View source for First Congo War

{{Short description|1996–1997 war in central Africa}}
{{For|the 1993–1994 war in the Republic of the Congo|First Republic of the Congo Civil War}}
{{For|the role of Africa in [[World War I]]|African theatre of World War I}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| image             = First Congo War offensive map en.svg
| caption           = Map showing the AFDL offensive
| conflict          = First Congo War
| partof            = the [[Congolese Civil War (disambiguation)|Congolese Civil War]]s, aftermath of the [[Rwandan genocide]], spillovers of the [[Burundian Civil War]], the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] and the [[Angolan Civil War]]
| date              = 24 October 1996 – 16 May 1997<br/>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=24|year1=1996|month2=05|day2=16|year2=1997}})
| place             = [[Zaire]], with spillovers into [[Uganda]] and [[Sudan]]{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=375–377}}
| result            = AFDL victory
*Overthrow of the [[Politics of Zaire|Mobutu regime]]
*[[Zaire]] renamed back to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*Installation of [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]] as [[President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|president]]
*Beginning of [[Second Congo War]]
| combatant1        = '''{{flag|Zaire}}'''
*[[Zairean Armed Forces|FAZ]]
*[[White Legion (Zaire)|White Legion]]
{{flag|Sudan}}{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=376–377}}<br/>{{flag|Chad}}<ref name="chad">{{cite book|first=Ésaïe|last=Toïngar|year=2014|page=119|title=Idriss Deby and the Darfur Conflict|quote=In 1996, President Mobutu of Zaire requested that mercenaries be sent from Chad to help defend his government from rebel forces led by Lauren Desiré Kabila. ... When a number of the troops were ambushed by Kabila and killed in defense of Mobutu's government, Mobutu paid Déby a fee in honor of their service.}}</ref><br/>{{flagicon|Rwanda|1962}} Ex-[[Rwandan Armed Forces|FAR]]/[[Army for the Liberation of Rwanda|ALiR]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Rwandan Democratic Movement.svg}} [[Interahamwe]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the CNDD-FDD.svg}} [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy|CNDD-FDD]]{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=116–118}}<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of UNITA.svg}} [[UNITA]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/052097.htm |title=Congo Begins Process of Rebuilding Nation |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Lynne |last=Duke |date=20 May 1997 |page=A10 |quote=Guerrillas of Angola's former rebel movement UNITA, long supported by Mobutu in an unsuccessful war against Angola's government, also fought for Mobutu against Kabila's forces. |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224121909/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/congo/stories/052097.htm |archive-date=24 February 2011 }}</ref><br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Allied Democratic Forces.svg}} [[Allied Democratic Forces|ADF]]{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=375–377}}<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Katanga.svg}} [[Congolese National Liberation Front|FLNC]]{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112–113}}<br />'''Supported by:'''<br />{{flag|France|1974}}<ref name="france"/><ref name="CAR"/><br />{{flag|Central African Republic}}<ref name="CAR"/><br />{{flag|China}}{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112}}<br />{{flag|Israel}}{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112}}<br />{{flag|Kuwait}} (denied){{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112}}
----
[[Mai-Mai]]{{efn|name=Mai-Mai|Many Mai-Mai militias in eastern Zaire initially allied themselves with Rwanda and the AFDL against Hutu militants and refugees.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=117, 130, 143}} As soon as most Hutu were driven away, however, many Mai-Mai groups turned against Rwanda and the AFDL.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=130}} Despite this, some anti-Hutu Mai-Mai remained allied with Rwanda and the AFDL.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=143}} }}
| combatant2        = {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo|1997}} '''[[AFDL]]'''<br />{{flag|Rwanda|1962}}<br/>{{flag|Uganda}}{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=375–376}}<br/>{{flag|Burundi}}<ref name="WashingtonPostApril15">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/africa/april/15/zprotest.htm |title=Passive Protest Stops Zaire's Capital Cold |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Lynne |last=Duke |date=15 April 1997 |page=A14 |quote=Kabila's forces – which are indeed backed by Rwanda, Angola, Uganda and Burundi, diplomats say – are slowly advancing toward the capital from the eastern half of the country, where they have captured all the regions that produce Zaire's diamonds, gold, copper and cobalt. |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110224121909/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/africa/april/15/zprotest.htm |archive-date=24 February 2011 }}</ref><br />{{flag|Angola}}<ref name="WashingtonPostApril15"/><br/>{{Flagicon|South Sudan|size=22px}} [[Sudan People's Liberation Army|SPLA]]{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=376–377}}<br/>{{flag|Eritrea}}{{sfnp|Plaut|2016|pp=54–55}}<br/>'''Supported by:'''<br />{{flag|South Africa}}<ref name="icg">{{cite book|title="Consensual Democracy" in Post-genocide Rwanda|page=8|year=2001|publisher=International Crisis Group|quote= In that first struggle in the Congo, Rwanda, allied with Uganda, Angola, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Burundi, had brought Laurent Désiré Kabila to power in Kinshasa}}</ref><br />{{flag|Zambia}}{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=65–66}}<br />{{flag|Zimbabwe}}<ref name="icg"/><br />{{flag|Ethiopia|1996}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Artur|last=Usanov|year=2013|title=Coltan, Congo and Conflict|page=36|publisher=Hague Centre for Strategic Studies}}</ref><br />{{flag|Tanzania}}<ref name="nyerere"/><br/>{{flag|United States}} (covertly){{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=118, 126–127}}
----
[[Mai-Mai]]{{efn|name=Mai-Mai}}
| commander1        = {{flagicon|Zaire}} [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]<br/>{{flagicon|Zaire}} [[Donatien Mahele Lieko Bokungu]]{{Executed}}<br/>{{flagicon|Zaire}} Christian Tavernier<br />{{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Omar al-Bashir]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of UNITA.svg}} [[Jonas Savimbi]]<br/>{{Flagicon|Rwanda|1962}} Paul Rwarakabije<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Rwandan Democratic Movement.svg}} [[Robert Kajuga (militiaman)|Robert Kajuga]]<br/>{{Flagicon|Rwanda|1962}} [[Tharcisse Renzaho]]
| commander2        = {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo|1997}} [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]<br/>{{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo|1997}} [[André Kisase Ngandu]]{{KIA}}<br/>{{flagicon|Rwanda|1962}} [[Paul Kagame]]<br/>{{flagicon|Rwanda|1962}} [[James Kabarebe]]<br/>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Yoweri Museveni]] <br/>{{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Pierre Buyoya]]<br/>{{flagicon|Angola}} [[José Eduardo dos Santos]]
| strength1         = '''Zaire:''' {{circa}} 50,000{{efn|Officially, the FAZ had {{circa}} 80,000 soldiers by the war's start, though the actual number was closer to about 50,000.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=128}}<ref name="strength">{{cite journal |url=http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/4358/5015 |title=Congo-Zaire's 1996–97 Civil War in the Context of Evolving Patterns of Military Conflict in Africa in the Era of Independence |first=William G. |last=Thom |journal=Journal of Conflict Studies|volume=19 |issue=2 |year=1999}}</ref> Of these, just 25,000 were in a condition to fight, whereas the rest was likely to flee or desert upon the first signs of combat.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=128}} }}<br/>'''Interahamwe:''' 40,000–100,000 total<ref name="strength"/><br/>'''UNITA:''' {{circa}} 1,000<ref name="strength"/>–2,000{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112–113}}
| strength2         = '''AFDL:''' 57,000<ref name="num">This number was self-declared and was not independently verified. Johnson, Dominic: Kongo&nbsp;— Kriege, Korruption und die Kunst des Überlebens, Brandes & Apsel, Frankfurt am Main, 2. Auflage 2009 {{ISBN|978-3-86099-743-7}}</ref>
*Kadogo ([[Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|child soldiers]]): 10,000–15,000{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|p=251}}
'''Rwanda:''' 3,500–4,000<ref name="num"/>{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|p=35}}<br/>'''Angola:''' 3,000+{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|p=35}}<br/>'''Eritrea:''' 1 battalion{{sfnp|Plaut|2016|p=55}}
| casualties1       = 10,000–15,000 killed<br />10,000 defected{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|p=35}}<br/>thousands surrender
| casualties2       = 3,000–5,000 killed
| casualties3       = 222,000 refugees missing<ref>CDI:  The Center for Defense Information, The Defense Monitor, "The World At War: January 1, 1998".</ref><br />'''Total:''' 250,000 dead<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Democratic Republic of Congo: War against unarmed civilians |journal=[[Amnesty International]] |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/036/1998/en/ |date=1998-11-23 |series=AFR 62/036/1998}}</ref>
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Conflict in Congo}}
}}
The '''First Congo War''',{{Efn|{{langx|fr|Première guerre du Congo}}|group=lower-alpha}} also known as '''Africa's First World War''',{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=72}} was a [[Civil war|civil]] and international military conflict that lasted from 24 October 1996 to 16 May 1997, primarily taking place in [[Zaire]] (which was renamed the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] during the conflict). The war resulted in the overthrow of Zairean President [[Mobutu Sese Seko]], who was replaced by rebel leader [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]. This conflict, which also involved multiple neighboring countries, set the stage for the [[Second Congo War]] (1998–2003) due to tensions between Kabila and his former allies.

By 1996, Zaire was in a state of political and economic collapse, exacerbated by long-standing internal strife and the destabilizing effects of the 1994 [[Rwandan genocide]], which had led to the influx of refugees and militant groups into the country. The Zairean government under Mobutu, weakened by years of dictatorship and corruption, was unable to maintain control,{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=33–35}}{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=77, 83}} and the army had deteriorated significantly.{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=23–24, 33}}{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|p=128}} With Mobutu terminally ill and unable to manage his fractured government, loyalty to his regime waned. The end of the [[Cold War]] further reduced Mobutu's international support, leaving his regime politically and financially bankrupt.{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=23–24, 33–35}}{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=118, 126–127}}

The war began when [[Rwanda]] invaded eastern Zaire in 1996 to target rebel groups that had sought refuge there. This invasion expanded as [[Uganda]], [[Burundi]], [[Angola]], and [[Eritrea]] joined, while an anti-Mobutu coalition of Congolese rebels formed.{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=33–35}} Despite efforts to resist, Mobutu's regime quickly collapsed,{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=34–35}} with widespread violence and ethnic killings occurring throughout the conflict.{{sfnp|Prunier|2009|pp=143–148}} Hundreds of thousands died as the government forces, supported by Sudanese troops, were overwhelmed.

After Mobutu's ousting, Kabila's government renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo. However, his regime remained unstable, as he sought to distance himself from his former Rwandan and Ugandan backers. In response, Kabila expelled foreign troops and forged alliances with regional powers such as Angola, [[Zimbabwe]], and [[Namibia]].{{sfnp|Abbott|2014|pp=36–39}} These actions prompted a second invasion from Rwanda and Uganda, triggering the Second Congo War in 1998. Some historians and analysts view the First and Second Congo Wars as part of a continuous conflict with lasting effects that continue to affect the region today.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=194}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 August 1998 |title=DISARMAMENT: SADC Moves into Unknown Territory |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/1998/08/disarmament-sadc-moves-into-unknown-territory |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618153341/http://www.ipsnews.net/1998/08/disarmament-sadc-moves-into-unknown-territory/ |archive-date=18 June 2020 |access-date=23 November 2020}}</ref>

==Background==

===Decline of Zaire===
{{further|Zaire|1991 Zaire unrest}}
[[File:Mobutu.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mobutu Sese Seko]], long-time dictator of [[Zaire]] ]]

A ethnic [[Ngbandi people|Ngbandi]], Mobutu came to power in 1965 and enjoyed support from the [[United States government]] because of his [[anti-communist]] stance while in office. However, Mobutu's totalitarian rule and corrupt policies allowed the Zairian state to decay, evidenced by a 65% decrease in Zairian [[GDP]] between independence in 1960 and the end of Mobutu's reign in 1997.<ref>Gondola, Ch. Didier. The History of Congo. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002. p. 6</ref> Following the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1992, the United States stopped supporting Mobutu in favor of what it called a "new generation of African leaders",{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=147}} including Rwanda's [[Paul Kagame]] and Uganda's [[Yoweri Museveni]].

A wave of [[democratization]] swept across Africa during the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph |first=Richard |date=April 1997 |title=Democratization in Africa after 1989: Comparative and Theoretical Perspectives |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/422126 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=363 |doi=10.2307/422126 |issn=0010-4159|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Under substantial internal and external pressure for a democratic transition in Zaire, Mobutu promised reform. He officially ended the [[one-party system]] he had maintained since 1967, but ultimately proved unwilling to implement broad reform, alienating allies both at home and abroad. In fact, the Zairian state had all but ceased to exist.{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=157}} The majority of the Zairian population relied on an [[informal sector|informal economy]] for their subsistence, since the official economy was not reliable.{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=157}} Furthermore, the Zairian national army, ''Forces Armées Zaïroises'' (FAZ), was forced to prey upon the population for survival; Mobutu himself allegedly once asked FAZ soldiers why they needed pay when they had weapons.<ref>
{{cite web |url= http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=61006 |title= Congo's Curse |agency= IRIN |date= 5 October 2010 |access-date= 2015-10-15 |quote= Ex-president Mobutu once asked his soldiers why they needed salaries when they had guns [...] |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100827170948/http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=61006 |archive-date= 27 August 2010 }}
</ref>

Mobutu's rule encountered considerable internal resistance, and given the weak central state, rebel groups could find refuge in Zaire's eastern provinces, far from the capital, [[Kinshasa]]. Opposition groups included leftists who had supported [[Patrice Lumumba]] (1925–1961), as well as ethnic and regional minorities opposed to the nominal dominance of Kinshasa. [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]], an ethnic [[Luba people|Luba]] from [[Katanga (province)|Katanga]] province who would eventually overthrow Mobutu, had fought Mobutu's régime since its inception.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|p=190}}
The inability of the Mobutuist régime to control rebel movements in its eastern provinces eventually allowed its internal and external foes to ally.

===Ethnic tensions===
Tensions had existed between various ethnic groups in eastern Zaire for centuries, especially between the [[agrarian society|agrarian]] tribes of Congo and the [[Banyarwanda]] in the Eastern region of Congo of [[Kivu]]. When colonial boundaries were drawn in the late nineteenth century many Banyarwanda found themselves on the Congolese side of the Rwandan border, in Kivu province.{{sfn|Vlassenroot|2006|p=53}} The earliest of these migrants arrived before [[colonisation]] in the 1880s, followed by emigrants whom the [[Belgian Congo|Belgian]] [[colonization of Africa|colonizers]] forcibly relocated to Congo to perform manual labour (after 1908), and by another significant wave of emigrants fleeing the social revolution of 1959 that brought the [[Hutu]] to power in [[Kigali]].{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|p=32}}

Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire before Congolese independence in 1960 are known as [[Banyamulenge]], meaning "from [[Mulenge]]", and had the right to citizenship under Zairian law.{{sfn|Vlassenroot|2002}} Tutsi who emigrated to Zaire following independence are known as [[Banyarwanda]], although the native locals often do not distinguish between the two, calling both Banyamulenge and considering them foreigners.{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|p=32}}

After coming to power in 1965, Mobutu gave the Banyamulenge political power in the east in hopes that they, as a minority, would keep a tight grip on power and prevent more populous ethnicities from forming an opposition.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008">{{Citation |last=Autesserre |first=Séverine |title=The Trouble With Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict. |work=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=87 |issue=3 |year=2008 |author-link=Séverine Autesserre}}</ref> This move aggravated the existing ethnic tensions by strengthening the Banyamulenge's hold over important stretches of land in [[North Kivu]] that indigenous people claimed as their own.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/> From 1963 to 1966 the [[Hunde]] and [[Nande language|Nande]] ethnic groups of [[North Kivu]] fought against Rwandan emigrants<ref>{{cite book
 |title       = Struggles for Citizenship in Africa: African Arguments
 |author      = Bronwen Manby
 |publisher   = Zed Books Ltd
 |year        = 2013
 |isbn        = 978-1-84813-786-8
 |via         = Google Books
 |url         = https://books.google.com/books?id=vYdjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT54
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20180507135116/https://books.google.com/books?id=vYdjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT54
 |archive-date = 7 May 2018
 }}(no page numbers)</ref> — both Tutsi and Hutu – in the [[Kanyarwanda War]], which involved several massacres.{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|p=13}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/conflict-and-environmental-insecurity-in-the-north-kivu-province-of-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/|title=Conflict and environmental insecurity in the North Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo – ACCORD|website=accord.org.za|access-date=7 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129004851/http://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/conflict-and-environmental-insecurity-in-the-north-kivu-province-of-the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/|archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref>

Despite a strong Rwandan presence in Mobutu's government, in 1981, Zaire adopted a restrictive citizenship law  which denied the Banyamulenge and Banyarwanda citizenship and therewith all political rights.{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|pp=15–16}} Though never enforced, the law greatly angered individuals of Rwandan descent and contributed to a rising sense of ethnic hatred.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/> From 1993 to 1996 Hunde, Nande, and [[Nyanga language|Nyanga]] youth regularly attacked the Banyamulenge, leading to a total of 14,000 deaths.{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|pp=13–14}} In 1995 the Zairian Parliament ordered all peoples of Rwandan or Burundian descent repatriated to their countries of origin, including the Banyamulenge.{{Sfn|Lemarchand|2009|p=16}} Due to political exclusion and ethnic violence, as early as 1991 the Banyamulenge developed ties to the [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF), a mainly Tutsi rebel movement based in Uganda but with aspirations to power in Rwanda.{{sfn|Vlassenroot|2002|p=508}}

===Rwandan genocide===
{{Main|Rwandan Civil War|Rwandan genocide}}
[[File:Rwandan refugee camp in east Zaire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A Rwandan refugee camp in Zaire, 1994]]

The most deciding event in precipitating the war was the genocide in neighbouring [[Rwanda]] in 1994, which sparked a mass exodus of refugees known as the [[Great Lakes refugee crisis]]. During the 100-day genocide, hundreds of thousands of [[Tutsi]] and sympathizers were massacred at the hands of predominantly Hutu aggressors. The genocide ended when the Hutu government in Kigali was overthrown by the Tutsi-dominated [[Rwandan Patriotic Front]] (RPF).

Of those who fled Rwanda during the crisis, about 1.5 million settled in eastern Zaire.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=45}} These refugees included Tutsi who fled the Hutu ''[[Genocidaires|génocidaires]]'' as well as one million Hutu that fled the Tutsi RPF's subsequent retaliation.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/> Prominent among the latter group were the ''génocidaires'' themselves, such as elements of the former Rwandan Army, ''{{Interlanguage link|Forces armées rwandaises|fr}}'' (FAR), and independent Hutu extremist groups known as ''[[Interahamwe]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mugnier |first=David |date=2007-12-03 |title=North Kivu: How to End a War |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/democratic-republic-congo/north-kivu-how-end-war |url-status=live |access-date=2022-10-14 |website=[[International Crisis Group]] |archive-date=14 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014122038/https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/democratic-republic-congo/north-kivu-how-end-war }}</ref> Often, these Hutu forces allied themselves with local [[Mai Mai]] militias, who granted them access to mines and weapons. Though these were initially self-defense organizations, they quickly became aggressors.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/>

The Hutu set up camps in eastern Zaire from which they attacked both the newly arrived Rwandan Tutsi as well as the [[Banyamulenge]] and [[Banyarwanda]]. These attacks caused about one hundred deaths a month during the first half of 1996.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|p=143}} Furthermore, the newly arrived militants were intent on returning to power in Rwanda and began launching attacks against the new regime in Kigali, which represented a serious security threat to the infant state.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=30}} Not only was the Mobutu government incapable of controlling the former ''génocidaires'' for previously mentioned reasons but actually supported them in training and supplying for an invasion of Rwanda,{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=18}} forcing Kigali to act.

==Banyamulenge rebellion==
Given the exacerbated [[ethnic hatred|ethnic tensions]] and the lack of government control in the past, Rwanda took action against the security threat posed by ''[[génocidaire]]s'' who had found refuge in eastern Zaire. The government in [[Kigali]] began forming [[Tutsi]] [[militia]]s for operations in Zaire probably as early as 1995{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=48}} and chose to act following an exchange of fire between Rwandan Tutsi and Zairian Green Berets that marked the outbreak of the [[Banyamulenge]] Rebellion on 31 August 1996.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=49}}

While there was general unrest in eastern Zaire, the rebellion was probably not a grassroots movement; Uganda president [[Yoweri Museveni]], who supported and worked closely with Rwanda in the First Congo War, later recalled that the rebellion was incited by Zairian Tutsi who had been recruited by the [[Rwandan Patriotic Army]] (RPA).{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=48}} The initial goal of the Banyamulenge Rebellion was to seize power in Zaire's eastern Kivu provinces and combat the extremist Hutu forces attempting to continue the genocide in their new home. However, the rebellion did not remain Tutsi-dominated for long. Mobutu's harsh and selfish rule created enemies in virtually all sectors of Zairian society. As a result, the new rebellion benefited from massive public support and grew to be a general revolution rather than a mere Banyamulenge uprising.<ref>Afoaku, Osita. "Congo's Rebels: Their Origins, Motivations, and Strategies." Ed. John F. Clark. The Africa Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 109-28. p. 121</ref>

Banyamulenge elements and non-Tutsi militias coalesced into the [[AFDL|Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo]] (AFDL) under the leadership of [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]], who had been a long-time opponent of the Mobutu government and was a leader of one of the three main rebel groups that founded the AFDL. While the AFDL was an ostensibly Zairian rebel movement, Rwanda had played a key role in its formation. Observers of the war, as well as the Rwandan Defense Minister and vice-president at the time, [[Paul Kagame]], claim that the AFDL was formed in and directed from Kigali and contained not only Rwandan-trained troops but also regulars of the [[Rwandan Patriotic Army|RPA]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Pomfret, John. "Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive." Washington Post. 9 July 1997: A1.</ref>

==Foreign involvement==

===Rwanda===
{{See also|Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations}}[[File:Zaire 96map.png|thumb|Map of Zaire in {{circa}}1996]]

According to expert observers, as well as Kagame himself, Rwanda played the largest role of a foreign actor, if not the largest role of all, in the First Congo War. Kigali was instrumental in the formation of the AFDL and sent its own troops to fight alongside the rebels. While its actions were originally sparked by the security threat posed by the Zairian-based ''génocidaires,'' Kigali was pursuing multiple goals during its invasion of Zaire.

The first and foremost of these was the suppression of ''génocidaires'' who had been launching attacks against the new Rwandan state from Zaire. Kagame claimed that Rwandan agents had discovered the plans to invade Rwanda with support from Mobutu; in response, Kigali began its intervention with the intention of dismantling the refugee camps in which the ''génocidaires'' often took refuge and destroying the structure of these anti-Rwandan elements.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

A second goal cited by Kagame was the overthrow of Mobutu. While partially a means to minimize the threat in eastern Zaire, the new Rwandan state also sought to set up a puppet regime in Kinshasa.{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=147}} This goal was not particularly threatening to other states in the region because it was ostensibly a means to secure Rwandan stability and because many of them also opposed Mobutu. Kigali was further aided by the tacit support of the United States, which supported Kagame as a member of the new generation of African leaders.{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=147}}

However, the true intentions of Rwanda are not entirely clear. Some authors have proposed that dismantling refugee camps was a means of replenishing Rwanda's depleted population and workforce following the genocide; because the destruction of the camps was followed by forced repatriation of Tutsi regardless of whether they were Rwandan or Zairian.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|pp=107; 201}} The intervention may also have been motivated by revenge; the Rwandan forces, as well as the AFDL, massacred retreating Hutu refugees in several known instances.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|pp=213–214}} A commonly cited factor for Rwandan actions is that the RPF, which had recently come to power in Kigali, had come to see itself as the protector of the Tutsi nation and was therefore partially acting in defense of its Zairian brethren.<ref>Longman, Timothy. "The Complex Reasons for Rwanda's Engagement in Congo." Ed. John F. Clark. The African Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 129-44. p. 131</ref><ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/>

Rwanda possibly also harbored ambitions to annex portions of eastern Zaire. [[Pasteur Bizimungu]], president of Rwanda from 1994 to 2000, presented the then-US ambassador to Rwanda, Robert Gribbin, with the idea of a "Greater Rwanda." This idea purports that the ancient state of Rwanda included parts of eastern Zaire that should actually belong to Rwanda.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|pp=175–176}} However, it appears that Rwanda never seriously attempted to annex these territories. The history of conflict in the Congo is often associated with illegal resource exploitation but, although Rwanda did benefit financially by plundering Zaire's wealth,{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=147–148}} this is not usually considered their initial motivation for Rwandan intervention in the First Congo War.<ref name="Samset, Ingrid 2002. pp. 470">Samset, Ingrid. 'Conflict of Interests or Interests in Conflict? Diamonds & War in the DRC.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 463–480. pp. 470–471</ref>

===Uganda===
As a close ally of the RPF, [[Uganda]] also played a major role in the First Congo War. Prominent members of the RPF had fought alongside [[Yoweri Museveni]] in the [[Ugandan Bush War]] that brought him to power, and Museveni allowed the RPF to use Uganda as a base during the 1990 offensive into Rwanda and [[Rwandan Civil War|subsequent civil war]]. Given their historical ties, the Rwandan and Ugandan governments were closely allied and Museveni worked closely with Kagame throughout the First Congo War. Ugandan soldiers were present in Zaire throughout the conflict and Museveni likely helped Kagame plan and direct the AFDL.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=48}}

Lt. Col. [[James Kabarebe]] of the AFDL, for example, was a former member of Uganda's [[National Resistance Army]], the military wing of the rebel movement that brought Museveni to power, and [[Directorate-General for External Security|French]] and [[Belgian State Security Service|Belgian intelligence]] reported that 15,000 Ugandan-trained Tutsi fought for the AFDL.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=54; 58}} However, Uganda did not support Rwanda in all aspects of the war. Museveni was reportedly much less inclined to overthrow Mobutu, preferring to keep the rebellion in the East where the former ''génocidaires'' were operating.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=59}}

===Angola===
Angola remained on the sidelines until 1997, but its entrance into the fray greatly increased the already superior strength of anti-Mobutu forces. The Angolan government chose to act primarily through the original-[[Katanga Gendarmerie]]s later called the ''Tigres'', proxy groups formed from the remnants of police units exiled from Congo in the 1960s, fighting to return to their homeland.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|p=218}} Luanda did also deploy regular troops. Angola chose to participate in the First Congo War because members of Mobutu's government were directly involved in supplying the Angolan rebel group, [[UNITA]].{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=62}}

It is unclear exactly how the government benefited from this relationship, other than personal enrichment for several officials, but it is certainly possible that Mobutu was unable to control the actions of some members of his government. Regardless of the reasoning in Kinshasa, Angola entered the war on the side of the rebels and was determined to overthrow the Mobutu government, which it saw as the only way to address the threat posed by the Zairian-UNITA relationship.

===UNITA===
Due to its ties to the Mobutu government, [[UNITA]] also participated in the First Congo War. The greatest impact that it had on the war was probably that it gave Angola reason to join the anti-Mobutu coalition. However, UNITA forces fought alongside FAZ forces in at least several instances.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=63}} Among other examples, Kagame claimed that his forces fought a pitched battle against UNITA near Kinshasa towards the end of the war.<ref>Pomfret, John. "Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive." Washington Post. 9 July 1997: A1</ref>

===Others===
Numerous other external actors played lesser roles in the First Congo War. [[Burundi]], which had recently come under the rule of a pro-Tutsi leader, supported Rwandan and Ugandan involvement in Zaire but provided very limited military support.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=42; 61}} [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], and the [[South Sudan]]ese rebel army, the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army|SPLA]], also gave measured amounts of military support to the rebel movement.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=65–66}} [[Eritrea]], an ally of Rwanda under Kagame, sent an entire battalion of [[Eritrean Army|its army]] to support the invasion of Zaire.{{sfnp|Plaut|2016|pp=54–55}} Likewise, [[Tanzania]], [[South Africa]] and [[Ethiopia]] provided support to the anti-Mobutu coalition.<ref name="nyerere">{{cite book|title=Nyerere and Africa|year=2006|first=Godfrey|last=Makikagile|publisher=New Africa Press|page=173}}</ref><ref name="icg"/> Other than from UNITA, Mobutu also received some aid from [[Sudan]], whom Mobutu had long supported against the SPLA, though the exact amount of aid is unclear and ultimately was unable to hinder the advance of opposing forces.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=44}} Zaire also employed foreign [[mercenary|mercenaries]] from several African and European countries, including [[Chad]]ian troops.<ref name="chad"/> France also provided Mobutu's government with financial support and military aid, facilitated by the [[Central African Republic]], and diplomatically advocated for international intervention to stop the AFDL's advance, but later backed down due to U.S. pressure.<ref name="france">{{cite journal|title=Strategic Review for Southern Africa|volume=20-21|year=1998|journal=University of Pretoria|quote=As the conflict developed, France provided financial support to Mobutu and pushed hard for foreign intervention. However, under US pressure, France eventually terminated its call for intervention.}}</ref><ref name="CAR">{{cite book|title=Making Sense of the Central African Republic|first=Tatiana|last=Carayannis|year=2015|publisher=Zed Books|quote=In the waning days of Mobutu's rule, while Kabila's Rwandan- and Ugandan-backed putsch was rapidly making its way across Congo, France sought to prop up Mobutu's dying regime through covert military aid to the ailing dictator ... This covert aid was facilitated by Patassé}}</ref> [[China]] and [[Israel]] provided the Mobutu regime with technical assistance, while Kuwait also reportedly provided $64 million to Zaire for the purchase of weapons, but later denied doing so.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=112}}

In 1997 [[United States European Command]] supervised the U.S. Army's [[Southern Europe Task Force]] (SETAF) and elements of two [[Marine Expeditionary Unit]]s to carry out '''Operation Guardian Retrieval''', to evacuate approximately 550 [[Citizenship of the United States|US citizens]] from the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=26th Marine Expeditionary Unit deployment history|url=https://www.26thmeu.marines.mil/About/History/|website=United States Marine Corps|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026152215/https://www.26thmeu.marines.mil/About/History/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=III. Operational Primacy: 1997 in Review|url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/fromsea/pos98/pos-pg03.html|website=United States Navy|access-date=22 March 2018|archive-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322204652/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/fromsea/pos98/pos-pg03.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Boyne2007">{{cite book|author=Walter J. Boyne|title=Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force, 1947-2007|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondwildbluehi0000boyn|url-access=registration|date=26 June 2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-1-4299-0180-2|page=512}}</ref><ref name="Services1998">{{cite book|author=United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Armed Services|title=Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1997 and the Future Years Defense Program: Military posture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrkzAAAAIAAJ|date=1 January 1998|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-054389-0|access-date=25 November 2022|archive-date=1 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230301185943/https://books.google.com/books?id=lrkzAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> SETAF prepared Joint Task Force Guardian Retrieval to carry out the non-combatant evacuation (NEO). The Marine Corps supported the evacuation with the [[26th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] (MEU), special operations capable, which had initially been sent to Albania, to support [[Operation Silver Wake]]. The 26th MEU was relieved two weeks early by the {{USS|Kearsarge|LHD-3}} and the [[22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

== Course of the war ==

=== 1996 ===
{{see also|Massacres of Hutu refugees during the First Congo War}}
With active support from Rwanda, Uganda,{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=55}} and Eritrea,{{sfnp|Plaut|2016|pp=54–55}} Kabila's AFDL was able to capture 800 x 100&nbsp;km{{clarify|date=January 2018}} of territory along the border with Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi by 25 December 1996.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=55}} This occupation temporarily satisfied the rebels, because it gave them power in the east and allowed them to defend themselves against the former ''génocidaires''. Likewise, the external actors had successfully crippled the ability of the same ''génocidaires'' to use Zaire as a base for attacks. There was a pause in the rebel advance following the acquisition of this buffer territory that lasted until Angola entered the war in February 1997.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|pp=61–63}}

During this time, Rwanda destroyed refugee camps the ''génocidaires'' had been using as safe-bases, and forcibly repatriated Tutsi to Rwanda. It also captured many lucrative diamond and [[coltan]] mines, which it later resisted relinquishing.<ref name="Autesserre, Severine 2008"/><ref name="Samset, Ingrid 2002. pp. 470"/> Rwandan and aligned forces committed multiple atrocities, mainly against Hutu refugees.{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|pp=213–214}} The true extent of the abuses is unknown because the AFDL and RPF carefully managed NGO and press access to areas where atrocities were thought to have occurred.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=100}} However [[Amnesty International]] said as many as 200,000 Rwandese Hutu refugees were massacred by them and the [[Rwandan Defence Forces]] and aligned forces.<ref name=amnesty1998>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/033/1998/en/ Democratic Republic of Congo. A long-standing crisis spinning out of control] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122054448/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/033/1998/en/ |date=22 November 2018 }} . Amnesty International, 3 September 1998. p. 9. AI Index: AFR 62/33/98</ref> {{Verify source|date=November 2021}}The United Nations similarly documented mass killings of civilians by Rwandan, Ugandan and the [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo|AFDL]] soldiers in the [[DRC Mapping Exercise Report]].

=== 1997 ===
{{further|Operation Thunderbolt (1997)}}Kabila's forces launched an offensive in March 1997, and demanded that the Kinshasa government surrender. The rebels took [[Kasenga]] on 27 March. The government denied the rebels' success, starting a long pattern of false statements from the Defense Minister on the progress and conduct of the war. Negotiations were proposed in late March, and on 2 April a new [[Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Prime Minister of Zaire]], [[Étienne Tshisekedi]]—a longtime rival of Mobutu—was installed.<ref name="Essays">{{cite web |last=Essays |first=UK |date=November 2018 |title=Study on the First And Second Congo War History Essay |url=https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/study-on-the-first-and-second-congo-war-history-essay.php?vref=1 |access-date=29 October 2019 |publisher=UKEssays.com |location=Nottingham, UK |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610195357/https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/study-on-the-first-and-second-congo-war-history-essay.php?vref=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kabila, by this point in control of roughly one-quarter of the country, dismissed this as irrelevant and warned Tshisekedi that he would have no part in a new government if he accepted the post.[[File:Visit of Laurent Désiré Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of Congo, to the EC (cropped2).jpg|thumb|Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]
There are two explanations for the restart of the rebel advance in 1997. The first, and most probable, is that Angola had joined the anti-Mobutu coalition, giving it numbers and strength far superior to the FAZ, and demanding that Mobutu be removed from power. Kagame presents another, possibly secondary, reason for the march on Kinshasa: that the employment of [[Serbia]]n mercenaries in the battle for [[Walikale]] proved that "Mobutu intended to wage real war against Rwanda."{{Sfn|Gribbin|2005|p=213}} According to this logic, Rwanda's initial concerns had been to manage the security threat in eastern Zaire but it was now forced to dispose of the hostile government in Kinshasa.

Whatever the case, once the advance resumed in 1997, there was virtually no meaningful resistance from what was left of Mobutu's army. Kabila's forces were only held back by the dilapidated state of Zaire's [[infrastructure]]. In some areas, no real roads existed; the only means of transport were infrequently used dirt paths.<ref>{{cite book |title=The World Today Series: Africa 2012 |last=Dickovick |first=J. Tyler |year=2008 |publisher=Stryker-Post Publications |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-1-61048-881-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/africa20120000dick }}</ref> The AFDL committed grave human rights violations, such as the carnage at a refugee camp of Hutu at Tingi-Tingi near [[Kisangani]], where tens of thousands of refugees were massacred.<ref name=dvr>{{cite book| author=David van Reybrouck| title=Congo: The Epic History of a People| publisher=[[HarperCollins]], 2012 |page=423ff |isbn=978-0-06-220011-2| author-link=David van Reybrouck| title-link=Congo: The Epic History of a People| date=25 March 2014}}</ref>

Coming from the east, the AFDL advanced westward in two pincer movements. The northern one took [[Kisangani]], [[Boende]], and [[Mbandaka]], while the southern one took [[Bakwanga]], and [[Kikwit]].<ref name=dvr/> Around this time, [[Sudan]] attempted to coordinate with remnants of the FAZ and [[White Legion (Zaire)|White Legion]] that were retreating northward to escape the AFDL. This was to prevent Zaire from becoming a safe haven for the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] (SPLA) and its allies, which were fighting the Sudanese government in the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] at the time. The Mobutu loyalist forces were collapsing so quickly that they could not prevent the AFDL, SPLA and Ugandan military from occupying northeastern Zaire. Sudanese-backed Ugandan insurgent groups which had been based in the region were forced to retreat into southern Sudan alongside FAZ troops that had not yet surrendered and a smaller number of [[Sudanese Armed Forces]] (SAF) soldiers. They attempted to reach the SAF base at [[Yei, South Sudan|Yei]], not knowing that it had already been overrun by the SPLA. The column of about 4,000 fighters and their families was ambushed by the SPLA during [[Operation Thunderbolt (1997)|Operation Thunderbolt]] on 12 March, and mostly destroyed; 2,000 were killed, and over 1,000 captured. The survivors fled to [[Juba]].{{sfnp|Prunier|2004|pp=376–377}} Meanwhile, the AFDL reached [[Kinshasa]] by the middle of May. Another AFDL group [[Capture of Lubumbashi|captured Lubumbashi]] on April 19 and moved on by air to Kinshasa. Mobutu fled Kinshasa on May 16, and the rebels entered the capital without serious resistance.<ref name=dvr/> The AFDL-allied Eritrean battalion had aided the rebels during the entire 1,500&nbsp;km advance despite being not well equipped for the environment and lacking almost all logistical support. By the time the Eritreans arrived at Kinshasa along the AFDL, they were exhausted, starving and ill, having suffered heavy casualties as a result. They had to be evacuated from the country by the war's end.{{sfnp|Plaut|2016|p=55}}

Throughout the rebel advance, there were attempts by the international community to negotiate a settlement. However, the AFDL did not take these negotiations seriously but instead partook so as to avoid international criticism for being unwilling to attempt a diplomatic solution while actually continuing its steady advance.{{Sfn|Reyntjens|2009|p=130}} The FAZ, which had been weak all along, was unable to mount any serious resistance to the strong AFDL and its foreign sponsors.

Mobutu fled first to his palace at [[Gbadolite]] and then to [[Rabat]], [[Morocco]], where he died on 7 September 1997.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/08/world/mobutu-sese-seko-zairian-ruler-is-dead-in-exile-in-morocco-at-66.html |title=Mobutu Sese Seko, Zairian Ruler, Is Dead in Exile in Morocco at 66 |author=Howard W. French |date=8 September 1997 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=30 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231035945/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/08/world/mobutu-sese-seko-zairian-ruler-is-dead-in-exile-in-morocco-at-66.html |archive-date=31 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kabila proclaimed himself president on 17 May, and immediately ordered a violent crackdown to restore order. He then attempted to reorganise the nation as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC).

==Aftermath==
{{main|Second Congo War}}
{{see also|Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)}}

The new Congolese state under Kabila's rule proved to be disappointingly similar to Zaire under Mobutu. The economy remained in a state of severe disrepair and deteriorated further under Kabila's corrupt rule.{{Sfn|Kennes|2005|p=154}} He failed to improve the government, which continued to be weak and corrupt. Instead, Kabila began a vigorous centralisation campaign, bringing renewed conflict with minority groups in the east who demanded autonomy.

Kabila also came to be seen as an instrument of the foreign regimes that put him in power. To counter this image and increase domestic support, he began to turn against his allies abroad. This culminated in the expulsion of all foreign forces from the DRC on 26 July 1998. The states with armed forces still in the DRC begrudgingly complied although some of them saw this as undermining their interests, particularly Rwanda, which had hoped to install a proxy-regime in Kinshasa.

Several factors that led to the First Congo War remained in place after Kabila's accession to power. Prominent among these were ethnic tensions in eastern DRC, where the government still had little control. There the historical animosities remained and the opinion that Banyamulenge, as well as all Tutsi, were foreigners was reinforced by the foreign occupation in their defence.<ref>Longman, Timothy. "The Complex Reasons for Rwanda's Engagement in Congo." Ed. John F. Clark. The African Stakes of the Congo War. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 129-44. pp. 131–32</ref> Furthermore, Rwanda had not been able to satisfactorily address its security concerns. By forcibly repatriating refugees, Rwanda had imported the conflict.{{sfn|Vlassenroot|2002|p=173}}

This manifested itself in the form of a predominantly Hutu insurgency in Rwanda's western provinces that was supported by extremist elements in eastern DRC. Without troops in the DRC, Rwanda was unable to successfully combat the insurgents. In the first days of August 1998, two brigades of the new Congolese army rebelled against the government and formed rebel groups that worked closely with Kigali and Kampala. This marked the beginning of the [[Second Congo War]].

In addition, elements of Mobutu's army and loyalists as well as other groups involved in the First Congo War retreated into the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Congo-Brazzaville), where they fought in the [[Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)|1997–1999 civil war]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Political Handbook of Africa|publisher=CQ Press|page=259|year=2006|quote=Lissouba's own fighters also were reported to include former Mobutu forces}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Alethia|last=Cook|title=Conflict Dynamics|year=2017|page=61|publisher=University of Georgia Press|quote=Angola came to his aid with 2,500 troops in August 1997. Sassou also received help from Chad, Gabon, France, and Elf-Congo ... as well as South African and Serbian mercenaries, the former Rwandan government forces, Rwandan Interahamwe militia and elements of Mobutu's Zairian army}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo]]
* [[Battle of Kinsangani (1997)]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography ===

*{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Peter |year=2014 |title=Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002 |location=Oxford; New York City |publisher=Osprey Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6ajCwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-78200-076-1 }}.
*{{Cite book |last=Gribbin |first=Robert E. |title=In the Aftermath of Genocide: The U.S. Role in Rwanda |publisher=[[iUniverse]] |others=Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-595-34411-6 }}
*Gondola, Ch. Didier. (2002) ''The History of Congo'', Greenwood Press,  {{ISBN|0-313-31696-1}}. Covers events up to January 2002.
*{{Cite book |last=Kennes |first=Erik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyhKxx6qrt0C |title=Rethinking the economics of war: the intersection of need, creed, and greed |publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press [u.a.] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8018-8297-5 |editor-last=Arnson |editor-first=Cynthia |chapter=The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need |editor-last2=Zartman |editor-first2=I. William |editor-last3=Arnson |editor-first3=Cynthia J. |editor-last4=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars}}
*{{Cite book |last=Lemarchand |first=René |title=The dynamics of violence in Central Africa |publisher=University of Pennsylvania press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8122-4120-4 |series=National and ethnic conflict in the 21st century |location=Philadelphia }}
*{{cite book|last = Plaut|first = Martin|title= Understanding Eritrea: Inside Africa's Most Repressive State|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vk8jDgAAQBAJ|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]|location= Oxford|isbn= 978-0-19-066959-1|year=2016}}
*{{Cite journal |title = Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare: Uganda, Sudan and the Congo (1986-99)|last= Prunier|first= Gérard|date = July 2004|journal = African Affairs|doi = 10.1093/afraf/adh050|issue = 412|volume = 103|pages = 359–383|jstor = 3518562}}
*{{cite book |last=Prunier |first=Gérard |year=2009 |title=Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe|location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp93kUfdhC0C |isbn=978-0-19-970583-2 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVxJX6ycG8C |title=The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996-2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-11128-7 }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Vlassenroot |first=Koen |date=2002 |title=Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006793 |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=29 |issue=93/94 |pages=499–515 |doi=10.1080/03056240208704635 |jstor=4006793 |issn=0305-6244|hdl=10.1080/03056240208704635 |hdl-access=free }}
*{{Cite book |last=Vlassenroot |first=Koen |title=Violence, political culture & development in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=978-0-85255-894-2 |editor-last=Kaarsholm |editor-first=Preben |location=Oxford |pages=49–65 |chapter=Conflict & Militia Formation in Eastern Congo}}

==Further reading==
*Clark, John F. (2002) ''The African Stakes in the Congo War''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|1-4039-6723-7}}.
*Edgerton, Robert G. (2002) ''The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo'' St. Martin's Press.  {{ISBN|0-312-30486-2}}.
* Michael Nest with François Grignon and Emizet F. Kisangani: ''The Democratic Republic of Congo: Economic Dimensions of War and Peace'', Lynne Rienner, 2006 {{ISBN|1-58826-233-2}}
*
*Jackson, Stephen. 'Making a Killing: Criminality & Coping in the Kivu War Economy.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002.
*Samset, Ingrid. 'Conflict of Interests or Interests in Conflict? Diamonds & War in the DRC.' Review of African Political Economy. 2002. 463–480
*Stearns, Jason (2011). [[Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa]]. New York: PublicAffairs. {{ISBN|978-1-58648-929-8}}.
*{{cite journal |last=Auterresse |first=Séverine |title=Hobbes and the Congo: Frames, Local Violence, and International Intervention |journal=International Organization |year=2009 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=249–280 |doi=10.1017/S0020818309090080 |s2cid=143365639 |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D80P18HB/download }}
*{{cite journal |last=Reyntjens |first=Filip |title=The Privatisation and Criminalisation of Public Space in the Geopolitics of the Great Lakes Region |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=43 |issue=4 |year=2005 |pages=587–607 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X05001230 |doi-access=free |hdl=10067/549370151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last=Autesserre |first=Séverine |title=The Trouble With Congo: How Local Disputes Fuel Regional Conflict |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |year=2008 |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=94–110 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/63401/s%C3%83%C2%A9verine-autesserre/the-trouble-with-congo }}
{{DR Congo conflicts footer}}
{{Armed groups in the Congo wars}}
{{DRC topics}}{{Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda relations}}{{Post-Cold War African conflicts}}

[[Category:First Congo War| ]]
[[Category:Revolution-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Civil wars of the 20th century]]
[[Category:Coup-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]
[[Category:Zaire]]
[[Category:Civil wars in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Wars involving Angola]]
[[Category:Wars involving Burundi]]
[[Category:Wars involving Rwanda]]
[[Category:Wars involving Uganda]]
[[Category:Wars involving Sudan]]
[[Category:Wars involving Eritrea]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda military relations]]
[[Category:Burundi–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations]]
[[Category:Ethnicity-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Proxy wars]]
[[Category:Foreign involvement in regime change]]
[[Category:Military coups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]