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{{Short description|Catholic ecumenical council (1869–1870)}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=March 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox ecumenical council
| council_name = First Vatican Council
| council_date = {{plainlist|
*8 December 1869 – {{nowrap|20 September 1870}} (''[[de facto]]''; [[Capture of Rome]])
*8 December 1869 – {{nowrap|5 June 1960}} (''[[de jure]]'')}}
| image = Domalain (35) Église Saint-Melaine Vitrail 15-01.jpg
| caption =Window in [[Domalain]], Brittany, showing the Proclamation of Papal Infallability
| accepted_by = [[Catholic Church]]
| previous = [[Council of Trent]]
| next = [[Second Vatican Council]]
| convoked_by = [[Pope Pius IX]]
| presided_by = Pope Pius IX
| attendance = About 744
| topics = [[Rationalism]], [[materialism]], [[liberalism]], [[papal infallibility]], [[biblical inspiration]]
| documents = Two constitutions:
*{{lang|la|[[Dei Filius]]}}
*{{lang|la|[[Pastor aeternus]]}}
}}
{{Ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church}}

The '''First Ecumenical Council of the Vatican''', commonly known as the '''First Vatican Council''' or '''Vatican I''', was the 20th [[ecumenical council]] of the [[Catholic Church]], held three centuries after the preceding [[Council of Trent]] which was adjourned in 1563. The council was convoked by [[Pope Pius IX]] on 29 June 1868, under the rising threat of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] encroaching on the [[Papal States]]. It opened on 8 December 1869 and was adjourned on 20 September 1870 after the Italian [[Capture of Rome]]. Its best-known decision is its definition of [[papal infallibility]].{{sfn|"Vatican Council, First"|2001}}<ref>E. E. Y. Hales, "The First Vatican Council." ''Studies in Church History'' 7 (1971): 329–344. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-church-history/article/first-vatican-council/904F6F812EFD0ABD90730CAAD2957414 online]</ref>

The council's main purpose was to clarify [[Catholic theology|Catholic doctrine]] in response to the rising influence of the [[modern philosophical]] trends of the 19th century. In the Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith ({{lang|la|[[Dei Filius]]}}), the council condemned what it considered the errors of [[rationalism]], [[anarchism]], [[communism]], [[socialism]], [[liberalism]], [[materialism]], [[Modernism in the Catholic Church|modernism]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], [[pantheism]], and [[secularism]].{{sfn|"First Vatican Council"|2014}}

Its other concern was the doctrine of the [[Papal primacy|primacy]] ([[Papal supremacy|supremacy]]) and infallibility of the [[Bishop of Rome]] (the [[Pope]]),{{sfn|Tanner|1990}} which it defined in the First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ ({{lang|la|[[Pastor aeternus]]}}).<ref>John W. O'Malley, ''Vatican I: the council and the making of the ultramontane church'' (Harvard University Press, 2018).{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=July 2023}}</ref>

== Background ==
As early as late 1864, [[Pope Pius IX]] had commissioned the [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|cardinals]] resident in Rome to tender him their opinions as to the advisability of a council. The majority pronounced in favour of the scheme, dissenting voices being rare. After March 1865, the convocation of the council was no longer in doubt. Special bulls were reportedly issued with invitations to [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Protestant]] clerics as well as to other non-Catholics, but apparently none accepted the invitations.{{sfn|Mirbt|1911|p=947}}

The council was summoned by the pope by a [[Papal bull|bull]] on 29 June 1868.{{sfn|Kirch|1912|p=303}} The first session was held in [[St. Peter's Basilica]] on 8 December 1869.{{sfnm |1a1=Nobili-Vitelleschi |1y=1876 |1p=1 |2a1=Tanner |2y=1990}} Preliminary sessions dealt with general administrative matters and committee assignments. [[Bishop in the Catholic Church|Bishop]] [[Bernard John McQuaid]] complained of rainy weather, inadequate heating facilities, and boredom.<ref name="America">{{cite magazine |date=8 September 1962 |title=The First Vatican Council |url=http://conciliaria.com/2012/09/the-first-vatican-council/ |magazine=America |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915040732/http://conciliaria.com/2012/09/the-first-vatican-council/ |archive-date=15 September 2015 |access-date=2 March 2018 |via=Conciliaria}}</ref> Bishop [[James Roosevelt Bayley]] of Newark, New Jersey, noted the high prices in Rome.<ref name="America"/> When [[Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton|Lord Houghton]] asked [[Henry Edward Manning|Cardinal Manning]] what had been going on, he answered: "Well, we meet, and we look at one another, and then we talk a little, but when we want to know what we have been doing, we read ''[[The Times]]''."<ref>{{cite book |first=Augustus |last=Hare |author-link=Augustus Hare |title=The Story of My Life |volume=II |location=New York |publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company |date=1896 |page=504}}</ref>

Unlike the five earlier general councils held in [[Rome]], which met in the [[Archbasilica of St. John Lateran|Lateran Basilica]] and are known as [[Lateran council]]s, it met in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]] in the Vatican, hence its name.

== Papal infallibility ==
{{Papal primacy and infallibility|expanded=overview}}
{{Main|Papal infallibility}}

The object of the council was a mystery for a while. The first revelation was given in February 1869 by an article in {{lang|it|[[La Civiltà Cattolica]]}}, a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] periodical. It claimed, as the view of many Catholics in France, that the council would be of very brief duration, since the majority of its members were in agreement, and mentioned {{lang|la|inter alia}} the proclamation of papal infallibility. Factions around the proposal arose across Europe, and some Italians even proposed setting up a rival council in [[Naples]]. However, before the council met all became quiet in view of the studied vagueness of the invitation.{{sfn|Mirbt|1911|p=947}}

Pope Pius defined as [[Dogma in the Catholic Church|dogma]] the [[Immaculate Conception]] of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary, the mother of Jesus]], in 1854.{{sfn|Burton|Woodruff|2014}} However, the proposal to define papal infallibility itself as dogma met with resistance, not because of doubts about the substance of the proposed definition, but because some considered it inopportune to take that step at that time.{{sfn|Burton|Woodruff|2014}} [[Richard McBrien]] divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups. The first group, which McBrien calls the "active infallibilists", was led by [[Henry Edward Manning]] and [[Ignatius von Senestrey]]. According to McBrien, the majority of the bishops were not so much interested in a formal definition of papal infallibility as they were in strengthening papal authority and, because of this, were willing to accept the agenda of the infallibilists. A minority, some 10% of the bishops, McBrien says, opposed the proposed definition of papal infallibility on both ecclesiastical and pragmatic grounds, because, in their opinion, it departed from the ecclesiastical structure of the [[early Christianity|early Christian]] church.{{sfn|McBrien|1995|p=1297}} From a pragmatic perspective, they feared that defining papal infallibility would alienate some Catholics, create new difficulties for union with non-Catholics, and provoke interference by governments in ecclesiastical affairs. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldaeans]] and [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkites]], and a few [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenians]].{{sfn|Kirch|1912|p=305}} Only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself.{{sfn|Kirch|1912|p=305}}

== {{lang|la|Dei Filius}} ==
{{Main|Dei Filius}}

On 24 April 1870, the dogmatic constitution on the Catholic faith {{lang|la|Dei Filius}} was adopted unanimously. The draft presented to the council on 8 March drew no serious criticism, but a group of 35 English-speaking bishops, who feared that the opening phrase of the first chapter, "{{lang|la|Sancta romana catholica Ecclesia}}" ('Holy Roman Catholic Church'), might be construed as favouring the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[branch theory]], later succeeded in having an additional adjective inserted, so that the final text read: "{{lang|la|Sancta catholica apostolica romana Ecclesia}}" ('Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church').{{sfn|Lacoste|2004|p=1666}} The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church" on God, revelation and faith.{{sfn|De Mattei|2004|p=137}}

== {{lang|la|Pastor aeternus}} ==
{{Main|Pastor aeternus}}
[[File:Eclesiásticos de varios países reunidos en Roma con Motivo del Concilio.jpg|thumb|[[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|Catholic ecclesiastics]] from various countries gathered in Rome for the council]]

There was stronger opposition to the draft constitution on the nature of the church, which at first did not include the question of papal infallibility,{{sfn|"First Vatican Council"|2014}} but the majority party in the council, whose position on this matter was much stronger,{{sfn|Burton|Woodruff|2014}} brought it forward. It was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility.{{sfn|Burton|Woodruff|2014}} The decree did not go forward without controversy; Cardinal [[Filippo Maria Guidi]], Archbishop of Bologna, proposed adding that the pope is assisted by "the counsel of the bishops manifesting the tradition of the churches". Pius IX rejected Guidi's view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, maintaining: "I am the tradition."{{sfn|Duffy|2014|loc=loc.&nbsp;5428–5439}}

On 13 July 1870, a preliminary vote on the section on infallibility was held in a general congregation: 451 voted simply in favour ({{lang|la|placet}}), 88 against ({{lang|la|non placet}}), and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment ({{lang|la|placet iuxta modum}}).{{sfn|Hughes|1961|pp=342, 362}} This made evident what the outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The final vote, with a choice only between {{lang|la|placet}} and {{lang|la|non placet}}, was taken on 18 July 1870, with 533 votes in favour and only 2 against defining as a dogma the infallibility of the pope when speaking {{lang|la|ex cathedra}}.{{sfn|"First Vatican Council"|2014}} The two votes in opposition were cast by Bishops [[Aloisio Riccio]] and [[Edward Fitzgerald (bishop)|Edward Fitzgerald]].{{sfnm |1a1=Hughes |1y=1961 |1pp=364, 381 |2a1=Kirch |2y=1912 |2p=307}}

The dogmatic constitution states, in chapter 4:9, that the pope has "full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church" (chapter 3:9); and that, when he:{{blockquote|speaks {{lang|la|ex cathedra}}, that is, when, in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed his Church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals.|author=|title=|source=}}

None of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Some Catholics, mainly of German language and largely inspired by the historian [[Ignaz von Döllinger]], formed the separate [[Old Catholic Church]] in protest; von Döllinger did not formally join the new group himself.{{sfn|Hennesey|2009}}

== Suspension and aftermath ==
[[File:Engraving of First Vatican Council.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Drawing showing the First Vatican Council]]

Discussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break. In the meanwhile, [[Franco-Prussian War|France declared war on Prussia]], but soon was losing territory. With the swift advance of Prussian and allied South German forces in August, leading to the capture of Emperor [[Napoleon III]] at Sedan in early September, French troops protecting papal rule in Rome withdrew from the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=French Military Forces in Rome, 1849–1870 |url=https://www.rfrajola.com/FrenchRome/FrenchRome.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316163444/http://www.rfrajola.com/frenchrome/FrenchRome.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-16 |url-status=live |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Frajola}}</ref> Italy [[Capture of Rome|occupied Rome]] on 20 September 1870, but forces stayed away from the [[Leonine City]], and Pope Pius IX considered himself a prisoner in the Vatican.

On 20 October 1870, one month after the newly founded [[Kingdom of Italy]] had occupied Rome, Pope Pius IX issued the bull {{lang|la|Postquam Dei munere}}, adjourning the council indefinitely.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hennessy|first=Paul K.|date=1996|title=The Infallibility of the Papal Magisterium as Presented in the Pastoral Letters of the Bishops of the United States after Vatican I|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/horizons/article/infallibility-of-the-papal-magisterium-as-presented-in-the-pastoral-letters-of-the-bishops-of-the-united-states-after-vatican-i/8FED83A82B8B313B6DBA72FE104A4485|journal=Horizons|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=7–28|doi=10.1017/S0360966900029820|s2cid=170213488 |issn=0360-9669|url-access=subscription}}</ref> While some proposed to continue the council in the Belgian city of [[Mechlin]], it was never reconvened.{{sfn|Kirch|1912|p=307}} The council was formally closed in 1960 by [[Pope John XXIII]], prior to the formation of the [[Second Vatican Council]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Vatican I |url=https://vatican.com/Vatican-I/ |website=Vatican.com |access-date=25 February 2019 |date=22 May 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Concile œcuménique, Vatican, 8 décembre 1869, ND9528(2).jpg|thumb|Medal marking Vatican I]]
In reaction to the political implications of the doctrine of infallibility on the [[Sovereign state|sovereignty]] of [[secular state]]s, some of the European kingdoms and republics took rapid action against the Catholic Church. The [[Austrian Empire]] annulled the [[Concordat of 1855]]. In the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], the anti-Catholic ''[[Kulturkampf]]'' broke out immediately afterwards, and in the [[French Third Republic]] the synod so accentuated the power of [[ultramontanism]] (an emphasis on the powers of the pope), that Republican France took steps to curb it by revoking the [[Concordat of 1801]], and therefore [[Separation of church and state|completely separating the Church from the state]].{{sfn|Mirbt|1911|p=951}}

== Controversies and opposition ==
[[File:First Vatican Council, 1869-1870; Pope Pius IX leading his Wellcome V0040850.jpg|thumb|Satirical cartoon by [[John Tenniel]] and [[Joseph Swain (engraver)|Joseph Swain]], showing the Pope leading a line of Catholic clerics along a plank placed on thin ice. A group of [[Anglo-Catholics]] at left are also considering venturing on the dangerous ice.]]
The dogma of papal infallibility raised considerable opposition in some liberal theological circles in the [[Netherlands]], [[Austria-Hungary|Austria]], [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Switzerland]]; the most notable theologian opposing the formulation of the dogma was [[Ignaz von Döllinger]], who was excommunicated in 1871 by Archbishop [[Gregor von Scherr]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Munich and Freising|Munich and Freising]], for refusing to accept the council's decision.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Joseph-Ignaz-von-Dollinger |access-date= |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Old Catholic schism ===
Following the council's decision, a minority of clergy and laity opposed to the newly proclaimed dogma united with the [[Jansenism|Jansenists]], which had maintained a somewhat precarious existence in separation from Rome since the 18th century but had preserved an episcopal succession recognized by Rome as [[Validity and liceity (Catholic Church)|valid though illicit]]. The first consecration of the new order was that of Joseph H. Reinkens, who was made bishop in Germany by a sympathetic Jansenist bishop [[Johannes Heykamp]] of [[Old Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht|Utrecht]]. Such new group referred to itself as the [[Old Catholic Church]] (or the [[Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland|Christian Catholic Church]] in Switzerland). Old Catholics in Europe united into the [[Union of Utrecht (Old Catholic)|Union of Utrecht]] in 1889, which entered into full communion with the [[Anglican Communion]] in 1931 through the [[Bonn Agreement (Christianity)|Bonn Agreement]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Old Catholic church |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Old-Catholic-church |access-date= |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

The Union of Utrecht still exists to this day and includes the [[Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands]], the [[Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany]], the [[Old Catholic Church of Austria]], the [[Old Catholic Church of the Czech Republic]], the [[Polish-Catholic Church of the Republic of Poland]] and the [[Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland]]. The [[Union of Scranton]], formed by more theologically conservative Old Catholics, was formed in 2008 and currently includes the [[Polish National Catholic Church]] and the [[Nordic Catholic Church]].<ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* [[Second Vatican Council]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{reflist|22em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last1=Burton
|first1=Ivor F.
|last2=Woodruff
|first2=Douglas
|author2-link=Douglas Woodruff
|year=2014
|title=Pius IX
|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pius-IX
|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica
|access-date=2 March 2018
}}
* {{cite book
|last=De Mattei
|first=Roberto
|author-link=Roberto de Mattei
|year=2004
|title=Pius IX
|translator-last=Laughland
|translator-first=John
|location=Leominster, England
|publisher=Gracewing
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Duffy
|first=Eamon
|author-link=Eamon Duffy
|year=2014
|title=Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes
|edition=4th
|location=New Haven, Connecticut
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-0-300-11597-0
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/00book1593273669
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|year=2014
|title=First Vatican Council
|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Vatican-Council
|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica
|access-date=2 March 2018
|ref={{sfnref|"First Vatican Council"|2014}}
}}

* Hales, E. E. Y. "The First Vatican Council." ''Studies in Church History'' 7 (1971): 329–344. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-church-history/article/first-vatican-council/904F6F812EFD0ABD90730CAAD2957414 online]
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Hennesey
|first=James
|year=2009
|title=First Vatican Council
|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576278/first_vatican_council.html
|encyclopedia=[[Encarta]]
|publisher=Microsoft
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091031105223/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576278/First_Vatican_Council.html
|archive-date=31 October 2009
|url-status=dead
|access-date=2 March 2018
}}
* Hennesey, James. "National Traditions and the First Vatican Council." ''Archivum Historiae Pontificiae'' (1969): 491–512. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23563715 online]
* {{cite book
|last=Hughes
|first=Philip
|year=1961
|title=The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, 325–1870
|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.178473
|location=Garden City, New York
|publisher=Hanover House
|access-date=3 March 2018
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Kirch
|first=J.&nbsp;M. Konrad
|year=1912
|title=[[wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Vatican Council|Vatican Council]]
|editor1-last=Herbermann
|editor1-first=Charles G.
|editor1-link=Charles George Herbermann
|editor2-last=Pace
|editor2-first=Edward A.
|editor2-link=Edward A. Pace
|editor3-last=Pallen
|editor3-first=Condé B.
|editor3-link=Condé Benoist Pallen
|editor4-last=Shahan
|editor4-first=Thomas J.
|editor4-link=Thomas Joseph Shahan
|editor5-last=Wynne
|editor5-first=John J.
|encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
|volume=15
|location=New York
|publisher=The Encyclopedia Press
|publication-date=1913
|pages=303–309
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|last=Lacoste
|first=Jean-Yves
|author-link=Jean-Yves Lacoste
|year=2004
|title=Vatican I, Council of
|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christian Theology
|location=New York
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-57958-250-0
}}
* {{cite book
|year=1995
|editor-last=McBrien
|editor-first=Richard P.
|editor-link=Richard McBrien
|title=The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism
|location=New York
|publisher=HarperCollins
|isbn=978-0-06-065338-5
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060653385
}}
* {{EB1911
|wstitle=Vatican Council, The
|volume=27
|pages=947–951
|first=Carl Theodor
|last=Mirbt
|author-link=Carl Mirbt
}}

* {{cite book
|last=Nobili-Vitelleschi
|first=Francesco
|year=1876
|title=The Vatican Council: Eight Months at Rome during the Vatican Council
|url=https://archive.org/details/vaticancouncil00nobiuoft
|location=London
|publisher=John Murray
|access-date=3 March 2018
}} This contains a detailed account of the course of the council, and some commentary on the immediate political impact.

* O'Malley, John W. ''Vatican I: the council and the making of the ultramontane church'' (Harvard University Press, 2018).
* {{cite book
|year=1990
|chapter=First Vatican Council (1869–1870)
|chapter-url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/V1.htm
|editor-last=Tanner
|editor-first=Norman P.
|title=Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils
|access-date=2 March 2018
|via=EWTN
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
|year=2001
|title=Vatican Council, First
|url=http://www.bartleby.com:80/65/va/VatCoun1.html
|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia
|edition=6th
|location=New York
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010618040558/http://www.bartleby.com/65/va/VatCoun1.html
|archive-date=18 June 2001
|access-date=3 March 2018
|ref={{sfnref|"Vatican Council, First"|2001}}
|url-status=live
}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book
|last=De Cesare
|first=Raffaele
|year=1909
|title=The Last Days of Papal Rome
|url=https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft
|translator-last=Zimmern
|translator-first=Helen
|translator-link=Helen Zimmern
|location=London
|publisher=Archibald Constable & Co.
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Hales
|first=E.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Y.
|author-link=E. E. Y. Hales
|year=1958
|title=The Catholic Church in the Modern World: A Survey from the French Revolution to the Present
|location=Garden City, New York
|publisher=Doubleday
}}
* Hales, E. E. Y. ''Pio Nono'' (1954) biography of Pope Pius IX; [https://archive.org/details/piononostudyineu0000eeyh online]
* {{cite book
|last=Hasler
|first=August Bernhard
|year=1981
|title=How the Pope Became Infallible: Pius IX and the Politics of Persuasion
|url=https://archive.org/details/howpopebecameinf0000hasl
|url-access=registration
|location=Garden City, New York
|publisher=Doubleday
|isbn=978-0385158510
}}
* Hoppen, K. Theodore. "First Vatican Council, 1869–70" ''History Today'' (Oct 1969), Vol. 19 Issue 10, pp.&nbsp;713–720 online
* Kadić, Ante. "Bishop Strossmayer and the First Vatican Council." '' Slavonic and East European Review'' 49.116 (1971): 382–409. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4206412 online]; he played a major role. 
* Noether, Emiliana P. "Vatican Council I: Its Political and Religious Setting." ''Journal of Modern History'' 40.2 (1968): 218–233. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1876730 online].
* Portier, William L. "The First Vatican Council, John Henry Newman, and the Making of a Post-Christendom Church." ''Newman Studies Journal'' 17.1 (2020): 123–144. [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/16/article/763910/summary excerpt]
* {{cite book
|last=Prusak
|first=Bernard P.
|year=2004
|title=The Church Unfinished: Ecclesiology through the Centuries
|location=New York
|publisher=Paulist Press
|isbn=978-0-8091-4286-6
}}
* Raymond, John. "The First Vatican Council 1869–1870." ''History Today'' (Nov 1962) 12#11 pp 759–767. online.
* Verhoeven, Timothy. "Transatlantic Connections: American Anti-Catholicism and the First Vatican Council (1869–70)." '' Catholic Historical Review'' 100.4 (2014): 695–720. Anti-Catholics were outraged. [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/16/article/575890/summary excerpt]
* Wallace, L. P. ''The Papacy and European Diplomacy, 1869–1878'' (U North Carolina Press, 1948)
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum20.htm Text of the council's ruling]

{{Ecumenical councils}}
{{History of the Roman Catholic Church}}
{{Vatican City topics}}
{{Subject bar |portal1=Catholicism |portal2=Vatican City |commons=yes |commons-search=Category:First Vatican Council |s=yes |s-search=Portal:First Vatican Council |d=yes }}
{{Real presence}}
{{Authority control}}

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