts
* [http://twudigital.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/landingpage/collection/p16283coll41 Texas Woman's University Special Collections] has a large collection of Florence Nightingale artefacts, letters, and primary sources.

{{Nursing in the United Kingdom}}
{{British nursing matrons in the 19th century}}
{{Visualization}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nightingale, Florence}}
[[Category:Florence Nightingale| ]]
[[Category:1820 births]]
[[Category:1910 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Christian universalists]]
[[Category:19th-century British letter writers]]
[[Category:19th-century English non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:19th-century English women writers]]
[[Category:19th-century nurses]]
[[Category:19th-century English Christian theologians]]
[[Category:20th-century English Christian theologians]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:British people of the Crimean War]]
[[Category:English reformers]]
[[Category:British statisticians]]
[[Category:English women activists]]
[[Category:Dames of Grace of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:English Christian universalists]]
[[Category:English statisticians]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Statistical Society]]
[[Category:Female wartime nurses]]
[[Category:History of the London Borough of Lambeth]]
[[Category:Ladies of Grace of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Red Cross]]
[[Category:Nightingale family|Florence]]
[[Category:Nurses from London]]
[[Category:Nursing education]]
[[Category:Nursing in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Nursing researchers]]
[[Category:Nursing theorists]]
[[Category:People associated with King's College London]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:People from Dethick, Lea and Holloway]]
[[Category:People from Florence]]
[[Category:People from Test Valley]]
[[Category:People with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]]
[[Category:British women statisticians]]