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{{Short description|Political philosophy}}
{{distinguish|Legal despotism}}
{{Monarchism|expanded=Related}}
'''Enlightened absolutism''', also called '''enlightened despotism''', refers to the conduct and policies of European [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchs]] during the 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of [[the Enlightenment]], espousing them to enhance their power.{{sfn|Perry|Chase|Jacob|Jacob|2015|p=442}} The concept originated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries. An enlightened [[Autocracy|absolutist]] is a non-[[Democracy|democratic]] or [[authoritarian]] leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects' well-being. [[John Stuart Mill]] stated that [[despotism]] is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement.{{sfn|Mill|1989|p=13}}

Enlightened absolutists' beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots, both recognizing that they were destined to rule. Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of [[serfdom]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Disappearance of Serfdom. France. England. Italy. Germany. Spain.|url = http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/S/SLA/slavery-12.html|website = www.1902encyclopedia.com|access-date = 2015-12-07}}</ref> The enlightened despotism of Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] is summarized as "Everything for the people, nothing by the people".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/joseph-ii-long-awaited-son |title=Joseph II: The long-awaited son |author=World of the Habsburgs |work=Textmode |publisher=World of the Habsburgs |access-date=2015-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722182848/https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/joseph-ii-long-awaited-son|archive-date=July 22, 2023|quote=Even Joseph's early writings reveal his attitude towards the office of ruler. He thought that a monarch should sacrifice everything for the welfare of his people. In keeping with his maxim 'Everything for the people, nothing by the people', he did not think that subjects should be given a voice in the political process. Joseph saw his role as that of a benevolent despot who was obliged to coerce his unwitting people for their own good.}}</ref>

== History ==
Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by [[Frederick the Great]], who ruled [[Prussia]] from 1740 to 1786, defending this system of government.<ref name="Kramnick1995">Reprinted in {{cite book|author=Isaac Kramnick|title=The Portable Enlightenment Reader|url=https://archive.org/details/portableenlighte00isaa|url-access=registration|access-date=26 August 2013|year=1995|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-024566-0}}</ref> When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher [[Voltaire]] fell out of favor in [[Kingdom of France|France]], he eagerly accepted Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. He believed that an enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick was an enthusiast of French ideas. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."<ref>Giles MacDonogh, ''Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters'' (2001) p. 341</ref>

Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from [[Divine right of kings|divine right]] but from a [[social contract]] whereby a despot was entrusted with the power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments. The monarchs of enlightened absolutism strengthened their authority by improving the lives of their subjects. The monarch’s taking responsibility for his subjects precluded their political participation.

The difference between an [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist]] and an ''enlightened'' absolutist is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced the Age of Enlightenment. Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism. They distinguish between the "enlightenment" of the ruler personally, versus that of his regime. For example, Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice.<ref>[[H. M. Scott]], ed., ''Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe'', (University of Michigan Press, 1990)</ref> Other rulers such as the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]], prime minister of [[Portugal]], used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance [[autocracy]], crush opposition, suppress criticism, advance colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

The concept of enlightened absolutism was formally described by the German historian [[Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher|Wilhelm Roscher]] in 1847<ref>A. Lentin (ed.), ''Enlightened Absolutism (1760–1790)'', Aveiro, 1985, p. ix.</ref> and remains controversial among scholars.<ref>Charles Ingrao, "The Problem of 'Enlightened Absolutism and the German States," ''Journal of Modern History'' Vol. 58, Supplement: Politics and Society in the Holy Roman Empire, 1500–1806 (Dec., 1986), pp. S161–S180 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1880014 in JSTOR]</ref>

Centralized control necessitated centralized systematic information on the nation. A major renovation was the collection, use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, ranging from trade statistics, harvest reports, death notices to population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined the utilitarian agenda of "enlightened absolutism" with the new ideas being developed in  economics. In Germany and France, the trend was especially strong in [[Cameralism]] and [[Physiocracy]].<ref>Lars Behrisch, "Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century." ''Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung'' (2016) 41#2: 238–257. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/357697/Statistics.pdf?sequence=1 online]</ref>

== Major nations ==
Government responses to the [[Age of Enlightenment]] varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states.<ref>Stephen J. Lee, ''Aspects of European history, 1494–1789'' (1990) pp. 258–266</ref> In France the government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders.

[[Frederick the Great]], who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government,{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to  make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit".<ref>Giles MacDonogh, ''Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters'' (2001) p. 341</ref> He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government.<ref>Reprinted in Isaac Kramnick, ed. ''The Portable Enlightenment Reader'' (1995)</ref>

Empress [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II of Russia]] sponsored the [[Russian Enlightenment]]. She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially [[Montesquieu]], in her [[Nakaz]], which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher [[Denis Diderot]] to her court worked out poorly.<ref>Isabel de Madariaga, "Catherine the Great" in H. M. Scott ed., ''Enlightened Absolutism'' (1990). {{page?|date=August 2023}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

[[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening the Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing [[agriculture]] and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death.<ref>Nicholas  Henderson, "Charles III of Spain: An Enlightened Despot," ''History Today'', Nov 1968, Vol. 18  Issue 10, pp. 673–682 and Issue 11, pp. 760–768</ref><ref>Francisco Javier Guillamón Álvarez, "Institutional Reform and Municipal Government in the Spanish Empire in the Eighteenth Century." ''Itinerario'' 20.3 (1996): 109–123.</ref>

Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], ruler of Austria 1780–1790, was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors.<ref>Nicholas Henderson, "Joseph II", ''History Today'' (March 1991) 41:21–27</ref>

In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]], who was [[Joseph I of Portugal]]'s Secretary of State.<ref>Benjamin Otis Frick, ''The Enlightened Despotism of the Eighteenth Century in Portugal: The Marquis of Pombal'' (1902).</ref>  For a brief period in Denmark [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]] attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he was executed and quartered.<ref>Henry Steele Commager, "Struensee and the Enlightenment", ''The search for a usable past, and other essays in historiography'' (1967) pp. 349–623.</ref>

== Modern use ==

[[Reza Shah Pahlavi]], relying upon a coalition of [[secularism|secular constitutionalists]], [[liberal democracy|liberal-democratic thinkers]], [[Religion in Iran|traditional clergy]], and the [[populism|general population]], enacted a form of enlightened absolutism, seeking to modernize Iran by combining [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchism]] with [[liberalism|liberal ideas]]. He reformed the bureaucracy, promoted [[Freedom of religion|religious tolerance]], and fostered [[economic growth]], all the while restoring a monarchial institution and preserving an authoritarian governance structure. His [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|son]] continued this until [[Iranian revolution|his overthrow in 1979]].<ref>{{cite web |last= Mehdi  |first= Khalaji |date= 30 April 2021 |title= The Rise of “Bonapartism” in Iran |url= https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/rise-bonapartism-iran |website= Washington Institute |location= |publisher= |access-date= 18 March 2025}}</ref>

[[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince]] [[Mohammad bin Salman]], [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|prime minister]] and ''de facto'' ruler of [[Saudi Arabia]] (an [[absolute monarchy]]) has been described as a modern-day enlightened despot. Since assuming power as crown prince in 2017, he has enacted widespread reforms which have reduced the power of Wahhabi clergy and religious police in a theocratic kingdom. However, Saudi Arabia remains an authoritarian state, with a poor human rights record and frequent jailing and political persecution of political dissidents.<ref>{{Cite web |title=If the Choice Is Charlatans or Fanatics, Choose the Former |url=https://providencemag.com/2023/10/if-the-choice-is-charlatans-or-fanatics-choose-the-former/ |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Providence|date=19 October 2023 }}</ref>

== Associated rulers ==

<gallery align="center" heights="180" mode="packed" caption="Examples of enlightened absolutist monarchs">
File:Catherine II by J.B.Lampi (1794, Hermitage).jpg|[[Catherine the Great|Catherine II of Russia]]
File:Charles III of Spain high resolution.jpg|[[Charles III of Spain]]
File:Friedrich II., König von Preußen (Frisch).jpg|[[Frederick the Great|Frederick II of Prussia]]
File:Gustav III by Alexander Roslin - no frame (Nationalmuseum, 15330).png|[[Gustav III|Gustav III of Sweden]]
File:Portrait of Joseph Emanuel, King of Portugal (1773) - Miguel António do Amaral.png|[[Joseph I of Portugal]]
File:Anton von Maron 006.png|[[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]]
File:François Gerard - Napoleon I in Coronation Robes.jpeg|[[Napoleon|Napoleon I of France]]
File:Prinz Otto von Bayern Koenig von Griechenland 1833.jpg|[[Otto of Greece]]
</gallery>

* [[Peter the Great|Peter the Great of Russia]] (1682–1725)
* [[Catherine the Great|Catherine the Great of Russia]] (1762–1796)<ref>* McKay, ''A History of Western Society'', Houghton Mifflin, 2006, pp. 616–619 
* R. K. Massie, ''Catherine the Great: Portrait of a Woman'', Random House, 2012</ref>
* [[Frederick the Great|Frederick the Great of Prussia]] (1740–1786)<ref>H. M. Scott, 1990, pp. 265ff.</ref>
* [[Charles III of Spain]] (1759–1788)<ref name="H.M. Scott, 1990, p. 1">H. M. Scott, 1990, p. 1.</ref>
* [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] as First Consul of French Republic (1799–1804) and as Emperor of [[The First French Empire]] (1804–1814).
* [[Frederick VI of Denmark]] (1808–1839)<ref name="H. Arnold Barton 1986">H. Arnold Barton, ''Scandinavia in the Revolutionary Era 1760–1815'', University of Minnesota Press, 1986, pp. 142ff. {{ISBN|0-8166-1392-3}}.</ref>
* [[Gustav III|Gustav III of Sweden]] (1771–1792)<ref name="H. Arnold Barton 1986"/>
* [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1765–1790)<ref name="H.M. Scott, 1990, p. 1"/>
* [[Joseph I of Portugal]] (through his minister, the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|Marquis of Pombal]]) (1750–1777)
* [[Maria Theresa]] (1740–1780)
* [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (1765–1790)<ref name="H.M. Scott, 1990, p. 1"/>
* [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV of Naples]] (1816–1825)
* [[Maria Carolina of Austria]], [[List of Neapolitan royal consorts|Queen of Naples]]<ref>Bearne, Catherine Mary (1907). ''A Sister of Marie Antoinette: The Life-Story of Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples''. London: T. Fisher Unwin, p. 142.</ref> [[List of Sicilian royal consorts|and Sicily]] (1768–1814)
* [[Christian VII of Denmark]] (through his minister [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]]) (1770–1772)
* [[Philip, Duke of Parma]] (through his minister [[Guillaume du Tillot]]) (1748–1765)
* [[Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena]] (1737–1780)
* [[Ercole III d'Este, Duke of Modena]] (1780–1796)
* [[Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia]] (1730–1773)
* [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia]] (1773–1796)
* [[Otto of Greece]] (1832-1862)
* [[Mihailo Obrenović|Mihailo Obrenović III of Serbia]]  (1839–1842, 1860–1868)

== In other cultures ==
=== China ===
Xuezhi Guo contrasts the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] ideal of a "humane ruler" (''[[renjun]]'') with the ideal of [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Chinese legalists]], who he says "intended to create a truly 'enlightened ruler' (''[[mingjun]]'') who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy"; this ruler would be a "skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or 'technique' in achieving self-protection and political control". Guo quotes [[Benjamin I. Schwartz]] as describing the features of "a truly Legalist 'enlightened ruler{{Single double}}:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vG-MROnr7IC&pg=PA141|title=The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical and Cultural Perspective|last=Guo|first=Xuezhi|publisher=Praeger Publishers|year=2002|isbn=9780275972592|location=Westport, CT|pages=141}}</ref><blockquote>He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses, whims and passions. Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place, he must not interfere with their operation. He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions, but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings. He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role. Concubines, friends, flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on the course of policy, and he must never relax his suspicions of the motives of those who surround him.<ref>Benjanmin I. Schwartz p. 345, The World of Thought in Ancient China</ref><ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

== See also ==
* [[Benevolent dictatorship]]
* [[Liberal autocracy]]
* ''[[Noblesse oblige]]''
* [[Philosopher king]]
* [[Social imperialism]]
* [[Soft despotism]]
* [[Legal despotism]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Behrens, Betty. "Enlightened despotism." ''Historical Journal'' 18.2 (1975): 401–408.
* Gagliardo, John G.  (1967). ''Enlightened Despotism''.
* Gershoy, Leo. (1963). ''From Despotism to Revolution, 1763–1789'' (1944).  [https://archive.org/details/fromdespotismtor00gers online free to borrow]
* Krieger, Leonard. ''An essay on the theory of enlightened despotism'' (U of Chicago Press, 1975).
* Ingrao, Charles. "The problem of 'enlightened absolutism' and the German States." ''Journal of Modern History'' 58 (1986): S161–S180.  [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1880014 online]
* McHugh, James T. "Last of the enlightened despots: A comparison of President Mikhail Gorbachev and Emperor Joseph II." ''Social Science Journal'' 32.1 (1995): 69–85 [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0362-3319%2895%2990020-9 online]. 
* {{cite book|last=Mill|first=John Stuart|title=J. S. Mill: 'On Liberty' and Other Writings|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PlZll-SI1FQC}}|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37917-5}}
* Mueller, Christine L. (1994) "Enlightened Absolutism" ''Austrian History Yearbook: 1994'', Vol. 25, pp. 159–183. Covers the recent historiography of the role in 18th-century Austrian statecraft. 
* {{cite book|last1 = Perry|first1=Marvin|last2=Chase|first2=Myrna|last3=Jacob|first3=James|last4 = Jacob|first4 = Margaret|last5 = Daly|first5 = Jonathan|title=Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Volume I: To 1789|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tC5BBAAAQBAJ}}|year=2015|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-305-44548-2}}
* Scott, H. M. "Whatever Happened to the Enlightened Despots?." ''History'' 68#223 (1983), pp.&nbsp;245–257 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24418565 online]
* Scott, H. M.  ed. (1990). ''Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe''.
* Szabo, Franz. ''Kaunitz and Enlightened Absolutism 1753–1780'' (1994) online as ACLS Humanities E-Book

== External links ==
* {{cite web |url=http://www.biography.com/people/joseph-ii-9358214 |title=Joseph II Biography|publisher=A&E Television Networks |access-date=2015-10-21 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/joseph-ii-long-awaited-son |title=Joseph II: The long-awaited son |author=World of the Habsburgs |work=Textmode |publisher=World of the Habsburgs |access-date=2015-10-21 |quote=‘Everything for the people, nothing by the people’ }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/enlightened-despotism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Enlightened despotism}}

{{portalbar|politics}}
{{Age of Enlightenment}}
{{Authoritarian types of rule}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Authoritarianism]]
[[Category:Enlightened absolutism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
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[[Category:Age of Enlightenment|Despotism]]