View source for Estonians

{{Short description|Finnic ethnic group}}
{{about-distinguish-text|the [[Finnic languages|Finnic language]] speaking ethnic group|closely neighboring [[Baltic languages]] speaking ethnicities, the [[Balts]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Estonians<br />''eestlased''
| flag             = Map of the Estonian Diaspora in the World.svg
| flag_caption     = Countries with significant Estonian population and descendants.
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 
| pop              = '''{{circa}} 1.1 million'''<ref>[https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/estai/ Estai]</ref>
| regions          = {{EST}} 925,892 {{small|(2023)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andmebaas.stat.ee/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=RV0222U|title=Population by ethnic nationality|publisher=[[Statistics Estonia]]|access-date=6 June 2021|date=June 2020}}</ref>{{center|{{small|Other significant population centers:}}}}
| region1          = {{FIN}}
| pop1             = 49,590–100,000{{efn|[[Statistics Finland]] does not record ethnicity and instead categorizes the population by their native language; in 2017, Estonian was spoken as a mother tongue by 49,590 people, not all of whom may be ethnic Estonians.<ref name=fi/>}}<ref name=fi>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_vaesto_en.html|title=Population|publisher=Statistics Finland|date=4 April 2018|access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bnn-news.com/100-000-estonians-work-finland-12318|title=Up to 100 000 Estonians work in Finland|date=27 December 2010|publisher=[[Baltic News Network]]|access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref>
| region2          = {{USA}}
| pop2             = 29,128<ref name="ACS2021">{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B04006|title=Table B04006 - People Reporting Ancestry - 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=17 September 2022|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220917224633/https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B04006|archive-date=17 September 2022}}</ref>
| region4          = {{CAN}}
| pop4             = 24,000<ref name="canadainternational.gc.ca">{{cite web|url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/baltic_states-pays_baltes/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/estonia_relations_estonie.aspx?lang=eng|title=Canada-Estonia Relations|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120072919/http://canadainternational.gc.ca/baltic_states-pays_baltes/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/estonia_relations_estonie.aspx?lang=eng|archive-date=20 November 2013}}</ref>
| region3          = {{SWE}}
| pop3             = 25,509<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rootsieestlasteliit.org/eestlased-rootsis|title=Eestlased Rootsis|access-date=7 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217042332/http://rootsieestlasteliit.org/eestlased-rootsis|archive-date=17 February 2015|url-status=usurped}}</ref>
| region6          = {{RUS}}
| pop6             = 7,778<ref name="census2021">{{cite web| title=Национальный состав населения|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]]|access-date=30 December 2022}}</ref>
| region5          = {{GBR}}
| pop5             = 10,000–15,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://vm.ee/en/countries/united-kingdom?display=relations|title=United Kingdom|work=Ethnologue|access-date=12 May 2016}}</ref>
| region7          = {{AUS}}
| pop7             = 7,543<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/free.nsf/Lookup/C41A78D7568811B9CA256E9D0077CA12/$File/20540_2001%20(corrigendum).pdf|title=2054.0 Australian Census Analytic Program: Australians' Ancestries (2001 (Corrigendum))|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|year=2001|access-date=17 September 2011}}</ref>
| region8          = {{GER}}
| pop8             = 6,286<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/AuslaendBevoelkerung.html?nn=68748|title=Pressemitteilungen – Ausländische Bevölkerung – Statistisches Bundesamt (Destatis)|website=www.destatis.de}}</ref>
| region9          = {{NOR}}
| pop9             = 5,092<ref name="ssb">[https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef/aar/2016-03-03 "Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents, 1 January 2016"]. [[Statistics Norway]]. Accessed 01 May 2016.</ref>
| region11         = {{UKR}}
| pop11            = 2,868<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=20&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20&n_page=2|title=The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue|publisher=State Statistics Committee of Ukraine|year=2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205195839/http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/nationality_population/nationality_1/s5/?botton=cens_db&box=5.1W&k_t=00&p=20&rz=1_1&rz_b=2_1%20%20%20%20&n_page=2|archive-date=5 December 2008}}</ref>
| region12         = {{IRL}}
| pop12            = 2,560<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/statistics/placebirthagegroup.htm|title=Persons usually resident and present in the State on Census Night, classified by place of birth and age group|work=Central Statistics Office Ireland|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806062421/http://www.cso.ie/statistics/placebirthagegroup.htm|archive-date=6 August 2011}}</ref>
| region13         = {{BEL}}
| pop13            = 2,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estemb.be/estonia_and_belgium|title=Estemb in Belgium and Luxembourg|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-date=21 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221011944/http://www.estemb.be/estonia_and_belgium}}</ref>
| region14         = {{DEN}}
| pop14            = 1,691<ref>{{Cite web |title=National statistics of Denmark |publisher=statistikbanken.dk |access-date=22 August 2025| url= https://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/default.asp?w=1829| date= 11 August 2025 }}</ref>
| region15         = {{LAT}}
| pop15            = 1,676<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data1.csb.gov.lv/pxweb/en/iedz/iedz__iedzrakst/IRG069.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=ca7828a2-23c8-437c-96e1-7ab86e21bbdd|title=Usually resident population by ethnicity at the beginning of the year – 2018|website=csb.gov.lv}}</ref>
| region16         = {{NED}}
| pop16            = 1,482<ref>[http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37325&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=a&D6=l&VW=T Official CBS website containing all Dutch demographic statistics]. Cbs.nl. Retrieved on 4 July 2017.</ref>
| langs            = Primarily [[Estonian language|Estonian]]<br />also [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]]
| rels             = Majority [[Religion in Estonia|irreligious]]<br /> Historically Protestant Christian ([[Lutheranism]])<ref name="IvkovićHaberfeld2015">{{cite book|last1= Ivković|first1= Sanja Kutnjak|last2= Haberfeld|first2= M.R.|title= Measuring Police Integrity Across the World: Studies from Established Democracies and Countries in Transition|date= 10 June 2015|publisher= Springer |language=en |isbn= 978-1-4939-2279-6|page= 131|quote= Estonia is considered Protestant when classified by its historically predominant major religion (Norris and Inglehart 2011) and thus some authors (e.g., Davie 2003) claim Estonia belongs to Western (Lutheran) Europe, while others (e.g., Norris and Inglehart 2011) see Estonia as a Protestant ex-Communist society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Is Estonia really the least religious country in the world?|last= Ringvee|first= Ringo|date= 16 September 2011|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/sep/16/estonia-least-religious-country-world|work= [[The Guardian]]|quote= For this situation there are several reasons, starting from the distant past (the close connection of the churches with the Swedish or German ruling classes) up to the Soviet-period atheist policy when the chain of religious traditions was broken in most families. In Estonia, religion has never played an important role on the political or ideological battlefield. The institutional religious life was dominated by foreigners until the early 20th century. The tendencies that prevailed in the late 1930s for closer relations between the state and Lutheran church [...] ended with the Soviet occupation in 1940.}}</ref><br />{{small|Currently [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and regional [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] ([[Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church|Estonian Apostolic Orthodox]]) minority}}
| related          = Other [[Baltic Finnic peoples|Finnic peoples]]
}}
'''Estonians''' or '''Estonian people''' ({{langx|et|eestlased}}) are a [[Baltic Finnic peoples|Finnic]] [[ethnic group]] native to the [[Baltic Sea region]] in Northern Europe, primarily their nation state of [[Estonia]].

Estonians primarily speak the [[Estonian language]], a language closely related to other [[Finnic languages]], e.g. [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Karelian language|Karelian]] and [[Livonian language|Livonian]]. Estonians can also be classified into subgroups according to [[dialect]]s (e.g. [[Võro people|Võros]], [[Setos]]), although such divisions have become less pronounced due to internal migration and rapid [[urbanisation]] in Estonia in the 20th century.

There are approximately 1.1 million ethnic Estonians worldwide, with the majority of them residing in their native Estonia. Estonian diaspora communities formed primarily in Finland, the United States, Sweden, Canada, and the United Kingdom.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

==History==
Estonia was first inhabited about 13,000–11,000 years ago, when the [[Baltic Ice Lake]] melted. Living in the same area for more than 5,000 years would put Estonians' ancestors among Europe's oldest permanent inhabitants.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWB3Bv3vuyMC Unrepresented Nations and peoples organization By Mary Kate Simmons; p141] {{ISBN|978-90-411-0223-2}}</ref> On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] speakers arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, perhaps during the [[Early Bronze Age]] (ca. 1800 BCE).<ref>Petri Kallio 2006: Suomalais-ugrilaisen kantakielen absoluuttisesta kronologiasta. — ''Virittäjä'' 2006. (With English summary).</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Häkkinen, Jaakko|year= 2009|title=Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja |page=92|url=https://www.sgr.fi/susa/92/hakkinen.pdf}}</ref> It has also been argued that Western Uralic tribes reached [[Fennoscandia]] first, leading into the development of the [[Sámi peoples]], and arrived in the [[Baltic region]] later in the Bronze Age<ref name=":4" /> or the transition to the [[Iron Age]] at the latest.<ref name=":2" /> This lead into the formation of [[Baltic Finnic peoples]], who would later become such groups as Estonians and [[Finns]].<ref name=":4">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 335–336. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. {{ISBN|978-951-858-130-0}}</ref>

The oldest known [[endonym]] of the Estonians is {{lang|et|maarahvas}},<ref name="ariste">{{cite journal | last1 = Ariste | first1 = Paul | year = 1956 | title = Maakeel ja eesti keel. ''Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised'' 5: 117–24; Beyer, Jürgen (2007). Ist ''maarahvas'' ('Landvolk'), die alte Selbstbezeichnung der Esten, eine Lehnübersetzung? Eine Studie zur Begriffsgeschichte des Ostseeraums | journal = [[Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung]] | volume = 56 | pages = 566–593 }}</ref> literally meaning "land people" or "country folk". It was used until the mid-19th century, when it was gradually replaced by ''Eesti rahvas'' "Estonian people"  during the [[Estonian national awakening]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beyer |first1=Jürgen |title=Are Folklorists Studying the Tales of the Folk? |journal=Folklore |date=April 2011 |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=35–54 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.2011.537132 |s2cid=144633422 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Paatsi|first1=Vello|title="Terre, armas eesti rahwas!": Kuidas maarahvast ja maakeelest sai eesti rahvas, eestlased ja eesti keel |journal=Akadeemia |year=2012|volume=24|issue=2|pages=20–21|url=https://www.etis.ee/File/DownloadPublic/aa07f8ed-f66e-4e93-95be-c401698b6b61?name=Fail_Tere%2C%20armas%20eesti%20rahvas.pdf&type=application%2Fpdf |issn=0235-7771 |language=et |access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> ''Eesti'', the modern endonym of Estonia, is thought to have similar origins to ''[[Aesti]]'', the name used by the [[Germanic peoples]] for the neighbouring people living northeast of the mouth of the [[Vistula]]. The Roman historian [[Tacitus]] in 98 CE was the first to mention the "''Aesti''" in writing. In [[Old Norse]], the land south of the [[Gulf of Finland]] was called ''Eistland'' and the people ''eistr''. <!-- ({{lang|is|Eistland}} is also the current word in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] for Estonia), and the people "''eistr''". Proto-Estonians (as well as other speakers of the Finnish language group) were also called ''[[Chud]]s'' ({{lang|sla|чудь}}) in [[Old East Slavic language|Old East Slavic]] [[chronicle]]s.

The Estonian language belongs to the [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] branch of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] family of languages, as does the [[Finnish language]]. The Finnic languages are a subgroup of the larger [[Uralic languages|Uralic family of languages]], which also includes e.g. the [[Sami languages]]. These languages are markedly different from most other native languages spoken in [[languages of Europe|Europe]], most of which have been assigned to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family of languages]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=www.phil.muni.cz |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513003802/https://www.phil.muni.cz/jazyk/files/uralic-migrations.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2019 }}</ref>-->The ''[[Wanradt–Koell Catechism]]'', the oldest known book in Estonian, was printed in 1535, while the oldest known examples of handwritten Estonian appear in 13th-century chronicles. 

===National identity===
[[File:Russa literacy 1897.jpg|thumb|Public education systems founded during prior Swedish rule turned Estonia and Finland into the two most literate areas of [[Russian Empire]] (map of [[Russian Empire census|1897 census]] [[literacy]] data)]]
{{multiple image |direction=vertical |align=right |width=220
|image1=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 1.jpg
|image2=Eesti rahvarõivad-EE 2.jpg
|footer=Selection of 19th century Estonian festive [[folk costume]]s (by region, from top, left to right: [[Kadrina Parish|Kadrina]], [[Koonga Parish|Mihkli]], [[Setos|Seto]], [[Karksi|Paistu]], [[Muhu]], [[Saaremaa|Karja]], [[Tõstamaa Parish|Tõstamaa]], [[Halinga Parish|Pärnu-Jaagupi]])}}
[[File:Talumehed kaarte mängimas, Oskar Hoffmann, EKM j 190-768 M 957.jpg|thumb|Estonian farmers playing cards (by [[Oskar Hoffmann (painter)|Oskar Hoffmann]], ca 1895)]]
[[File:Estonian Song Festival Stage 2019.jpg|thumb|View of the 2019 [[Estonian Song Festival]] stage. Held since 1869, the festival is now one of the largest [[choral]] events in the world, and a major symbol of Estonian national identity]]

Although Estonian [[national identity]] spread in the course of the 19th century during the [[Estonian national awakening]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gellner | first1 = Ernest | year = 1996 | title = Do nations have navels? | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 2 | issue = 3| pages = 365–70 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-8219.1996.tb00003.x }}</ref> some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development.<ref name="raun2003">{{cite journal | last1 = Raun | first1 = Toivo U | year = 2003 | title = Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Estonian nationalism revisited | journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 129–147 | doi=10.1111/1469-8219.00078}}</ref> By the 18th century the self-denomination {{lang|et|eestlane}} spread among Estonians along with the older {{lang|et|maarahvas}}.<ref name="ariste"/> [[Anton thor Helle]]'s [[Bible translations into Estonian|translation of the Bible]] into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. 

By 1800, more than a half of adult Estonians could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including [[Friedrich Robert Faehlmann]] (1798–1850), [[Kristjan Jaak Peterson]] (1801–1822) and [[Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald]] (1803–1882), appeared in the 1820s. The ruling elites had remained predominantly [[Baltic Germans|German]] in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. [[Garlieb Merkel]] (1769–1850), a Baltic-German [[Estophile]], became the first author to treat the Estonians as a nationality equal to others; he became a source of inspiration for the Estonian national movement, modelled on Baltic German cultural world before the middle of the 19th century. However, in the middle of the century, Estonians became more ambitious and started leaning toward the [[Finnish people|Finns]] and their so-called [[Fennoman movement]] as successful model of national movement. By the end of 1860s, the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony. Before the attempts at [[Russification]] in the 1880s, their view of the [[Russian Empire]] remained positive.<ref name="raun2003"/>

Estonians have strong ties to the [[Nordic countries]] stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Germany|German]] rule and settlement.<ref>Piirimäe, Helmut. Historical heritage: the relations between Estonia and her Nordic neighbors. In M. Lauristin et al. (eds.), ''Return to the Western world: Cultural and political perspectives on the Estonian post-communist transition''. Tartu: Tartu University Press, 1997.</ref> According to a poll done in 2013, about half of the young [[Nordic identity in Estonia|Estonians considered themselves Nordic]], and about the same number viewed Baltic identity as important. The Nordic identity among Estonians can overlap with other identities, as it is associated with being Finno-Ugric and their close relationship with the Finnish people and does not exclude being Baltic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-28 |title=How Nordic is Estonia?: An overview since 1991 |url=https://nordics.info/show/artikel/how-nordic-is-estonia-an-overview-since-1991 |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=nordics.info |language=en}}</ref> In Estonian foreign ministry reports from the early 2000s Nordic identity was preferred over Baltic one.<ref>[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/220/eesti_elu.pdf Estonian foreign ministry report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325013626/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/220/eesti_elu.pdf |date=25 March 2009 }}, 2004</ref><ref>[http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/273/Eesti%20elu.pdf  Estonian foreign ministry report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307050758/http://web-static.vm.ee/static/failid/273/Eesti%20elu.pdf |date=7 March 2008 }}, 2002</ref>

After the [[Treaty of Tartu (Russian–Estonian)|Treaty of Tartu]] (1920) recognised Estonia's 1918 independence from Russia, ethnic Estonians residing in Russia gained the option to acquire the citizenship of Estonia upon returning to the newly independent country. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920, and 37,578 people resettled from Russia to Estonia in 1920–1923.{{cn|date=June 2025}}

==Emigration==
During [[World War II]], when Estonia was [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|occupied by the Soviet Army]] in 1944, large numbers of Estonians fled their homeland on ships or smaller boats over the [[Baltic Sea]]. Many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to [[Sweden]] or [[Germany]] later moved from there to [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]] or [[Australia]].<ref>Past, Evald, ''By Land and By Sea'', Booklocker, 2015, {{ISBN|978-0-9867510-0-4}}</ref> Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991.

Over the years of independence, many Estonians have chosen to work abroad, primarily in [[Finland]], but also in the UK, [[Benelux]], [[Sweden]], and [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html|title=The CIA World Factbook Country Comparison of net migration rate|website=cia.gov|access-date=8 November 2011|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226005157/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2112rank.html}}</ref> 

===Estonians in Canada===
One of the largest permanent Estonian communities outside Estonia is in Canada, with about 24,000 people<ref name="canadainternational.gc.ca"/> (according to some sources up to 50,000 people).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada|title=Estonian Embassy in Ottawa|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-date=5 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705032311/http://www.estemb.ca/estonia_and_canada}}</ref> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, about 17,000 arrived in Canada, initially in [[Montreal]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|title=The Estonian Presence in Toronto|access-date=17 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312043108/http://www.tgmag.ca/magic/mt51.html|archive-date=12 March 2012}}</ref> [[Toronto]] is currently the city with the largest population of Estonians outside of Estonia. The first Estonian World Festival was held in Toronto in 1972. <!--Some notable Estonian Canadians are [[Endel Tulving]], [[Elmar Tampõld]], [[Alison Pill]], [[Uno Prii]], [[Kalle Lasn]], and [[Andreas Vaikla]].-->

== Genetics ==

=== Uniparental haplogroups ===
[[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome haplogroups]] among Estonians include [[Haplogroup N-M231|N1c]] (35.7%),<ref name=":0">Lang, Valter: ''Homo Fennicus – Itämerensuomalaisten etnohistoria'', pp. 93–95. Finnish Literature Society, 2020. {{ISBN|978-951-858-130-0}}.</ref> [[Haplogroup R1a|R1a]] (33.5%)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Rootsi |first2=Siiri |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Help |first4=Hela |last5=Serk |first5=Piia |last6=Loogväli |first6=Eva-Liis |last7=Tolk |first7=Helle-Viivi |last8=Reidla |first8=Maere |last9=Metspalu |first9=Ene |last10=Pliss |first10=Liana |last11=Balanovsky |first11=Oleg |last12=Pshenichnov |first12=Andrey |last13=Balanovska |first13=Elena |last14=Gubina |first14=Marina |last15=Zhadanov |first15=Sergey |date=2004 |title=The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic "Outliers" Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=661–682 |doi=10.1086/383203 |pmc=1181943 |pmid=15024688}}</ref> and [[Haplogroup I1|I1]] (15%).<ref name=":0" /> R1a, common in Eastern Europe,<ref name=":9" /> was the dominant Y-DNA haplogroup among the pre-Uralic inhabitants of Estonia, as it is the only one found in the local samples from the time of the [[Corded Ware culture]] and Bronze Age. Appearance of N1c is linked to the arrival of Uralic-speakers.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Saag |first1=Lehti |last2=Laneman |first2=Margot |last3=Varul |first3=Liivi |last4=Malve |first4=Martin |last5=Valk |first5=Heiki |last6=Razzak |first6=Maria A. |last7=Shirobokov |first7=Ivan G. |last8=Khartanovich |first8=Valeri I. |last9=Mikhaylova |first9=Elena R. |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Scheib |first11=Christiana Lyn |last12=Solnik |first12=Anu |last13=Reisberg |first13=Tuuli |last14=Parik |first14=Jüri |last15=Saag |first15=Lauri |date=May 2019 |title=The Arrival of Siberian Ancestry Connecting the Eastern Baltic to Uralic Speakers further East |journal=Current Biology |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=1701–1711.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.026 |pmc=6544527 |pmid=31080083 |last16=Metspalu |first16=Ene |last17=Rootsi |first17=Siiri |last18=Montinaro |first18=Francesco |last19=Remm |first19=Maido |last20=Mägi |first20=Reedik |last21=D'Atanasio |first21=Eugenia |last22=Crema |first22=Enrico Ryunosuke |last23=Díez-del-Molino |first23=David |last24=Thomas |first24=Mark G. |last25=Kriiska |first25=Aivar |last26=Kivisild |first26=Toomas |last27=Villems |first27=Richard |last28=Lang |first28=Valter |last29=Metspalu |first29=Mait |last30=Tambets |first30=Kristiina|bibcode=2019CBio...29E1701S }}</ref> It originated in East Eurasia<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and is commonly carried by modern Uralic-speaking groups but also other North Eurasians, including Estonians' Baltic-speaking neighbors [[Latvians]] and [[Lithuanians]].<ref name=":0" /> Compared to the Balts, Estonians have been noticed to have differences in allelic variances of N1c haplotypes, showing more similarity with other Finno-Ugric-speakers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Krūmiņa |first1=Astrīda |last2=Pliss |first2=Liāna |last3=Zariņa |first3=Gunita |last4=Puzuka |first4=Agrita |last5=Zariņa |first5=Agnese |last6=Lāce |first6=Baiba |last7=Elferts |first7=Didzis |last8=Khrunin |first8=Andrey |last9=Limborska |first9=Svetlana |last10=Kloviņš |first10=Jānis |last11=Gailīte Piekuse |first11=Linda |date=2018-06-01 |title=Population Genetics of Latvians in the Context of Admixture between North-Eastern European Ethnic Groups |journal=Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences. Section B. Natural, Exact, and Applied Sciences. |language=en |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=131–151 |doi=10.2478/prolas-2018-0025 |issn=1407-009X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":9">Lappalainen, Tuuli: ''Human genetic variation in the Baltic Sea region: features of population history and natural selection''. PhD thesis. Helsinki University Print, Helsinki. 2009. https://hdl.handle.net/10138/22129</ref>

When looking at [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|maternal lineages]], nearly half (45 %) of the Estonians have the haplogroup [[Haplogroup H (mtDNA)|H]] . About one in four (24.2 %) carry the haplogroup [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)|U]], and the majority of them belong to its subclade [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5|U5]].<ref name=":7" /> 

=== Autosomal DNA ===
[[File:Figure 2a (Cropped) PCA of Europeans.jpg|thumb|A PCA of Estonians and several other European populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stamatoyannopoulos |first1=George |last2=Bose |first2=Aritra |last3=Teodosiadis |first3=Athanasios |last4=Tsetsos |first4=Fotis |last5=Plantinga |first5=Anna |last6=Psatha |first6=Nikoletta |last7=Zogas |first7=Nikos |last8=Yannaki |first8=Evangelia |last9=Zalloua |first9=Pierre |last10=Kidd |first10=Kenneth K. |last11=Browning |first11=Brian L. |last12=Stamatoyannopoulos |first12=John |last13=Paschou |first13=Peristera |last14=Drineas |first14=Petros |date=2017 |title=Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=637–645 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.18 |issn=1476-5438 |pmc=5437898 |pmid=28272534}}</ref>]]
[[File:PCA of 2305 Estonian samples.webp|thumb|Regional population structure of Estonians.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Pankratov |first1=Vasili |last2=Montinaro |first2=Francesco |last3=Kushniarevich |first3=Alena |last4=Hudjashov |first4=Georgi |last5=Jay |first5=Flora |last6=Saag |first6=Lauri |last7=Flores |first7=Rodrigo |last8=Marnetto |first8=Davide |last9=Seppel |first9=Marten |last10=Kals |first10=Mart |last11=Võsa |first11=Urmo |last12=Taccioli |first12=Cristian |last13=Möls |first13=Märt |last14=Milani |first14=Lili |last15=Aasa |first15=Anto |date=2020 |title=Differences in local population history at the finest level: the case of the Estonian population |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=1580–1591 |doi=10.1038/s41431-020-0699-4 |issn=1476-5438 |pmc=7575549 |pmid=32712624}}</ref>]]
Autosomally Estonians are close with [[Latvians]] and [[Lithuanians]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Tambets |first1=Kristiina |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Hudjashov |first3=Georgi |last4=Ilumäe |first4=Anne-Mai |last5=Rootsi |first5=Siiri |last6=Honkola |first6=Terhi |last7=Vesakoski |first7=Outi |last8=Atkinson |first8=Quentin |last9=Skoglund |first9=Pontus |last10=Kushniarevich |first10=Alena |last11=Litvinov |first11=Sergey |last12=Reidla |first12=Maere |last13=Metspalu |first13=Ene |last14=Saag |first14=Lehti |last15=Rantanen |first15=Timo |date=2018 |title=Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations |journal=Genome Biology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=139 |doi=10.1186/s13059-018-1522-1 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=6151024 |pmid=30241495 |doi-access=free}}</ref> However, they are shifted towards the [[Finns]], who are isolated from most European populations.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Nelis |first1=Mari |last2=Esko |first2=Tõnu |last3=Mägi |first3=Reedik |last4=Zimprich |first4=Fritz |last5=Zimprich |first5=Alexander |last6=Toncheva |first6=Draga |last7=Karachanak |first7=Sena |last8=Piskáčková |first8=Tereza |last9=Balaščák |first9=Ivan |last10=Peltonen |first10=Leena |last11=Jakkula |first11=Eveliina |last12=Rehnström |first12=Karola |last13=Lathrop |first13=Mark |last14=Heath |first14=Simon |last15=Galan |first15=Pilar |date=2009-05-08 |title=Genetic Structure of Europeans: A View from the North–East |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=4 |issue=5 |article-number=e5472 |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5472N |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005472 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=2675054 |pmid=19424496 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kushniarevich |first1=Alena |last2=Utevska |first2=Olga |last3=Chuhryaeva |first3=Marina |last4=Agdzhoyan |first4=Anastasia |last5=Dibirova |first5=Khadizhat |last6=Uktveryte |first6=Ingrida |last7=Möls |first7=Märt |last8=Mulahasanovic |first8=Lejla |last9=Pshenichnov |first9=Andrey |last10=Frolova |first10=Svetlana |last11=Shanko |first11=Andrey |last12=Metspalu |first12=Ene |last13=Reidla |first13=Maere |last14=Tambets |first14=Kristiina |last15=Tamm |first15=Erika |date=2015-09-02 |editor-last=Calafell |editor-first=Francesc |title=Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=9 |article-number=e0135820 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4558026 |pmid=26332464 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Khrunin |first1=Andrey V. |last2=Khokhrin |first2=Denis V. |last3=Filippova |first3=Irina N. |last4=Esko |first4=Tõnu |last5=Nelis |first5=Mari |last6=Bebyakova |first6=Natalia A. |last7=Bolotova |first7=Natalia L. |last8=Klovins |first8=Janis |last9=Nikitina-Zake |first9=Liene |last10=Rehnström |first10=Karola |last11=Ripatti |first11=Samuli |last12=Schreiber |first12=Stefan |last13=Franke |first13=Andre |last14=Macek |first14=Milan |last15=Krulišová |first15=Veronika |date=2013-03-07 |title=A Genome-Wide Analysis of Populations from European Russia Reveals a New Pole of Genetic Diversity in Northern Europe |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |article-number=e58552 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...858552K |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058552 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3591355 |pmid=23505534 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Northeastern Estonians are particularly close to Finns, while southeastern Estonians are close to the Balts; other Estonians plot between these two extremes.<ref name=":8" />

Estonians have high [[Western Steppe Herders|steppe]]-like admixture, and less [[Early European Farmers|farmer]]-related and more [[hunter-gatherer]]-related admixture than Western and Central Europeans. The same pattern is found also in the Balts, Finns and [[Mordvins]], for example.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salmela |first=Elina |date=2023 |title=Mistä suomalaisten perimä on peräisin? |url=https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/publications/mist%C3%A4-suomalaisten-perim%C3%A4-on-per%C3%A4isin |journal=Duodecim |volume=139 |issue=16 |pages=1247–1255 |issn=0012-7183}}</ref> Uralic peoples typically carry a [[Siberia|Siberian]]-related component, which is also present in Estonians and makes up about five percent of their ancestry on average. Although they have a smaller share of it than other Finnic-speakers, it is one factor that distinguishes them from the Balts.<ref name=":7" /> Estonians can also be modelled to have considerably more Finnish-like ancestry than Baltic-speakers.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" />

Estonians have a high sharing of IBD ([[Identity by descent|identity-by-descent]]) segments with other studied Finnic groups (Finns, [[Karelians]] and [[Vepsians]]) and the [[Saami (people)|Sami]] people, as well as with the [[Polish people|Polish]] people.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Estonia}}
* [[Demographics of Estonia]]
* [[Estonian Americans]]
* [[Estonian Argentines]]
* [[Estonian Australians]]
* [[Estonian Canadians]]
* [[Estonian national awakening]]
* [[Gauja Estonians]]
* [[List of Estonian Americans]]
* [[List of Estonians|List of notable Estonians]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal
| last    = Petersoo
| first   = Pille
|date=January 2007
| title   = Reconsidering otherness: constructing Estonian identity
| journal = [[Nations and Nationalism (journal)|Nations and Nationalism]]
| volume  = 13
| issue   = 1
| pages   = 117–133
| doi     = 10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00276.x
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|People of Estonia}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090603051543/http://www.eesti.ee/rahvuskaaslased/ Office of the Minister for Population and Ethnic Affairs: Estonians abroad]
* [https://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/fromestonia/ From Estonia to Thirlmere] (online exhibition)
* [https://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/ournewhome/ Our New Home Meie Uus Kodu: Estonian-Australian Stories] (online exhibition)

{{European diasporas}}
{{EstonianDiaspora}}
{{Ethnic groups in Estonia}}
{{Estonia topics}}
{{Uralic peoples}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Estonian people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Estonia]]
[[Category:Baltic Finns]]