View source for Fish processing

{{Short description|Process from catching to selling fish}}
[[File:Bartolomeo Passarotti - The fish stall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Humans have been processing fish since [[Neolithic]] times. This 16th-century fish stall shows many traditional fish products.]]

The term '''fish processing''' refers to the processes associated with fish and fish products between the time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer. Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any [[Aquatic ecosystem|aquatic organisms]] harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in [[wild fisheries]] or harvested from [[aquaculture]] or [[fish farming]].

Larger fish processing companies often operate their own [[fishing fleet]]s or farming operations. The products of the [[fish industry]] are usually sold to [[grocery chain]]s or to intermediaries. Fish are highly perishable. A central concern of fish processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating, and this remains an underlying concern during other processing operations.

Fish processing can be subdivided into fish handling, which is the preliminary processing of raw fish, and the manufacture of fish products. Another natural subdivision is into primary processing involved in the filleting and freezing of fresh fish for onward distribution to fresh fish retail and catering outlets, and the secondary processing that produces chilled, frozen and canned products for the retail and catering trades.<ref>Royal Society of Edinburgh (2004) [http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/enquiries/scottishfisheries/scottish_fishing_industry.pdf Inquiry into the future of the Scottish fishing industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701002832/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/enquiries/scottishfisheries/scottish_fishing_industry.pdf |date=2007-07-01 }}. 128pp.</ref>

There is evidence humans have been processing fish since the early [[Holocene]].<ref name="Zohar et al." /> These days, fish processing is undertaken by [[Artisan fishing|artisan fishermen]], on board [[fishing vessel|fishing]] or [[fish processing vessel]]s, and at [[fish processing plant]]s.

==Overview==
[[File:Tsukiji fish market thuna knife.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tuna]] being processed with an Oroshi hocho tuna knife at the Tsukiji fishmarket.]]

Fish is a highly perishable food which needs proper handling and preservation if it is to have a long shelf life and retain a desirable quality and nutritional value.<ref name="FAO handling">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12321/en Handling of fish and fish products] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2011.</ref> The central concern of fish processing is to prevent fish from deteriorating. The most obvious method for preserving the quality of fish is to [[Live food fish trade|keep them alive]] until they are ready for cooking and eating. For thousands of years, China achieved this through the aquaculture of [[Aquaculture in China|carp]]. Other methods used to preserve fish and fish products include<ref name="FAO processing">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/736/en Processing fish and fish products] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 31 October 2001. Retrieved 14 March 2011.</ref>
*[[ikejime]] method of [[fish slaughter]]
*the control of temperature using ice, refrigeration or freezing
* the control of [[water activity]] by drying, salting, [[Smoked fish|smoking]] or [[freeze-drying]]
* the physical control of [[microbial]] loads through microwave heating or ionizing irradiation
* the chemical control of microbial loads by adding acids
* oxygen deprivation, such as [[vacuum packing]].
Usually more than one of these methods is used. When chilled or frozen fish or fish products are transported by road, rail, sea or air, the [[cold chain]] must be maintained. This requires insulated containers or transport vehicles and adequate refrigeration. Modern [[shipping container]]s can combine refrigeration with a controlled atmosphere.<ref name="FAO processing" />

Fish processing is also concerned with proper [[waste management]] and with adding value to fish products. There is an increasing demand for ready to eat fish products, or products that do not need much preparation.<ref name="FAO processing" />

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==Handling the catch==
[[File:John George Brown - Cleaning fish.jpg|thumb|right|Cleaning fish, 1887. By [[John George Brown]].]]

When fish are captured or harvested for commercial purposes, they need some preprocessing so they can be delivered to the next part of the marketing chain in a fresh and undamaged condition. This means, for example, that fish caught by a [[fishing vessel]] need handling so they can be stored safely until the boat lands the fish on shore. Typical handling processes are<ref name="FAO handling" />
* transferring the catch from the [[Fishing tackle|fishing gear]] (such as a [[trawl]], [[Fishing net|net]] or [[fishing line]]) to the [[fishing vessel]]
* holding the catch before further handling
* sorting and grading
* bleeding, gutting and washing
* chilling
* storing the chilled fish
* unloading, or landing the fish when the fishing vessel returns to port
The number and order in which these operations are undertaken varies with the fish species and the type of fishing gear used to catch it, as well as how large the fishing vessel is and how long it is at sea, and the nature of the market it is supplying.<ref name="FAO handling" /> Catch processing operations can be manual or automated. The equipment and procedures in modern [[Industrial fishing|industrial fisheries]] are designed to reduce the rough handling of fish, heavy manual lifting and unsuitable working positions which might result in injuries.<ref name="FAO handling" />

===Handling live fish===
{{main|Live fish trade}}
An alternative, and obvious way of keeping fish fresh is to keep them alive until they are delivered to the buyer or ready to be eaten. This is a common practice worldwide. Typically, the fish are placed in a container with clean water, and dead, damaged or sick fish are removed. The water temperature is then lowered and the fish are starved to reduce their [[metabolic rate]]. This decreases fouling of water with metabolic products (ammonia, nitrite and carbon dioxide) that become toxic and make it difficult for the fish to extract oxygen.<ref name="FAO handling" />

Fish can be kept alive in floating cages, wells and [[fish pond]]s. In [[aquaculture]], holding basins are used where the water is continuously filtered and its temperature and oxygen level are controlled. In China, floating cages are constructed in rivers out of palm woven baskets, while in South America simple fish yards are built in the backwaters of rivers. Live fish can be transported by methods which range from simple [[Artisan fishing|artisanal]] methods where fish are placed in plastic bags with an oxygenated atmosphere, to sophisticated systems which use trucks that filter and recycle the water, and add oxygen and regulate temperature.<ref name="FAO handling" />

==Preservation==
{{see also|Fish preservation}}

[[Food preservation|Preservation]] techniques are needed to prevent fish [[Food spoilage|spoilage]] and lengthen [[shelf life]]. They are designed to inhibit the activity of spoilage [[bacteria]] and the [[metabolic]] changes that result in the loss of fish quality. [[Meat spoilage#Microbial spoilage|Spoilage bacteria]] are the specific bacteria that produce the unpleasant odours and flavours associated with spoiled fish. Fish normally host many bacteria that are not spoilage bacteria, and most of the bacteria present on spoiled fish played no role in the spoilage.<ref>Huss HH (1988) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/v7180e/V7180E00.HTM ''Quality and quality changes in fresh fish''] FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 348, Rome. {{ISBN|92-5-103507-5}}.</ref> To flourish, bacteria need the right temperature, sufficient water and oxygen, and surroundings that are not too acidic. Preservation techniques work by interrupting one or more of these needs. Preservation techniques can be classified as follows.<ref name="FAO preservation">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12322/en Preservation techniques] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2011.</ref>

===Control of temperature===
[[File:Kingfish great south bay.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ice]] preserves fish and extends shelf life by lowering the temperature]]
{{see also|Refrigerating|Cold chain|Freezing (food)}}

If the temperature is decreased, the metabolic activity in the fish from [[microbial]] or [[autolytic]] processes can be reduced or stopped. This is achieved by [[refrigeration]] where the temperature is dropped to about 0&nbsp;°C, or [[Frozen food|freezing]] where the temperature is dropped below -18&nbsp;°C. On fishing vessels, the fish are refrigerated mechanically by circulating cold air or by packing the fish in boxes with ice. [[Forage fish]], which are often caught in large numbers, are usually chilled with refrigerated or chilled seawater. Once chilled or frozen, the fish need further cooling to maintain the low temperature. There are key issues with fish cold store design and management, such as how large and energy efficient they are, and the way they are insulated and [[pallet]]ized.<ref name="FAO preservation" />

An effective method of preserving the freshness of fish is to chill with ice by distributing ice uniformly around the fish. It is a safe cooling method that keeps the fish moist and in an easily stored form suitable for transport. It has become widely used since the development of mechanical [[refrigeration]], which makes ice easy and cheap to produce. Ice is produced in various shapes; crushed ice and [[Flake Ice]], plates, tubes and blocks are commonly used to cool fish.<ref name="FAO handling" /> Particularly effective is [[slurry ice]], made from micro crystals of ice formed and suspended within a solution of water and a [[Freezing-point depression|freezing point depressant]], such as common salt.<ref>Kauffeld M, Kawaji M and Egol PW (Eds.) (2005)''Handbook on ice slurries: fundamentals and engineering'', International Institute of Refrigeration. {{ISBN|978-2-913149-42-7}}.</ref>

A more recent development is [[pumpable ice technology]]. Pumpable ice flows like water, and because it is [[homogeneous]], it cools fish faster than fresh water solid ice methods and eliminates freeze burns. It complies with [[HACCP]] and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] food safety and public health standards, and uses less energy than conventional fresh water solid ice technologies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Deepchill™ Variable-State Ice in a Poultry Processing Plant in Korea|url=http://www.sunwell.com/suntech13.htm|access-date=December 4, 2010|archive-date=February 6, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206034044/http://www.sunwell.com/suntech13.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Results of Liquid Ice Trails aboard Challenge II|date=April 27, 2003|url=http://www.seafoodscotland.org/images/stories/downloads/pdf/libraryOfPublications/2challeng.pdf|access-date=December 4, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129173242/http://www.seafoodscotland.org/images/stories/downloads/pdf/libraryOfPublications/2challeng.pdf|archive-date=January 29, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

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<gallery mode=packed style=float:left>
File:Fish Packed in Ice.jpg|Fish packed in ice
File:sunwell fish packing pumpable slurry ice.JPG|Fish chilling with [[slurry ice]].
File:Fish cooling by Pumpable Ice.jpg|Fish cooling by [[pumpable ice]]
File:Zhuhai-fishing-port-Loading-ice-0707.jpg|Loading blocks of factory-made ice from a truck to an ice depot boat
File:Ice house, Pittenweem - geograph.org.uk - 602960.jpg|Ice delivered to boat down an [[Archimedes screw]], [[Pittenweem]]
</gallery>
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===Control of water activity===
[[File:Fish-Drying Barn.jpg|thumb|Fish barn with fish drying in the sun – [[Van Gogh]] 1882]]
{{see also|Dried fish|Salted fish|Smoked fish}}

The [[water activity]], a<sub>w</sub>, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the [[water vapour]] pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a<sub>w</sub>. Traditionally, techniques such as [[Stockfish|drying]], [[Salted fish|salting]] and [[Smoked fish|smoking]] have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using solar drying. In more recent times, [[freeze-drying]], water binding [[humectant]]s, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.<ref name="FAO preservation" />

<gallery mode=packed style=float:left>
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Vrouwen tijdens het drogen van vis TMnr 20018454.jpg|Women drying fish, 1971
File:BD Mohanganj 6.jpg|Dry fish market at [[Mohanganj]]
File:Stockfisch in Iceland 2005.JPG|Drying [[stockfish]] in Iceland
File:Carlb-nfld-codflakes.jpg|Platforms, called [[fish flake]]s, where cod dry in the sun before being packed in salt
</gallery>
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<gallery mode=packed style=float:left>
File:Usines de Salaison I Neapolis.JPG|Remains of Roman fish-salting plant at [[Nabeul|Neapolis]]
File:Tunisie Néapolis musée 8.jpg|Reconstruction of the Roman fish-salting plant at [[Nabeul|Neapolis]]
File:Malpe(24-1-08).JPG|Drying salted fish at [[Malpe|Malpe Harbour]]
File:Salt fish dip 070826-292 mank.jpg|Salt fish dip at [[Jakarta]]
</gallery>
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===Physical control of microbial loads===

Heat or ionizing irradiation can be used to kill the [[bacteria]] that cause decomposition. Heat is applied by cooking, blanching or microwave heating in a manner that pasteurizes or sterilizes fish products. Cooking or pasteurizing does not completely inactivate microorganisms and may need to be followed with refrigeration to preserve fish products and increase their shelf life. Sterilised products are stable at ambient temperatures up to 40&nbsp;°C, but to ensure they remain sterilized they need packaging in [[canning|metal cans]] or [[retortable pouch]]es before the heat treatment.<ref name="FAO preservation" />

===Chemical control of microbial loads===
{{see also|Biopreservation|Fermented fish}}

Microbial growth and proliferation can be inhibited by a technique called [[biopreservation]].<ref>Ananou1 S, Maqueda1 M, Martínez-Bueno1 M and Valdivia1 E (2007) [http://www.formatex.org/microbio/pdf/Pages475-486.pdf "Biopreservation, an ecological approach to improve the safety and shelf-life of foods"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726061822/http://www.formatex.org/microbio/pdf/Pages475-486.pdf |date=2011-07-26 }} In: A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.) ''Communicating Current Research and Educational Topics and Trends in Applied Microbiology'', Formatex. {{ISBN|978-84-611-9423-0}}.</ref> Biopreservation is achieved by adding [[antimicrobial]]s or by increasing the [[acidity]] of the fish muscle. Most bacteria stop multiplying when the [[pH]] is less than 4.5. Acidity is increased by [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]], [[marination]] or by directly adding acids (acetic, citric, lactic) to fish products. [[Lactic acid bacteria]] produce the antimicrobial [[nisin]] which further enhances preservation. Other preservatives include [[nitrite]]s, [[sulphite]]s, [[sorbate]]s, [[benzoate]]s and [[essential oil]]s.<ref name="FAO preservation" />

===Control of the oxygen reduction potential===
Spoilage bacteria and [[lipid oxidation]] usually need oxygen, so [[reduction potential|reducing the oxygen]] around fish can increase shelf life. This is done by [[Controlled atmosphere|controlling]] or [[Modified atmosphere|modifying the atmosphere]] around the fish, or by [[vacuum packaging]]. Controlled or modified atmospheres have specific combinations of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and the method is often combined with refrigeration for more effective fish preservation.<ref name="FAO preservation" />

===Combined techniques===
{{see also|Hurdle technology}}

Two or more of these techniques are often combined. This can improve preservation and reduce unwanted side effects such as the [[denaturation (food)|denaturation]] of nutrients by severe heat treatments. Common combinations are salting/drying, salting/marinating, salting/smoking, drying/smoking, pasteurization/refrigeration and controlled atmosphere/refrigeration.<ref name="FAO preservation" /> Other process combinations are currently being developed along the [[Hurdle technology|multiple hurdle theory]].<ref>Leistner L and Gould GW (2002) [https://books.google.com/books?id=_6cQ-dFuzGIC ''Hurdle technologies: combination treatments for food stability, safety, and quality''] Springer. {{ISBN|978-0-306-47263-3}}.</ref>

==Automated processes==
"The search for higher productivity and the increase of labor cost has driven the development of [[Computer vision systems|computer vision technology]],<ref>Sun, Da-Wen (Ed.) (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=6MgWAiP1_GgC&pg=PA189 ''Computer vision technology for food quality evaluation''] Academic Press. Pages 189–208. {{ISBN|978-0-12-373642-0}}.</ref> electronic scales and automatic skinning and [[Fish fillet processor|filleting machines]]."<ref name="FAO further processing" />

<gallery widths="160">
File:Fish processing hg.jpg|Automatic knives for [[Fillet (cut)|filleting]] fish
File:US Patent 1773079 (Fig 1).jpg|Patent issued to [[Clarence Birdseye]] for the production of quick-frozen fish, 1930
File:Fish-finger-line hg.jpg|Processing line for [[fish finger]]s
File:Fish feed production in Stokmarknes, Norway.jpg|[[Fish feed]] production in Norway
</gallery>

==Waste management==
[[File:PSM V45 D079 Non edible fish scrap processing.jpg|thumb|right|Non edible fish scrap processing, 1884]]

Waste produced during fish processing operations can be solid or liquid.
* Solid wastes: include skin, viscera, [[fish head]]s and carcasses (fish bones). Solid waste can be recycled in [[fish meal]] plants or it can be treated as [[municipal waste]].<ref name="FAO waste management">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12326/en Waste management of fish and fish products] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</ref>
* Liquid wastes: include bloodwater and brine from drained storage tanks, and water discharges from washing and cleaning. This waste may need holding temporarily, and should be disposed of without damage to the environment. How liquid waste should be disposed from fish processing operations depends on the content levels in the waste of solid and organic matter, as well as nitrogen and phosphorus content, and oil and grease content. It also depends on an assessment of parameters such acidity levels, temperature, odour, and [[biochemical oxygen demand]] and [[chemical oxygen demand]]. The magnitude of waste management issues depends on how much waste volume there is, the nature of the pollutants it carries, the rate at which it is discharged and the capacity of the receiving environment to assimilate the pollutants. Many countries dispose of such liquid wastes through their municipal sewage systems or directly into a waterway. The receiving waterbody should be able to degrade the organic and inorganic waste components in a way that does not damage the [[aquatic ecosystem]].<ref name="FAO waste management"/>

Treatments can be primary and secondary.
* Primary treatments: use physical methods such as flotation, screening, and sedimentation to remove oil and grease and other suspended solids.<ref name="FAO waste management"/>
* Secondary treatments: use biological and physicochemical means. Biological treatments use microorganisms to metabolise the organic polluting matter into energy and [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]]. "These microorganisms can be aerobic or anaerobic. The most used aerobic processes are activated sludge system, aerated lagoons, trickling filters or bacterial beds and the rotating biological contractors. In anaerobic processes, the anaerobic microorganisms digest the organic matter in tanks to produce gases (mainly methane and {{CO2}}) and biomass. Anaerobic digesters are sometimes heated, using part of the methane produced, to maintain a temperature of 30 to 35°C. In the physicochemical treatments, also called coagulation-flocculation, a chemical substance is added to the effluent to reduce the surface charges responsible for particle repulsions in a colloidal suspension, thus reducing the forces that keep its particles apart. This reduction in charge causes flocculation (agglomeration) and particles of larger sizes are settled and clarified effluent is obtained. The sludge produced by primary and secondary treatments is further processed in digesting tanks through anaerobic processes or sprayed over land as a fertilizer. In the latter case, care must be exercised to ensure that the sludge is freed of its pathogens."<ref name="FAO waste management"/>

==Transport==
Fish is transported widely in ships, and by land and air, and much fish is traded internationally. It is traded live, fresh, frozen, cured and canned. Live, fresh and frozen fish need special care.<ref name="FAO transportation">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12327/en Transportation of fish and fish products] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 18 March 2011.</ref>
* Live fish: When live fish are transported they need oxygen, and the carbon dioxide and ammonia that result from respiration must not be allowed to build up. Most fish transported live are placed in water supersaturated with oxygen (though [[catfish]] can breathe air directly through their gills and body skin, and the [[Anabas|climbing perch]] has special air-breathing organs). The fish are often "conditioned" (starved) before they are transported to reduce their metabolism and increase [[Packing problem|packing density]], and the water can be cooled to further reduce metabolism. Live [[crustacean]]s can be packed in wet sawdust to keep the air humid.<ref name="FAO transportation" />
* By air: Over five percent of the global fish production is transported by air. Air transport needs special care in preparation and handling and careful scheduling. Airline [[transport hub]]s often require cargo transfers under their own tight schedules. This can influence when the product is delivered, and consequently the condition it is in when it is delivered. The air shipment of leaking seafood packages causes corrosion damage to aircraft, and each year, in the US, requires millions of dollars to repair the damage. Most airlines prefer fish that is packed in dry ice or gel, and not packed in ice.<ref name="FAO transportation" />
* By land or sea: "The most challenging aspect of fish transportation by sea or by road is the maintenance of the [[cold chain]], for fresh, chilled and frozen products and the optimisation of the packing and stowage density. Maintaining the cold chain requires the use of insulated containers or transport vehicles and adequate quantities of coolants or mechanical refrigeration. Continuous temperature monitors are used to provide evidence that the cold chain has not been broken during transportation. Excellent development in food packaging and handling allow rapid and efficient loading, transport and unloading of fish and fishery products by road or by sea. Also, transport of fish by sea allows for the use of special containers that carry fish under vacuum, modified or controlled atmosphere, combined with refrigeration."<ref name="FAO transportation" />

==Quality and safety==
The [[International Organization for Standardization]], ISO, is the worldwide federation of national standards bodies. ISO defines ''quality'' as "the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs."(ISO 8402). The quality of fish and fish products depends on safe and hygienic practices. Outbreaks of fish-borne illnesses are reduced if appropriate practices are followed when handling, manufacturing, refrigerating and transporting fish and fish products. Ensuring standards of quality and safety are high also minimizes the post-harvest losses."<ref name="FAO quality and safety">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/1514/en Quality and safety of fish and fish products] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 September 2001. Retrieved 18 March 2011.</ref>

"The fishing industry must ensure that their fish handling, processing and transportation facilities meet requisite standards. Adequate training of both industry and control authority staff must be provided by support institutions, and channels for feedback from consumers established. Ensuring high standards for quality and safety is good economics, minimizing losses that result from spoilage, damage to trade and from illness among consumers."<ref name="FAO quality and safety" />

Fish processing highly involves very strict controls and measurements in order to ensure that all processing stages have been carried out hygienically. Thus, all fish processing companies are highly recommended to join a certain type of food safety system. One of the certifications that are commonly known is the [[Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points|Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP).]]

Fish quality has a direct impact on market price. Accurate assessment and prediction of fish quality are of main importance to set prices, increase competitiveness, resolve conflicts of interest and prevent food wastage due to conservative product shelf-life estimations. In last years, research in food science and technology has focused on developing new methodologies to predict fish freshness.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=García|first1=MR|last2=Cabo|first2=ML|last3=Herrera|first3=JR|last4=Ramilo-Fernández|first4=G|last5=Alonso|first5=AA|last6=Balsa-Canto|first6=E|title=Smart sensor to predict retail fresh fish quality under ice storage.|journal=Journal of Food Engineering|date=March 2017|volume=197|pages=87–97|doi=10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.11.006|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309897138|hdl=10261/141204|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=García |first1=M |last2=Férez-Rubio |first2=JA |last3=Vilas |first3=Carlos |title=Assessment and Prediction of Fish Freshness Using Mathematical Modelling: A Review |journal=Foods |date=2022 |volume=11 |issue=15 |page=2312 |doi=10.3390/foods11152312 |pmid=35954077 |pmc=9368035 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points==
HACCP is a system which identifies hazards and implements measures for their control. It was first developed in 1960 by NASA to ensure food safety for the crewed space program. The main objectives of NASA were to prevent food safety problems and control food borne diseases. HACCP has been widely used by food industry since the late 1970 and now it is internationally recognized as the best system for ensuring food safety.<ref>http://haccpalliance.org/alliance/HACCPall.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717042254/http://haccpalliance.org/alliance/HACCPall.pdf |date=2007-07-17 }} {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

"The [[Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points]] (HACCP) system of assuring food safety and quality has now gained worldwide recognition as the most cost-effective and reliable system available. It is based on the identification of risks, minimizing those risks through the design and layout of the physical environment in which high standards of hygiene can be assured, sets measurable standards and establishes monitoring systems. HACCP also establishes procedures for verifying that the system is working effectively. HACCP is a sufficiently flexible system to be successfully applied at all critical stages -- from harvesting of fish to reaching the consumer. For such a system to work successfully, all stakeholders must cooperate which entails increasing the national capacity for introducing and maintaining HACCP measures. The system's control authority needs to design and implement the system, ensuring that monitoring and corrective measures are put in place."<ref name="FAO quality and safety" />

HACCP is endorsed by the:
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)]]
* [[Codex Alimentarius]] (a commission of the United Nations)
* [[US Food and Drug Administration|FDA (US Food and Drug Administration)]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html |title=US FDA/CFSAN - Guidance for Industry: Juice HACCP Hazards and Controls Guidance First Edition Final Guidance |access-date=2007-10-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070917081427/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html |archive-date=2007-09-17 }}</ref>
* [[European Union]]
* [[World Health Organization|WHO (World Health Organization)]]

There are seven basic principles:
* Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.
* Principle 2: After assessing all the processing steps, the [[Critical control point]] (CCP) is controlled. CCP are points which determine and control significant hazards in a food manufacturing process.
* Principle 3: Set up critical limits in order to ensure that the hazard identified is being controlled effectively.
* Principle 4: Establish a system so as to monitor the CCP.
* Principle 5: Establish corrective actions where the critical limit has not been met. Appropriate actions need to be taken which can be on a short or long-term basis. All records must be sustained accurately.
* Principle 6: Establish authentication procedures so as to confirm if the principles imposed by HACCP documents are being respected effectively and all records are being taken.
* Principle 7: Analyze if the HACCP plan are working effectively.

==Final products==
{{see also|Fish products|Fish (food)|Seafood}}

Finfish, or parts of finfish, are typically presented physically for marketing in one of the following forms<ref name="Purdue">[http://www.four-h.purdue.edu/foods/Fin%20fish.htm Fin Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225124232/http://www.four-h.purdue.edu/foods/Fin%20fish.htm |date=2020-02-25 }} Purdue University. Accessed 18 March 2011.</ref>
* whole fish: the fish as it originally came from the water, with no physical processing
* drawn fish: a whole fish which has been [[Disembowelment|eviscerated]], that is, had its internal organs removed
* dressed fish: fish that has been [[Fish scale|scaled]] and eviscerated, and is ready to cook.
* pan dressed fish: a dressed fish which has had its head, tail, and fins removed, so it will fit in a pan.
* [[Fish fillet|filleted fish]]: the "fleshy sides of the fish, cut lengthwise from the fish along the backbone. They are usually boneless, although in some fish small bones called “pins” may be present; skin may be present on one side, too. Butterfly fillets may be available. This refers to two fillets held together by the uncut flesh and skin of the belly"<ref name="Purdue"/>
* fish steaks: large dressed fish can be cut into cross section slices, usually half to one inch thick, and usually with a cross section of the backbone
* [[fish stick]]s: "are pieces of fish cut from blocks of frozen fillets into portions at least 3/8-inch thick. Sticks are available in fried form ready to heat or frozen raw, coated with batter and breaded, ready to be cooked"<ref name="Purdue"/>
* [[fish cakes]]: are "prepared from flaked fish, potatoes, and seasonings, and shaped into cakes, coated with batter, breaded, and then packaged and frozen, ready-to-be-cooked"<ref name="Purdue"/>
* [[fish fingers]]
* [[fish roe]]

<gallery widths="160">
File:Tsukiji.CuttingFrozenTuna.jpg|Cutting frozen tuna with a band saw
File:Hake fillet.jpg|Filleting [[hake]]
File:Oroshi hocho knives.jpg|Japanese utensils used to fillet large tuna
File:Fleet Fisheries Processing Center.jpg|Filleting [[sole (fish)|sole]]
</gallery>

===Value addition===
[[File:Surimi RZ.jpg|thumb|right|[[Crab stick|Imitation crab]] and imitation shrimp made from [[surimi]]]]
[[File:Kalaöljy FishOil.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fish oil]] capsules]]

In general [[Value added|value addition]] means “any additional activity that in one way or the other change the nature of a product thus adding to its value at the time of sale.” Value addition is an expanding sector in the food processing industry, especially in export markets. Value is added to fish and fishery products depending on the requirement of different markets. Globally a transition period is taking place where cooked products are replacing traditional raw products in consumer preference.

"In addition to preservation, fish can be industrially processed into a wide array of products to increase their economic value and allow the fishing industry and exporting countries to reap the full benefits of their aquatic resources. In addition, value processes generate further employment and hard currency earnings. This is more important nowadays because of societal changes that have led to the development of outdoor catering, convenience products and food services requiring fish products ready to eat or requiring little preparation before serving."<ref name="FAO further processing">FAO: [http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/12325/en Further processing of fish] Fisheries and aquaculture department, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2011.</ref>

"However, despite the availability of technology, careful consideration should be given to the economic feasibility aspects, including distribution, marketing, quality assurance and trade barriers, before embarking on a value addition fish process."<ref name="FAO further processing" />
* Surimi: [[Surimi]] and surimi-based products are an example of value added products. Surimi is prepared from the mechanically deboned, washed (bleached) and stabilised flesh of fish. "It is an intermediate product used in the preparation of a variety of ready to eat seafood such as [[kamaboko]], fish sausage, crab legs and imitation shrimp products. Surimi-based products are gaining more prominence worldwide, because of the emergence of Japanese restaurants and culinary traditions in North America, Europe and elsewhere. Ideally, surimi should be made from low-value, [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|white fish]] with excellent gelling ability and which are abundant and available year-round. At present, Alaskan [[pollock|pollack]] accounts for a large proportion of the surimi supply. Other species, such as sardine, mackerel, barracuda, striped mullet have been successfully used for surimi production."<ref name="FAO further processing" />
* Fishmeal and fish oil: "A significant proportion of the world catch (20 percent) is processed into [[fishmeal]] and [[fish oil]]. Fishmeal is a ground solid product that is obtained by removing most of the water and some or all of the oil from fish or fish waste. This industry was launched in the 19th century, based mainly on surplus catches of herring from seasonal coastal fisheries to produce oil for industrial uses in leather tanning and in the production of soap, glycerol and other non-food products. Presently, it uses small [[oily fish]] to produce fishmeal and oil. It is worthy to mention that, only where it is uneconomic or impracticable for human consumption, should the catch be reduced to fishmeal and oil. Indeed, cycling fish through poultry or pigs is a loss because there is a need for 3 kg of edible fish to produce approximately 1 kg of edible chicken or pork."<ref name="FAO further processing" />

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==History==
[[File:Bigfishlittlefish.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A medieval view of fish processing, by [[Peter Brueghel the Elder]] (1556).]]

There is evidence humans have been processing fish since the early [[Holocene]]. For example, fishbones (c. 8140–7550 [[Before Present|BP]], uncalibrated) at [[Atlit-Yam]], a submerged [[Neolithic]] site off Israel, have been analysed. What emerged was a picture of "a pile of fish gutted and processed in a size-dependent manner, and then stored for future consumption or trade. This scenario suggests that technology for fish storage was already available, and that the Atlit-Yam inhabitants could enjoy the economic stability resulting from food storage and trade with mainland sites."<ref name="Zohar et al.">Zohar I, Dayan T, Galili E and Spanier E (2001) [http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/zoology/members/dayan_files/articles/Fish.pdf "Fish processing during the early Holocene: a taphonomic case study from coastal Israel"] ''Journal of Archaeological Science'', '''28''': 1041–1053. {{doi|10.1006/jasc.2000.0630}}</ref>

<gallery widths="160">
File:Egyptian_fishery3.jpg|[[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] bringing in fish and splitting them for salting
File:Walraversijde55.jpg|Medieval [[smokehouse]] at [[Walraversijde]], ca. 1465<ref>Tys D and Pieters M (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=M9rn3rZAQBcC&dq=Walraversijde&pg=PA101 "Understanding a medieval fishing settlement along the southern Northern Sea: Walraversijde, c. 1200–1630"] In: [[Louis Sicking|Sicking L]] and Abreu-Ferreira D (Eds.) ''Beyond the catch: fisheries of the North Atlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic, 900-1850'', Brill, pages 91–122. {{ISBN|978-90-04-16973-9}}.</ref>
File:The ice house Findhorn - geograph.org.uk - 547873.jpg|Ice house used to preserve fish at [[Findhorn]]
</gallery>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Cured fish]]
* [[Dried fish]]
* [[Dried and salted cod]]
* [[List of seafood companies]]
* [[Salmon cannery]]
* [[Salting (food)|Salting]]
* [[Salted fish]]
* [[Scombroid food poisoning]]
* [[Smoked fish]]
* [[Scrod]]
* [[Fish fillet processor]]
* [[Fish slaughter]]
* [[Ikejime]]
* {{portal-inline|Food}}
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Bekker-Nielsen T (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=TfJoAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fish+processing%22 ''Ancient fishing and fish processing in the Black Sea region''] Volume 2 of Black Sea studies, Aarhus University Press, {{ISBN|978-87-7934-096-1}}.
* Bremner HA (2003) [https://books.google.com/books?id=kcw6PgAACAAJ&q=%22fish+processing%22 ''Safety and Quality Issues in Fish Processing''] Woodhead Publishing Limited, {{ISBN|978-1-85573-678-8}}.
* Brewer DJ and Friedman RF (1989) [https://books.google.com/books?id=rpUeAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Fish+and+Fishing+in+Ancient+Egypt%22 ''Fish and Fishing in Ancient Egypt''] Cairo press: The American University in Cairo. {{ISBN|978-977-424-224-3}}
* Cutting CL (1955) ''Fish saving; a history of fish processing from ancient to modern times'', L. Hill.
* [[FAO]] and [[WHO]] (2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20170518205744/ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/Publications/Booklets/Practice_code_fish/CCFFP_2012_EN.pdf  ''Codex Alimentarius: Code of practice for fish and fishery products''] Rome. {{ISBN|978-92-5-107018-5}}.
* Hall GM (1997) [https://books.google.com/books?id=GNfMGwwHOREC&q=%22fish+processing%22 ''Fish processing technology''] Springer, {{ISBN|978-0-7514-0273-5}}.
* Luten JB, Jacobsen C and Bekaert K (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=AQsXAQAAIAAJ&q=intitle:Seafood+intitle:research+intitle:from+intitle:fish+intitle:to+intitle:dish ''Seafood research from fish to dish: quality, safety and processing of wild and farmed fish''] Wageningen Academic Publishers. {{ISBN|978-90-8686-005-0}}.
* Pearson AM and Dutson TR (1999) ''HACCP in Meat, Poultry and Fish Processing'', Volume 10 of ''Advances in meat research'', Springer. {{ISBN|978-0-8342-1327-2}}.
* Shahidi F, Jones Y and Kitts DD (1997) ''Seafood safety, processing, and biotechnology'', Technomic, {{ISBN|978-1-56676-573-2}}.
* Stellman JM (ed.) (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&dq=%22fish+processing%22&pg=PT266 ''Chemical, industries and occupations''] Volume 3 of ''Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety'', International Labour Organization. {{ISBN|978-92-2-109816-4}}.
* Stewart H (1982) [https://books.google.com/books?id=fudyXm4KMpQC&dq=%22Indian+Fishing:+Early+Methods+on+the+Northwest+Coast%22&pg=PA10 ''Indian Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest Coast''] University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|978-0-88894-332-3}}.
* Stewart K M (1989) Fishing Sites of North and East Africa in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Volume 34 of Cambridge monographs in African archaeology.
* Stewart KM (1994) [https://archive.today/20130201201226/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJS-45P0MX0-F&_user=10&_coverDate=07/31/1994&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=gateway&_origin=gateway&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1675398201&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=248b696d7aa25d70bc42ee05a2f59d2b&searchtype=a "Early hominid utilisation of fish resources and implications for seasonality and behaviour"] ''Journal of Human Evolution'', '''27''': 229–245.
* United Nations Development Fund for Women (1993) [http://www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/igo/1988/268846.pdf ''Fish processing''] Food Technology Source Book Series (UNIFEM) Series, {{ISBN|978-1-85339-137-8}}.

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611175856/http://www-seafood.ucdavis.edu/publications.html University of California] directory of academic and industry literature
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080519162808/http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/hip/hrp/sp/industry_profiles/fish_products.shtml Fish Products Industry in Canada]

{{fishing industry topics}}
{{commercial fish topics}}
{{dried fish}}

[[Category:Fish processing| ]]