View source for Flapping

{{Short description|Phonetic change of -t- and -d- between vowels in some English dialects}}
{{other uses|Flap (disambiguation)}}
{{English phonology topics}}
{{IPA notice}}
'''Flapping''' or '''tapping''', also known as '''alveolar flapping''', '''intervocalic flapping''', or '''''t''-voicing''', is a [[phonological]] process involving a [[voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|voiced alveolar tap or flap]]; it is found in many varieties of [[English language|English]], especially [[North American English|North American]], [[Cardiff English|Cardiff]], [[Ulster English|Ulster]], [[Australian English|Australian]] and [[New Zealand English]], where the [[voiceless]] [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] [[stop consonant]] [[phoneme]] {{IPAslink|t}} is pronounced as a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] alveolar [[flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}, a sound produced by briefly tapping the [[alveolar ridge]] with the tongue, when placed between [[vowel]]s. In London English, the flapped {{IPAblink|ɾ}} is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the affricate {{IPAblink|ts|tsʰ}}, with higher class associations, and the glottal stop {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, with lower class associations.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=325}} In these named varieties, outside of Britain, {{IPA|/d/}}, the voiced counterpart of {{IPA|/t/}}, is also frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like ''latter'' and ''ladder'' sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination {{IPA|/nt/}} may be pronounced as a [[nasalization|nasalized]] flap {{IPAblink|ɾ̃}}, making ''winter'' sound similar or identical to ''winner''.

Flapping of {{IPA|/t/}} is sometimes perceived as the replacement of {{IPA|/t/}} with {{IPA|/d/}}; for example, the word ''butter'' pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".<ref>E.g. in {{harvcoltxt|Fox|2011|p=158}}.</ref>

In other dialects of English, such as [[South African English]], [[Scottish English]], some [[Northern England English]] (like [[Scouse]]), and older varieties of [[Received Pronunciation]], the flap is a variant of {{IPA|/r/}} (see [[Pronunciation of English /r/|Pronunciation of English {{IPA|/r/|cat=no}}]]).{{sfnp|Ogden|2009|p=92}}

==Terminology and articulation==
The terms [[flap consonant|''flap'' and ''tap'']] are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Johnson|2011|pp=175–176}} Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called ''flapping'' or ''tapping'',{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=249}} while ''flapping'' has traditionally been more widely used.{{sfnp|de Jong|1998|p=284}}{{sfnp|Shockey|2003|p=29}} {{harvcoltxt|Derrick|Gick|2011}} identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in ''autumn'', ''Berta'', ''otter'', and ''murder'', respectively).{{sfnp|Derrick|Gick|2011|pp=309–312}}

In [[Cockney]], another voiced variant of {{IPA|/t/}} that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common [[glottal stop]]) is a simple [[voiced alveolar stop]] {{IPAblink|d}}, which occurs especially in the words ''little'' {{IPA|[ˈlɪdʊ]}}, ''hospital'' {{IPA|[ˈɒspɪdʊ]}} and ''whatever'' {{IPA|[wɒˈdɛvə]}}. That too results in a (variable) merger with {{IPA|/d/}}, whereas the tap does not.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=326}}

In [[Cardiff English]], the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to {{IPA|/d/}}. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of ''hospital'' as {{IPA|[ˈɑspɪɾl̩]}} or {{IPA|[ˈɑspɪɾʊ]}} is quite similar to Cockney {{IPA|[ˈɒspɪdʊ]}}, though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with {{IPAblink|d}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1990|pp=91–92}}

==Distribution==
{{Listen
| type = speech
| header = '''Examples of flapping in American English'''
| filename = En-Betty Botter.ogg
| title = "Betty Botter" tongue twister
| description = A recitation of the tongue twister "[[Betty Botter]]" with flapping
| filename2 = En-us-latter-ladder-flapped-unflapped.oga
| title2 = Pronunciation of ''latter'' and ''ladder'' with and without flapping
| description2 = {{IPA|[ˈlætɚ ˈlædɚ ˈlæɾɚ]}}
| filename3 = En-us-winter-winner-flapped-unflapped.oga
| title3 = Pronunciation of ''winter'' and ''winner'' with and without flapping
| description3 = {{IPA|[ˈwɪntɚ ˈwɪnɚ ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ]}}
| filename4 = En-us-seventy-voiceless-voiced-flapped.oga
| title4 = Pronunciation of ''seventy'' with and without ''t''-voicing, and with flapping
| description4 = {{IPA|[ˈsɛvn̩ti ˈsɛvn̩di ˈsɛvɨɾ̃i]}}
}}

Flapping of {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} is a prominent feature of [[North American English]]. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap {{IPA|/t/}} between a [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] and an unstressed vowel.{{sfnp|Shockey|2003|p=29}}{{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|p=191}} Flapping of {{IPA|/t/}} also occurs in [[Australian English|Australian]], [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]] and (especially [[Ulster English|Northern]]) [[Hiberno-English|Irish English]], and more infrequently or variably in [[South African English]], [[Cockney]], and [[Received Pronunciation]].{{sfnp|Shockey|2003|p=30}}{{sfnp|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|pp=24, 30, 35, 104}}{{sfnp|Hickey|2007|p=115}}

The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/d/}}, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in ''butter'', ''writing'', ''wedding'', ''loader'').{{sfnp|de Jong|1998|p=284}}{{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|pp=191–192}} Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in ''get over'' {{IPA|[ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]}}).{{sfnp|de Jong|1998|p=284}}{{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|pp=191–192}} This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in ''whatever'' {{IPA|[ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]}}).{{sfnp|Hualde|2011|p=2230}} In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include {{IPA|/r/}} (as in ''party''){{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|p=191}}{{sfnp|Hayes|2009|p=143}} and occasionally {{IPA|/l/}} (as in ''faulty'').{{sfnp|Boberg|2015|p=236}}{{sfnp|Jones|2011|p=xi}} Flapping after {{IPA|/l/}} is more common in Canadian English than in American English.{{sfnp|Brinton|Fee|2001|p=428}} [[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] {{IPA|/l/}} may also follow the flap (as in ''bottle'').{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=248}} Flapping of {{IPA|/t/}} before {{IPA|/ən/}} (as in ''button'') is observed in Australian English.{{sfnp|Tollfree|2001|pp=57–58}} In North American English, {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPAblink|ʔ}} ([[t-glottalization|''t''-glottalization]]) were the only realizations of {{IPA|/t/}} before {{IPA|/ən/}},{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=251}} but studies in the 2020s have found {{IPA|[ɾ]}} in younger US speakers.{{sfnp|Repetti-Ludlow|Blake|2024}}

[[Morpheme]]-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a [[Vowel reduction in English|reduced]] one (namely {{IPA|/ə/}}, morpheme-final or prevocalic {{IPA|/i, oʊ/}}, or {{IPA|/ɪ/}} preceding {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, etc.{{efn|Since North American English normally lacks the distinction between {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} in unstressed positions, there is variability among linguists and dictionaries in the treatment of unstressed vowels pronounced as {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in other varieties of English that have the distinction. They are usually identified as {{IPA|/ɪ/}} before [[Palato-alveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] and [[Velar consonant|velar]] consonants ({{IPA|/ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ/}}) and in prefixes such as ''re-, e-, de-'', and as {{IPA|/ə/}} elsewhere.{{sfnp|Wells|2000|p=xv}}}}),{{sfnp|Hayes|1995|pp=14–15}}{{sfnp|Wells|2011}} so words like ''botox'', ''retail'', and ''latex'' are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,{{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|p=191}} while ''pity'', ''motto'', and ''Keating'' can be.{{sfnp|Hayes|1995|pp=14–15}} The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having [[secondary stress]].{{sfnp|de Jong|1998|p=284}}

Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in [[foot (prosody)|foot]]-initial positions. This prevents words such as ''militaristic'', ''spirantization'', and ''Mediterranean'' from flapping, despite ''capitalistic'' and ''alphabetization'', for example, being flapped. This is known as the [[#Withgott effect|Withgott effect]].{{sfnp|Vaux|2000|p=5}}{{sfnp|Bérces|2011|pp=84–89}}

In North American English, the cluster {{IPA|/nt/}} (but not {{IPA|/nd/}}) in the same environment as flapped {{IPA|/t/}} may be realized as a [[Alveolar nasal flap|nasal flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}. Intervocalic {{IPA|/n/}} is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like ''winter'' and ''winner'' can become homophonous.{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Johnson|2011|pp=74–75}} According to {{harvcoltxt|Wells|1982}}, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce ''winter'' and ''winner'' identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing ''winter'' with {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}} or {{IPA|[nt]}} and ''winner'' with {{IPA|[n]}}.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=252}}

Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a [[phonological rule]] that accurately predicts flapping.{{sfnp|Shockey|2003|p=29}} Nevertheless, {{harvcoltxt|Vaux|2000}} postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:
<blockquote>
*after a [[sonorant]] other than {{IPA|l}}, {{IPA|m}}, or {{IPA|ŋ}}, but with restrictions on {{IPA|n}};
*before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;
*when not in foot-initial position.{{sfnp|Vaux|2000|pp=4–5}}
</blockquote>

Exceptions include the preposition/particle ''to'' and words derived from it, such as ''today'', ''tonight'', ''tomorrow'', and ''together'', wherein {{IPA|/t/}} may be flapped when intervocalic (as in ''go to sleep'' {{IPA|[ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]}}).{{sfnp|Goldsmith|2011|p=192}} In Australian English, numerals ''thirteen'', ''fourteen'', and ''eighteen'' are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.{{sfnp|Horvath|2004|p=635}}{{sfnp|Vaux|2000|p=7}} In a handful of words such as ''seventy'', ''ninety'', and ''carpenter'', {{IPA|/nt/}} is frequently pronounced as {{IPA|[nd]}}, retaining {{IPA|/n/}} and [[Consonant voicing|voicing]] {{IPA|/t/}}, although it may still become {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}} in rapid speech.{{sfnp|Vaux|2000|pp=6–7}}{{sfnp|Iverson|Ahn|2007|pp=262–263}}

==Homophony==
Flapping is a specific type of [[lenition]], specifically [[Intervocalic consonant|intervocalic]] weakening. It leads to the [[neutralization (linguistics)|neutralization]] of the distinction between {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} in appropriate environments, a partial [[merger (phonology)|merger]] of the two phonemes, provided that both {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are flapped.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=249}}{{sfnp|Hayes|2009|p=144}} Some speakers, however, flap only {{IPA|/t/}} but not {{IPA|/d/}}. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where {{IPA|/t/}} is occasionally voiced to {{IPAblink|d}}, yielding a variable merger of ''little'' and [[Lidl]].{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=250, 326}} For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap" | Homophonous pairs
!{{IPA|/-t-, -nt-/}}
!{{IPA|/-d-, -n-/}}
!IPA
!Notes
|-
|aborting ||aboarding ||{{IPA|əˈbɔɹɾɪŋ}} 
|-
|alighted ||elided ||{{IPA|əˈlaɪɾəd}} ||With [[weak vowel merger]].
|-
|ante ||Annie ||{{IPA|ˈæɾ̃i}}
|-
|anti- ||Annie ||{{IPA|ˈæɾ̃i}}
|-
|at 'em ||Adam ||{{IPA|ˈæɾəm}}
|-
|at 'em ||add 'em ||{{IPA|ˈæɾəm}}
|-
|atom ||Adam ||{{IPA|ˈæɾəm}}
|-
|atom ||add 'em ||{{IPA|ˈæɾəm}}
|-
|auntie ||Annie ||{{IPA|ˈæɾ̃i}}
|-
|banter ||banner ||{{IPA|ˈbæɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|batter ||badder ||{{IPA|ˈbæɾəɹ}}
|-
|batty ||baddie ||{{IPA|ˈbæɾi}}
|-
|beating ||beading ||{{IPA|ˈbiːɾɪŋ}}
|-
|Bertie ||birdie ||{{IPA|ˈbəɹɾi}} ||With [[fern-fir-fur merger]].
|-
|Bertie ||Birdy; Birdie ||{{IPA|ˈbəɹɾi}} ||With [[fern-fir-fur merger]].
|-
|betting ||bedding ||{{IPA|ˈbɛɾɪŋ}}
|-
|biting ||biding ||{{IPA|ˈbaɪɾɪŋ}}
|-
|bitter ||bidder ||{{IPA|ˈbɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|bitting ||bidding ||{{IPA|ˈbɪɾɪŋ}}
|-
|bitty ||biddy ||{{IPA|ˈbɪɾi}}
|-
|blatter ||bladder ||{{IPA|ˈblæɾəɹ}}
|-
|bleating ||bleeding ||{{IPA|ˈbliːɾɪŋ}}
|-
|boating ||boding ||{{IPA|ˈboʊɾɪŋ}}
|-
|bruter ||brooder ||{{IPA|ˈbɹuːɾəɹ}} || With [[yod-dropping]] after {{IPA|/ɹ/}}.
|-
|butting ||budding ||{{IPA|ˈbʌɾɪŋ}}
|-
|butty ||buddy ||{{IPA|ˈbʌɾi}}
|-
|canter ||canner ||{{IPA|ˈkæɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|canton ||cannon ||{{IPA|ˈkæɾ̃ən}}
|-
|canton ||canon ||{{IPA|ˈkæɾ̃ən}}
|-
|carting ||carding ||{{IPA|ˈkɑɹɾɪŋ}} 
|-
|catty ||caddy ||{{IPA|ˈkæɾi}}
|-
|centre; center ||sinner ||{{IPA|ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ}} ||With [[pen–pin merger]].
|-
|chanting ||[[Channing (name)|Channing]] ||{{IPA|ˈt͡ʃæɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|cited ||sided ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪɾɨd}}
|-
|citer ||cider ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|clotting ||clodding ||{{IPA|ˈklɒɾɪŋ}}
|-
|coating ||coding ||{{IPA|ˈkoʊɾɪŋ}}
|-
|courting ||chording ||{{IPA|ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ}} 
|-
|courting ||cording ||{{IPA|ˈkɔɹɾɪŋ}} 
|-
|cuttle ||cuddle ||{{IPA|ˈkʌɾəl}}
|-
|cutty ||cuddy ||{{IPA|ˈkʌɾi}}
|-
|daughter ||dodder ||{{IPA|ˈdɑɾəɹ}} ||With [[cot-caught merger]].
|-
|daunting ||dawning ||{{IPA|ˈdɔɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|daunting ||donning ||{{IPA|ˈdɑɾ̃ɪŋ}} ||With [[cot-caught merger]].
|-
|debtor ||deader ||{{IPA|ˈdɛɾəɹ}}
|-
|diluted ||deluded ||{{IPA|dɪˈluːɾəd}}
|-
|don't it ||doughnut ||{{IPA|ˈdoʊɾ̃ət}} ||With [[weak vowel merger]] and [[toe-tow merger]].
|-
|dotter ||dodder ||{{IPA|ˈdɑɾəɹ}}
|-
|doughty ||dowdy ||{{IPA|ˈdaʊɾi}}
|-
|eluted ||alluded ||{{IPA|əˈluːɾəd}} ||With [[weak vowel merger]].
|-
|eluted ||eluded ||{{IPA|ɪˈluːɾəd}}
|-
|enter ||in a ||{{IPA|ˈɪɾ̃ə}}||In [[non-rhotic]] accents with [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|enter ||inner ||{{IPA|ˈɪɾ̃əɹ}} ||With [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|eta ||Ada ||{{IPA|ˈeɪɾə}}
|-
|fated ||faded ||{{IPA|ˈfeɪɾɨd}}
|-
|flutter ||flooder ||{{IPA|ˈflʌɾəɹ}}
|-
|fontal ||faunal ||{{IPA|ˈfɑɾ̃əl}} ||With [[cot-caught merger]].
|-
|futile ||feudal ||{{IPA|ˈfjuːɾəl}} ||With [[weak vowel merger]].
|-
|garter ||guarder ||{{IPA|ˈɡɑɹɾəɹ}}
|-
|gaunter ||goner ||{{IPA|ˈɡɑɾ̃əɹ}} ||With [[cot-caught merger]].
|-
|goated ||goaded ||{{IPA|ˈɡoʊɾəd}}
|-
|grater ||grader ||{{IPA|ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|greater ||grader ||{{IPA|ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|gritted ||gridded ||{{IPA|ˈɡɹɪɾəd}}
|-
|gritty ||[[Griddy]] ||{{IPA|ˈɡɹɪɾi}}
|-
|hearty ||hardy ||{{IPA|ˈhɑːɹɾi}}
|-
|heated ||heeded ||{{IPA|ˈhiːɾɨd}} || With [[meet-meat merger]].
|-
|Hetty; Hettie ||heady ||{{IPA|ˈhɛɾi}}
|-
|hurting ||herding ||{{IPA|ˈhɜːɹɾɪŋ}} || With [[fern-fir-fur merger]].
|-
|inter- ||in a ||{{IPA|ˈɪɾ̃ə}} ||In [[non-rhotic]] accents.
|-
|inter- ||inner ||{{IPA|ˈɪɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|iter ||eider ||{{IPA|ˈaɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|jaunty ||Johnny ||{{IPA|ˈd͡ʒɑɾ̃i}} || With [[cot-caught]] merger.
|-
|jointing ||joining ||{{IPA|ˈd͡ʒɔɪɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|kitted ||kidded ||{{IPA|ˈkɪɾɨd}}
|-
|kitty ||kiddie ||{{IPA|ˈkɪɾi}}
|-
|knotted ||nodded ||{{IPA|ˈnɒɾɨd}}
|-
|latter ||ladder ||{{IPA|ˈlæɾəɹ}}
|-
|lauded ||lotted ||{{IPA|ˈlɑɾəd}} ||With [[cot-caught merger]].
|-
|linty ||Lenny ||{{IPA|ˈlɪɾ̃i}} ||With [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|liter ||leader ||{{IPA|ˈliːɾəɹ}} || With [[meet-meat merger]].
|-
|little ||[[Lidl]] ||{{IPA|ˈlɪɾəl}}
|-
|looter ||lewder ||{{IPA|ˈluːɾəɹ}} || With [[yod-dropping]] after {{IPA|/l/}}.
|-
|manta ||manna ||{{IPA|ˈmæɾ̃ə}}
|-
|manta ||manner ||{{IPA|ˈmæɾ̃ə}} ||In [[non-rhotic]] accents.
|-
|manta ||manor ||{{IPA|ˈmæɾ̃ə}} ||In [[non-rhotic]] accents.
|-
|Marty ||Mardi ||{{IPA|ˈmɑːɹɾi}} ||In the term ''[[Mardi Gras]]''.
|-
|matter ||madder ||{{IPA|ˈmæɾəɹ}}
|-
|mattocks ||Maddox ||{{IPA|ˈmæɾəks}}
|-
|meant it ||minute ||{{IPA|ˈmɪɾ̃ɨt}} ||With [[pen–pin merger]].
|-
|metal ||medal ||{{IPA|ˈmɛɾəl}}
|-
|metal ||meddle ||{{IPA|ˈmɛɾəl}}
|-
|mettle ||medal ||{{IPA|ˈmɛɾəl}}
|-
|mettle ||meddle ||{{IPA|ˈmɛɾəl}}
|-
|minty ||many ||{{IPA|ˈmɪɾ̃i}} ||With [[pen–pin merger]].
|-
|minty ||mini ||{{IPA|ˈmɪɾ̃i}}
|-
|minty ||Minnie ||{{IPA|ˈmɪɾ̃i}}
|-
|motile ||modal ||{{IPA|ˈmoʊɾəl}} ||With [[weak vowel merger]].
|-
|mottle ||model ||{{IPA|ˈmɑɾəl}}
|-
|mutter ||mudder ||{{IPA|ˈmʌɾəɹ}}
|-
|neater ||kneader ||{{IPA|ˈniːɾəɹ}}
|-
|neuter ||nuder ||{{IPA|ˈnuːɾəɹ, ˈnjuːɾəɹ, ˈnɪuɾəɹ}}
|-
|nighter ||nidor ||{{IPA|ˈnaɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|nitre; niter ||nidor ||{{IPA|ˈnaɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|noted ||noded ||{{IPA|ˈnoʊɾɨd}}
|-
|oater ||odour; odor ||{{IPA|ˈoʊɾəɹ}}
|-
|otter ||odder ||{{IPA|ˈɒɾəɹ}}
|-
|painting ||paining ||{{IPA|ˈpeɪɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|panting ||panning ||{{IPA|ˈpæɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|parity ||parody ||{{IPA|ˈpæɹəɾi}} || With [[weak vowel merger]] 
|-
|patter ||padder ||{{IPA|ˈpæɾəɹ}}
|-
|patting ||padding ||{{IPA|ˈpæɾɪŋ}}
|-
|patty ||paddy ||{{IPA|ˈpæɾi}}
|-
|petal ||pedal ||{{IPA|ˈpɛɾəl}}
|-
|petal ||peddle ||{{IPA|ˈpɛɾəl}}
|-
|pettle ||pedal ||{{IPA|ˈpɛɾəl}}
|-
|pettle ||peddle ||{{IPA|ˈpɛɾəl}}
|-
|platted ||plaided ||{{IPA|ˈplæɾəd}}
|-
|planting ||planning ||{{IPA|ˈplæɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|pleating ||pleading ||{{IPA|ˈpliːɾɪŋ}}
|-
|plenty ||[[Pliny (disambiguation)|Pliny]] ||{{IPA|ˈplɪɾ̃i}} ||With [[pen–pin merger]].
|-
|plotting ||plodding ||{{IPA|ˈplɒɾɪŋ}}
|-
|potted ||podded ||{{IPA|ˈpɒɾɨd}}
|-
|pouter ||powder ||{{IPA|ˈpaʊɾəɹ}}
|-
|punting ||punning ||{{IPA|ˈpʌɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|putting ||pudding ||{{IPA|ˈpʊɾɪŋ}}
|-
|rated ||raided ||{{IPA|ˈɹeɪɾɨd}} || With [[pane-pain merger]].
|-
|rattle ||raddle ||{{IPA|ˈɹæɾəl}}
|-
|righting ||riding ||{{IPA|ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ}}
|-
|roti ||roadie ||{{IPA|ˈɹoʊɾi}}
|-
|rooter ||ruder ||{{IPA|ˈɹuːɾəɹ}} || With [[yod-dropping]] after {{IPA|/ɹ/}}.
|-
|rotting ||rodding ||{{IPA|ˈɹɒɾɪŋ}}
|-
|router ||ruder ||{{IPA|ˈɹuːɾəɹ}} || With [[yod-dropping]] after {{IPA|/ɹ/}}.
|-
|runty ||runny ||{{IPA|ˈɹʌɾ̃i}}
|-
|rutty ||ruddy ||{{IPA|ˈɹʌɾi}}
|-
|sainting ||seining ||{{IPA|ˈseɪɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|Saturday ||sadder day ||{{IPA|ˈsæɾəɹdeɪ}}
|-
|satyr ||Seder ||{{IPA|ˈseɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|saunter ||sauna ||{{IPA|ˈsɔɾ̃ə}} ||In [[non-rhotic]] accents.
|-
|scented ||synod ||{{IPA|ˈsɪɾ̃əd}} || With [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|scenting ||sinning ||{{IPA|ˈsɪɾ̃ɪŋ}} || With [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|seating ||seeding ||{{IPA|ˈsiːɾɪŋ}} || With [[meet-meat merger]].
|-
|sent it ||senate ||{{IPA|ˈsɛɾ̃ɨt}}
|-
|set it ||said it ||{{IPA|ˈsɛɾɨt}}
|-
|shunting ||shunning ||{{IPA|ˈʃʌɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|shutter ||shudder ||{{IPA|ˈʃʌɾəɹ}}
|-
|sighted ||sided ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪɾɨd}}
|-
|sighter ||cider ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪɾəɹ}}
|-
|sinter ||sinner ||{{IPA|ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|sited ||sided ||{{IPA|ˈsaɪɾɨd}}
|-
|skitting ||skidding ||{{IPA|ˈskɪɾɪŋ}}
|-
|sorted ||sordid ||{{IPA|ˈsɔɹɾɨd}}
|-
|slighting ||sliding ||{{IPA|ˈslaɪɾɪŋ}}
|-
|stunting ||stunning ||{{IPA|ˈstʌɾ̃ɪŋ}}
|-
|tarty ||tardy ||{{IPA|ˈtɑɹɾi}} 
|-
|tenter ||tenner ||{{IPA|ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|tenter ||tenor ||{{IPA|ˈtɛɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|tenting ||tinning ||{{IPA|ˈtɪɾɪŋ}} ||With [[pen-pin merger]].
|-
|title ||tidal ||{{IPA|ˈtaɪɾəl}}
|-
|toting ||toading ||{{IPA|ˈtoʊɾɪŋ}}
|-
|traitor ||trader ||{{IPA|ˈtɹeɪɾəɹ}} || With [[pane-pain merger]].
|-
|tutor ||Tudor ||{{IPA|ˈtuːɾəɹ, ˈtjuːɾəɹ, ˈtɪuɾəɹ}}
|-
|tweeted ||tweeded ||{{IPA|ˈtwiːɾəd}}
|-
|utter ||udder ||{{IPA|ˈʌɾəɹ}}
|-
|waiter ||wader ||{{IPA|ˈweɪɾəɹ}} || With [[pane-pain merger]].
|-
|wattle ||waddle ||{{IPA|ˈwɑɾəl}}
|-
|weighted ||waded ||{{IPA|ˈweɪɾəd}} || With [[pane-pain merger]].
|-
|wetting ||wedding ||{{IPA|ˈwɛɾɪŋ}}
|-
|winter ||winner ||{{IPA|ˈwɪɾ̃əɹ}}
|-
|wheated ||weeded ||{{IPA|ˈwiːɾəd}} || With [[wine-whine merger]].
|-
|whiter ||wider ||{{IPA|ˈwaɪɾəɹ}} ||With [[wine–whine merger]].
|-
|writing ||riding ||{{IPA|ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ}}
|}

In accents characterized by [[Canadian raising]], such words as ''riding'' and ''writing'' may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: ''riding'' {{IPA|[ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ]}}, ''writing'' {{IPA|[ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ]}}.{{sfnp|Hayes|2009|pp=144–146}} Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before {{IPA|/d/}} than before {{IPA|/t/}}, due to [[pre-fortis clipping]].{{sfnp|Gussenhoven|Jacobs|2017|p=217}}

==Withgott effect==

In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of [[American English]], words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ (<nowiki>[[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]</nowiki>). How a word is chunked relates to its [[Morphological derivation|morphological]] derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet):

{|
|-
| Initial-type t || || ''vs.'' || flapped-t ||
|-
| mili'''t'''ary || {{IPA|[ˈmɪlɨ<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''tʰ'''ɛɹi]}} || ''vs.'' || capi'''t'''al || {{IPA|[ˈkʰæpɨ'''ɾ'''l̩]}}
|-
|| mili'''t'''aristic || {{IPA|[ˌmɪlɨ<nowiki> | </nowiki>'''tʰ'''əˈɹɪstɪk]}} || ''vs.'' || capi'''t'''alistic || {{IPA|[ˌkʰæpɨ'''ɾ'''ə<nowiki> | </nowiki>ˈlɪstɪk]}}
|}
The medial ''t'' in ''càpitalístic'' can be flapped as easily as in post-stress ''cátty'' {{IPA|[ˈkʰæɾi]}}, in contrast to the medial ''t'' in ''mìlitarístic'', which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as {{IPA|[tʰ]}}, like a ''t'' at the beginning of a word.

Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words {{IPA|[t]}}’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] or are at the beginning of a foot.

==T-to-R rule==
The origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of {{IPA|/t/}} and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as {{IPA|/r/}}, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of {{IPA|/r/}}, namely the approximant {{IPAblink|ɹ}}. It is applied in [[Northern England English]] and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that ''shut'' in the phrasal verb ''to shut up'' {{IPA|/ʃʊrˈʊp/}} has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb ''to shut'' {{IPA|/ʃʊt/}}. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=370}}

The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the [[Cardiff dialect]] (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and [[South African English]] (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and {{IPA|/ə/}} or the reduced {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (also across word boundaries), so that ''starting'' {{IPA|/ˈstaːtɪŋ/}} and ''starring'' {{IPA|/ˈstaːrɪŋ/}} can be homophonous as {{IPA|[ˈstaːɹɪn ~ ˈstaːɾɪn]}}. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of {{IPA|/r/}} (making the ''starting''–''starring'' minimal pair homophonous as {{IPA|[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ]}}), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for {{IPA|/t/}} ({{IPA|[ˈstɑːɾɪŋ ~ stɑːtɪŋ]}}) vs. approximant for {{IPA|/r/}} ({{IPA|[ˈstɑːɹɪŋ]}}). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|pp=616–618}}{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1990|pp=91–92}}

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ class="nowrap" | Homophonous pairs
! {{IPA|/t/}}
! {{IPA|/r/}}
! IPA
! Notes
|-
| battle
| barrel
| {{IPA|ˈbæɾəl}}
|
|-
| batty
| Barrie
| {{IPA|ˈbæɾi}}
|
|-
| batty
| Barry
| {{IPA|ˈbæɾi}}
|
|-
| betty
| berry
| {{IPA|ˈbɛɾi}}
|
|-
| but a
| borough
| {{IPA|ˈbəɾə}}
| In Cardiff English. ''But'' has an alternative form {{IPA|/bə/}}, with an elided {{IPA|/t/}}.{{sfnp|Collins|Mees|1990|p=99}}
|-
| butter
| borough
| {{IPA|ˈbʌɾə}}
|
|-
| catty
| carry
| {{IPA|ˈkæɾi}}
|
|-
| catty
| kar(r)ee
| {{IPA|ˈkæɾi}}
|
|-
| daughter
| Dora
| {{IPA|ˈdɔːɾə}}
|
|-
| Fetty
| ferry
| {{IPA|ˈfɛɾi}}
|
|-
| hotter
| horror
| {{IPA|ˈhɒɾə}}
|
|-
| jetty
| jerry
| {{IPA|ˈd͡ʒɛɾi}}
|
|-
| Lottie
| lorry
| {{IPA|ˈlɒɾi}}
|
|-
| matty
| marry
| {{IPA|ˈmæɾi}}
|
|-
| otter
| horror
| {{IPA|ˈɒɾə}}
| With [[h-dropping]].
|-
| petty
| Perry
| {{IPA|ˈpɛɾi}}
|
|-
| starting
| starring
| {{IPA|ˈstɑːɾɪŋ}}
|
|-
| tarty
| tarry
| {{IPA|ˈtɑːɾi}}
| ''Tarry'' in the sense "resembling tar".
|}

==See also==
*[[Phonological history of English consonants]]
*[[Regional accents of English]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Withgott, M. Margaret. 1982. Segmental Evidence for Phonological Constituents. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Texas at Austin.
*Iverson, Gregory K. and Sang-Cheol Ahn. 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120415102047/http://pantherfile.uwm.edu/iverson/www/engvce.pdf ''English Voicing in Dimensional Theory'']. Language Sciences (Phonology of English).
*Kahn, Daniel. 1976. ''Syllable-Based Generalizations in English Phonology''. Ph.D. Dissertation for the University of Massachusetts reproduced by I.U. Linguistics Club.
*[[Steriade, Donca]]. 1999. ''Paradigm uniformity and the phonetics-phonology boundary''. In M. Broe and J. Pierrehumbert (eds.), ''Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the lexicon'', 313-334. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

{{History of English}}

[[Category:English phonology]]
[[Category:North American English]]
[[Category:Australian English]]
[[Category:New Zealand English]]
[[Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology]]