View source for English as a second or foreign language

{{short description|Use of English by speakers with different native languages}}
{{distinguish|English as a lingua franca}}
{{redirect|ESL|other uses|ESL (disambiguation)}}
{{for-multi|the Community episode|English as a Second Language (Community)|the podcast|English as a Second Language Podcast}}
{{lead rewrite|date=October 2022|reason=Most of this lead is an irrelevant technicality related to a different article}}

[[File:English classes in Moscow school, 1964 46.jpg|thumb|English classes in Moscow in 1964]]
'''English as a second or foreign language''' refers to the use of [[English language|English]] by individuals whose native language is different, commonly among students learning to speak and write English. Variably known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a new language (ENL), these terms denote the study of English in environments where it is not the dominant language. Programs such as ESL are designed as academic courses to instruct non-native speakers in English proficiency, encompassing both learning in English-speaking nations and abroad.

Teaching methodologies include [[teaching English as a foreign language]] (TEFL) in non-English-speaking countries, [[teaching English as a second language]] (TESL) in [[English-speaking world|English-speaking nations]], and teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) worldwide. These terms, while distinct in scope, are often used interchangeably, reflecting the global spread and diversity of English language education. Critically, recent developments in terminology, such as [[English-language learner]] (ELL) and English Learners (EL), emphasize the cultural and linguistic diversity of students, promoting inclusive educational practices across different contexts.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

Methods for teaching English encompass a broad spectrum, from traditional [[classroom]] settings to innovative self-directed study programs, integrating approaches that enhance language acquisition and cultural understanding. The efficacy of these methods hinges on adapting teaching strategies to students' proficiency levels and contextual needs, ensuring comprehensive language learning in today's interconnected world.

== Definition and purposes ==
The aspect in which EFL is taught is referred to as [[teaching English as a foreign language]] ([[TEFL]]), teaching English as a second language (TESL) or teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). Technically, TEFL refers to English language teaching in a country where English is not the official language, TESL refers to teaching English to non-native English speakers in a native English-speaking country and TESOL covers both. In practice, however, each of these terms tends to be used more generically across the full field. TEFL is more widely used in the United Kingdom and TESL or TESOL in the United States.

== Usage ==
The term "ESL" has been seen by some{{who|date=September 2023}} to indicate that English would be of subordinate importance; for example, where English is used as a [[lingua franca]] in a multilingual country. The term can be a misnomer for some students who have learned several languages before learning English. The terms "English language learners" (ELL), and, more recently, "English learners" (EL), have been used instead, and the students' native languages and cultures are considered important.<ref name="Wright">(Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory, Policy, and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.).</ref>

== Educational approach ==
[[File:English lesson in Thai school 3.jpg|thumb|Learning English in a primary school in rural Thailand]]
Methods of learning English are highly variable, depending on the student's level of English proficiency and the manner and setting in which they are taught, which can range from required classes in school to self-directed study at home, or a blended combination of both. Teaching technique plays an important role in the performance of English language acquisition as a foreign language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The role of classroom interaction in developing english as a foreign language |url=https://search.emarefa.net/en/detail/BIM-1489169-the-role-of-classroom-interaction-in-developing-english-as-a |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=search.emarefa.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Altakhaineh |first1=Abdel Rahman Mitib |last2=Hajjo |first2=Maram H. |date=2019 |title=Teaching antonyms to Arabic-speaking EFL learners |url=https://digitallibrary.aau.ac.ae/handle/123456789/481 |journal=AAU Digital Repository |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Strategies used by second language learners |date=1990-02-23 |work=Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition |pages=114–150 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139524490.007 |access-date=2024-05-25 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139524490.007 |isbn=978-0-521-35286-4 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> In some programs, educational materials (including spoken lectures and written assignments) are provided in a mixture of English, and the student's native language. In other programs, educational materials are always in English, but the vocabulary, grammar, and context clues may be modified to be more easily understood by students with varying levels of comprehension. Adapting comprehension, insight-oriented repetitions, and recasts are some of the methods used in training. However, without proper cultural immersion (social learning grounds) the associated language habits and reference points (internal mechanisms) of the host country are not completely transferred through these programs.<ref name="Wright" /><ref>Horobin, Simon. "[https://blog.oup.com/2016/02/english-latin-language/ How English became English – and not Latin]" ''Oxford University Press Blog''. Retrieved November 18, 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=P.D. Antony|title=English Grammar and Usage Made Easy: Learning English Language and Grammar Made Simple|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wfODAAAQBAJ&pg=PT8|date=8 August 2016|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-1-945688-07-2|page=8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Otto Dietrich|title=Introduction to German, for Those who Have Some Knowledge of English Grammar. ...|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqFHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA5|year=1890|publisher=Phonography printing Company|page=5}}</ref> Mark Hancock argues that in many second language learning environments, students naturally engage in language "layering", which is blending their native language and English to navigate meaning and to express complex ideas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hancock |first=Mark |date=1997 |title=Behind Classroom Code Switching: Layering and Language Choice in L2 Learner Interaction |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3588045 |journal=TESOL Quarterly |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=217–235 |doi=10.2307/3588045 |jstor=3588045 |issn=0039-8322|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This study suggests how code-switching can serve as a communicative resource rather than an obstacle to learning. The major engines that influence the language are the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] and they both have assimilated the language differently so they differ in expressions and usage. This is found to a great extent primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variants of the English language also exist in both of these countries (e.g. [[African American Vernacular English]]).

Recent research in second language acquisition emphasizes that the effectiveness of English language education depends not only on exposure, but also on how instruction is structured and delivered. According to Shawn Loewen, English instruction in classrooms is most successful when it incorporates a balance of communicative activities and attention to grammar and form.<ref>{{Citation |last=Loewen |first=Shawn |title=Contexts of Instructed Second Language Acquisition |date=2020-03-09 |work=Introduction to Instructed Second Language Acquisition |pages=184–206 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315616797-10 |access-date=2025-06-03 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315616797-10 |isbn=978-1-315-61679-7}}</ref> His work highlights the role of input, interaction, and output which consist of what learners hear or read, speaking and listening to others and learners' own use of English.

== Influence ==
The English language has a great reach and influence, and English is taught all over the world. In countries where English is not usually a native language, there are two distinct models for teaching English: educational programs for students who want to move to English-speaking countries, and other programs for students who do not intend to move but who want to understand English content for the purposes of education, entertainment, employment or conducting international business. The differences between these two models of English language education have grown larger over time, and teachers focusing on each model have used different [[terminology]], received different training, and formed separate [[professional associations]]. English is also taught as a second language for recent immigrants to English-speaking countries, which faces separate challenges because the students in one class may speak many different native languages. Code-switching serves a linguistic strategy to navigate between languages but it cannot fully resolve the deeper cultural pressures those immigrants face.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Margaret |date=2011 |title=The Limitations of Code Switching in Chicano/a Literature |url=https://youngscholarsinwriting.org/index.php/ysiw/article/view/109 |journal=Young Scholars in Writing |language=en |volume=8 |pages=40–51 |issn=2152-6524}}</ref>

==Terminology and types==
The many [[Acronym and initialism|acronyms]] and [[abbreviation]]s used in the field of English teaching and learning may be confusing and the following technical definitions may have their currency contested upon various grounds.  The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English as a [[second language]], but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

English language teaching (ELT) is a widely used teacher-centered term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. [[Teaching English as a second language]] (TESL), teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), and [[teaching English as a foreign language]] (TEFL) are also used.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Other terms used in this field include [[international English|English as an international language]] (EIL), [[English as a lingua franca]] (ELF), English for special purposes and [[English for specific purposes]] (ESP), and [[English for academic purposes]] (EAP). Those who are learning English are often referred to as [[English language learner]]s (ELL). The learners of the English language are of two main groups. The first group includes the learners learning English as their second language i.e. the second language of their country and the second group includes those who learn English as a totally foreign language i.e. a language that is not spoken in any part of their country.

===English outside English-speaking countries===
''EFL'', English as a foreign language, indicates the teaching of English in a non–English-speaking region. The study can occur either in the student's home country, as part of the normal school curriculum or otherwise, or, for the more privileged minority, in an anglophone country that they visit as a sort of educational tourist, particularly immediately before or after graduating from university. ''TEFL'' is the [[Teaching English as a foreign language|teaching of English as a foreign language]];<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is TEFL? |url=https://www.internationalteflacademy.com/blog/what-is-tefl-and-what-is-tefl-certification |website=International TEFL Academy |date=2021 |accessdate=24 August 2021}}</ref> note that this sort of instruction can take place in any country, English-speaking or not. Typically, EFL is learned either to pass exams as a necessary part of one's education or for career progression while one works for an organization or business with an international focus. EFL may be part of the state school [[curriculum]] in countries where English has no special status (what [[linguistics|linguistic]] theorist [[Braj Kachru]] calls the "expanding circle countries"); it may also be supplemented by lessons paid for privately. Teachers of EFL generally assume that students are [[literate]] in their [[First language|mother tongue]]. The ''Chinese EFL Journal''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinese-EFL-journal.org|title=クリアネオ 口コミ 効果 効かない – My WordPress Blog|website=www.chinese-efl-journal.org|access-date=2019-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111024315/https://chinese-efl-journal.org/|archive-date=2019-01-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> and ''Iranian EFL Journal''<ref>[http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com Second Language Acquisition Research Journal | Welcome |] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122021909/http://www.iranian-efl-journal.com/ |date=2019-01-22 }}. The Iranian EFL Journal. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.</ref> are examples of international journals dedicated to specifics of English language learning within countries where English is used as a foreign language.

===English within English-speaking countries===

The other broad grouping is the use of English within the [[English-speaking world]]. In what [[Braj Kachru]] calls "the inner circle", i.e., countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, this use of English is generally by [[refugee]]s, [[immigrant]]s, and their children. It also includes the use of English in "outer circle" countries, often [[Commonwealth of Nations|former British colonies]] and the [[Philippines]], where English is an [[official language]] even if it is not spoken as a [[mother tongue]] by a majority of the population.

In the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand this use of English is called ''ESL'' (English as a second language). This term has been criticized on the grounds that many learners already speak more than one language. A counter-argument says that the word "a" in the phrase "a second language" means there is no presumption that English is ''the'' second acquired language (see also ''[[Second language]]''). ''TESL'' is the teaching of English as a second language. There are also other terms that it may be referred to in the US including ELL (English Language Learner) and CLD (Culturally and Linguistically Diverse).

In the UK and Ireland, the term ESL has been replaced by ''ESOL'' (English for speakers of other languages). In these countries ''TESOL'' (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is normally used to refer to teaching English only to this group. In the UK and Ireland,  the term ''EAL'' (English as an additional language) is used, rather than ESOL, when talking about primary and secondary schools, in order to clarify that English is not the students' first language, but their second or third. The term ESOL is used to describe English language learners who are above statutory school age.

Other acronyms were created to describe the person rather than the language to be learned. The term [[Limited English proficiency]] (LEP) was first used in 1975 by the Lau Remedies following a decision of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]]. ELL (English Language Learner),<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ramsey|first1=Patricia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTOPAgAAQBAJ&q=Limited%20English%20proficiency%20(LEP)%201975%20%22Lau%20Remedies%22|title=Multicultural Education: A Source Book, Second Edition|last2=Williams|first2=Leslie R.|last3=Vold|first3=Edwina|year=1989|pages=21|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135582210}}</ref> used by United States governments and school systems, was created by James Crawford of the Institute for Language and Education Policy in an effort to label learners positively, rather than ascribing a deficiency to them. Recently, some educators have shortened this to EL – English Learner.

Typically, a student learns this sort of English to function in the new host country, e.g., within the school system (if a child), to find and hold down a job (if an adult), or to perform the necessities of daily life (cooking, taking a cab/public transportation, or eating in a restaurant, etc.). The teaching of it does not presuppose literacy in the [[mother tongue]]. It is usually paid for by the host government to help newcomers settle into their adopted country, sometimes as part of an explicit [[citizenship]] program. It is technically possible for ESL to be taught not in the host country, but in, for example, a refugee camp, as part of a pre-departure program sponsored by the government soon to receive new potential citizens. In practice, however, this is extremely rare.
Particularly in Canada and Australia, the term ''ESD'' (English as a second [[dialect]]) is used alongside ESL, usually in reference to programs for [[Aboriginal peoples]] in Canada or [[indigenous Australians|Australians]]. The term refers to the use of standard English by speakers of a [[creole language|creole]] or non-standard variety. It is often grouped with ESL as ''ESL/ESD''.
the

===Umbrella terms===
All these ways of denoting the teaching of English can be bundled together into an [[umbrella term]]. Unfortunately, not all of the English teachers in the world would agree on just only a simple single term(s). The term ''TESOL'' (teaching English to speakers of other languages) is used in [[American English]] to include both TEFL and TESL. This is also the case in Canada as well as in Australia and New Zealand. [[British English]] uses ''ELT'' (English language teaching), because TESOL has a different, more specific meaning; see above.

==Difficulties for learners==
[[File:Young Jayaji Rao Sindhia, Maharaja of Gwalior, studying English (6125060402).jpg|thumb|''Young [[Jayajirao Scindia|Jayaji Rao Sindhia]], [[Maharaja of Gwalior]], studying English'', 1846]]
Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of [[English language|English]] are the consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a [[contrastive analysis]] approach). A native speaker of [[Chinese language|Chinese]], for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of [[German language|German]], because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any [[mother tongue]] (also called the first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a [[Second language|target language]], second language or L2). See also [[second-language acquisition]] (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.

Language learners often produce errors of [[syntax]], [[vocabulary]], and [[pronunciation]] thought to result from the influence of their L1, such as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately onto the L2, pronouncing certain sounds incorrectly or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as [[false friend]]s. This is known as [[language transfer|L1 transfer]] or "language interference". However, these [[Second-language acquisition#Language transfer|transfer effects]] are typically stronger for beginners' language production, and SLA research has highlighted many errors which cannot be attributed to the L1, as they are attested in learners of many language backgrounds (for example, failure to apply 3rd [[Grammatical person|person]] present singular -s to verbs, as in 'he make' not 'he make''s''').

Some students may have problems due to certain words being usable, unchanged, as different [[parts of speech]]. For example, the word "suffering" in "I am suffering terribly" is a verb, but in "My suffering is terrible" is a {{nowrap|noun{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}and confounding matters is the fact that both of these sentences express the same idea, using the same words. Other students might have problems due to the prescribing and proscribing nature of rules in the language formulated by amateur grammarians rather than ascribing to the functional and descriptive nature of languages evidenced from distribution. For example, a cleric, [[Robert Lowth]], introduced the rule to never end a sentence with a preposition, inspired by Latin grammar, through his book ''A Short Introduction to English Grammar''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ashortintroduct00lowtgoog|title=A Short Introduction to English Grammar: With Critical Notes|last=Robert Lowth|date=26 March 1794|publisher=Printed for J.J . Tourneisin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The inconsistencies brought from Latin language standardization of English language led to classifying and sub-classifying an otherwise simple language structure. Like many alphabetic writing systems, English also has incorporated the principle that [[Grapheme|graphemic]] units should correspond to the [[Phoneme|phonemic]] units; however, the fidelity to the principle is compromised, compared to an exemplar language like the [[Finnish language]]. This is evident in the Oxford English Dictionary; for many years it experimented with various spellings of 'SIGN' to attain a fidelity with the said principle, among which were SINE, SEGN, and SYNE, and through the diachronic mutations eventually settled on ''SIGN''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark Seidenberg|title=Language at the Speed of Sight: How We Read, Why So Many Can't, and What Can Be Done About It|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTBnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT189|date=3 January 2017|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-08065-6|page=189}}</ref> Cultural differences in communication styles and preferences are also significant. For example, a study among Chinese ESL students revealed that preference for not using the tense marking on verb present in the morphology of their mother tongue made it difficult for them to express time-related sentences in English.<ref>Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (1998). "The culture the learner brings: A bridge or a barrier? In M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspective: Approaches through drama and ethnography. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Another study looked at Chinese ESL students and British teachers and found that the Chinese learners did not see classroom 'discussion and interaction' type of communication for learning as important but placed a heavy emphasis on teacher-directed lectures.<ref>McKay, Sharon; Schaetzel, Kirsten, [http://www.cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/facilitating.html ''Facilitating Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and Speaking Skills''], CAELA Network Briefs, CAELA and [[Center for Applied Linguistics]], July 2008</ref>

===Pronunciation===
{{IPA notice|section}}
{{main|Non-native pronunciations of English|Accent reduction}}
English contains a number of sounds and sound distinctions not present in some other languages. These sounds can include vowels and consonants, as well as [[diphthongs]] and other morphemes. Speakers of languages without these sounds may have problems both with hearing and pronouncing them. For example:
* The [[interdentals]], {{IPA|/θ/}} ('three') and {{IPA|/ð/}} ('thee'), both written as ''th'', are relatively rare in other languages.
* Phonemic contrast of {{IPA|/i/}} with {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (''b'''ea'''t'' vs ''b'''i'''t'' vowels), of {{IPA|/u/}} with {{IPA|/ʊ/}} (''f'''oo'''l'' vs ''f'''u'''ll'' vowels), and of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} with {{IPA|/æ/}} (''b'''e'''t'' vs ''b'''a'''t'' vowels) is rare outside northwestern Europe, so unusual mergers or exotic pronunciations such as {{IPA|[bet]}} for ''b'''i'''t''  may arise. Note that [bɪt] is a pronunciation often used in England and Wales for ''b'''e'''t'', and also in some dialects of American English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://labphon.org/LabPhon11/publish/LP11%20abstracts/Clopper,%20Pierrehumbert%20and%20Tamati.pdf|title=Lexical Bias in Cross-Dialect Word Recognition in Noise – Departments of Linguistics of the Northwestern and Ohio State Universities}}</ref> See [[Northern cities vowel shift]], and [[Pin-pen merger]].
* Native speakers of Japanese, Korean, and most Chinese dialects [[Japanese speakers learning r and l|have difficulty distinguishing]] {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}, as do speakers of certain Caribbean Spanish dialects when these sounds are at the ends of syllables, a phenomenon known as [[lambdacism]], which is one form of lallation.
* Native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, Spanish or Galician, and Ukrainian may pronounce {{IPA|[h]}}-like sounds where a {{IPA|/r/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, or {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, respectively, would be expected, as those sounds often or almost always follow this process in their native languages, what is known as [[debuccalization]].
* Native speakers of [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], and important dialects of all current [[Ibero-Romance languages|Iberian Romance languages]] (including most of [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) have difficulty distinguishing {{IPA|[b]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, what is known as [[betacism]].
* Native speakers of almost all of Brazilian Portuguese, of some African Portuguese registers, of Portuguese-derived creole languages, some dialects of Swiss German, and several pontual processes in several Slavic languages, such as Bulgarian and Ukrainian, and many dialects of other languages, have instances of {{IPA|/l/}} or {{IPA|/ɫ/}} always becoming {{IPA|[w]}} at the end of a syllable in a given context, so that ''milk'' may be variously pronounced as {{IPA|[mɪu̯k], [mɪʊ̯k], or [mɪo̯k]}}. This is present in some English {{nowrap|registers{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}known as {{nowrap|[[l-vocalization]]{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}but may be shunned as substandard or bring confusion in others.
* Native speakers of many widely spoken languages (including Dutch and all the Romance ones) distinguish voiceless stop pairs {{IPA|/p/, /t/, /k/}} from their voiced counterparts {{IPA|/b/, /d/, /ɡ/}} merely by their sound (and in Iberian Romance languages, the latter trio does not even need to be stopped, so its native speakers unconsciously pronounce them as {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}}, and {{nowrap|{{IPA|[ɣ ~ ɰ]}}{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}voiced [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]] or [[Approximant consonant|approximants]] in the very same mouth {{nowrap|positions{{tsp}}{{mdash}}}}{{tsp}}instead much or most of the time, that native English speakers may erroneously interpret as the {{IPA|/v/}} or {{IPA|/w/}}, {{IPA|/ð/}} and {{IPA|/h/}}, {{IPA|/w/}}, or {{IPA|/r/}} of their language). In English, German, Danish, and some other languages, though, the main distinguishing feature in the case of initial or stressed stopped voiceless consonants from their voiced counterparts is that they are aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}} (unless if immediately preceded or followed by {{IPA|/s/}}), while the voiced ones are not. As a result, much of the non-English {{IPA|/p/, /t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} will sound to native English ears as {{IPA|/b/, /d/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} instead (i.e. '''''p'''''⁠''arking'' may sound more like '''''b'''''⁠''arking'').
* Ukrainian, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Azeri language|Azeri]] speakers may have trouble distinguishing between {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} as both pronunciations are used interchangeably for the letter ''v'' in those languages.

Languages may also differ in [[Syllable|syllable structure]]; English allows for a [[consonant cluster|cluster of up to three consonants]] before the vowel and five after it (e.g. ''strengths'', ''straw'', ''desks'', ''glimpsed'', ''sixths''). [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]], for example, broadly alternate consonant and vowel sounds so learners from Japan and Brazil often force vowels between the consonants (e.g. ''desks'' becomes {{IPA|[desukusu]}} or {{IPA|[dɛskis]}}, and ''milk shake'' becomes {{IPA|[miɽukuɕeːku]}} or {{IPA|[miwki ɕejki]}}, respectively). Similarly, in most Iberian dialects, while a word can begin with {{IPA|[s]}}, and within a word {{IPA|[s]}} can be followed by a consonant, a word can never both begin with {{IPA|[s]}} and be immediately followed by a consonant, so learners whose mother tongue is in this language family often have a vowel in front of the word (e.g. ''school'' becomes {{IPA|[eskul]}}, {{IPA|[iskuɫ ~ iskuw]}}, {{IPA|[ɯskuɫ]}} or {{IPA|[əskuɫ]}} for native speakers of Spanish, Brazilian and European Portuguese, and Catalan, respectively).

===Grammar===
International students typically exhibit a positive attitude toward learning English. This positive outlook persists across genders. Education in non-English-speaking countries usually focuses on grammar. English is introduced as a compulsory subject beginning in the first grades in these countries. However, despite the widespread implementation of English education, disparities exist in the quality of instruction across different types of schools. Consequently, these variations in educational quality have resulted in a gap in English proficiency among students from various regions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Status of EFL Teacher Education – AWEJ |url=https://awej.org/the-status-of-efl-teacher-education-in-jordan/ |access-date=2024-08-24 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al Hloul |first1=Rozan |last2=Altakhaineh |first2=Abdel Rahman Mitib |last3=Smadi |first3=Adnan |title=Jordanian Students' Attitudes toward Learning English as a Foreign Language: The Case of Secondary School Students |journal=The International Journal of Literacies |date=2024 |volume=32 |pages=35–52 |language=en |doi=10.18848/2327-0136/CGP/v32i01/35-52}}</ref>
* '''Tense, aspect, and mood''' – English has a relatively large number of [[tense–aspect–mood]] forms with some quite subtle differences, such as the difference between the simple past "I ate" and the present perfect "I have eaten". Progressive and perfect progressive forms add complexity.  (See [[English verbs]].)
* '''Functions of auxiliaries''' – Learners of English tend to find it difficult to manipulate the various ways in which English uses [[auxiliary verb]]s. These include negation (e.g. "He hasn't been drinking."), inversion with the subject to form a question (e.g. ''Has he been drinking?''), short answers (e.g. ''Yes, he has.'') and [[tag questions]] (''has he?''). A further complication is that the dummy auxiliary verb ''do''/''does''/''did'' is added to fulfil these functions in the simple present and simple past, but not to replace the verb ''to be'' (''He drinks too much.''/''Does he?'' but ''He is an addict''/''Is he?'').
* '''Modal verbs''' – English has several [[modal auxiliary verb]]s, each with a number of uses. These verbs convey a special sense or mood such as obligation, necessity, ability, probability, permission, possibility, prohibition, or intention. These include "must", "can", "have to", "need to", "will", "shall", "ought to", "will have to", "may", and "might".

:For example, the opposite of "You must be here at 8" (obligation) is usually "You don't have to be here at 8" (lack of obligation, choice). "Must" in "You must not drink the water" (prohibition) has a different meaning from "must" in "You must have eaten the chocolate" (deduction). This complexity takes considerable work for most English language learners to master.

:All these modal verbs or "modals" take the first form of the verb after them. These modals (most of them) do not have past or future inflection, i.e. they do not have past or future tense (exceptions being ''have to'' and ''need to'').

* '''Idiomatic usage''' – English is reputed to have a relatively high degree of [[idiom]]atic usage.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Juel|first1=Holend|title=TEFL - Teach English Abroad|url=http://maximonivel.com/tefl-tesol/|access-date=8 November 2016|work=Maximo Nivel}}</ref> For example, the use of different main verb forms in such apparently parallel constructions as "try to learn", "help learn", and "avoid learning" poses difficulty for learners. Another example is the idiomatic distinction between "make" and "do": "make a mistake", not "do a mistake"; and "do a favor", not "make a favor".
* '''Articles''' – English has two forms of [[article (grammar)|article]]: ''the'' (the [[the|definite article]]) and ''a'' and ''an'' (the [[a, an|indefinite article]]). In addition, at times English nouns can or indeed must be used without an article; this is called the [[Zero-marking in English|zero article]]. Some of the differences between definite, indefinite, and zero articles are fairly easy to learn, but others are not, particularly since a learner's native language may lack articles, have only one form, or use them differently from English. Although the information conveyed by articles is rarely essential for communication, English uses them frequently (several times in the average sentence) so that they require some effort from the learner.

===Vocabulary===
* '''Phrasal verbs''' – [[Phrasal verb]]s (also known as multiple-word verbs) in English can cause difficulties for many learners because of their syntactic pattern and because they often have several meanings. There are also a number of phrasal verb differences between American and British English.
* ''' Prepositions ''' – As with many other languages, the correct use of [[preposition]]s in the English language is difficult to learn, and it can turn out to be quite a frustrating learning experience for ESL/EFL learners. For example, the prepositions ''on'' (rely on, fall on), ''of'' (think of, because of, in the vicinity of), and ''at'' (turn at, meet at, start at) are used in so many different ways and contexts, it is very difficult to remember the exact meaning for each one. Furthermore, the same words are often used as adverbs (come in, press on, listen in, step in) as part of a compound verb (make up, give up, get up, give in, turn in, put on), or in more than one way with different functions and meanings (look up, look on, give in) (''He looked up her skirt''/''He looked up the spelling''/''Things are looking up''/''When you're in town, look me up!''; ''He gave in his homework''/''First he refused but then he gave in''; ''He got up at 6 o'clock''/''He got up the hill''/''He got up a nativity play''). Also, for some languages, such as Spanish, there is/are one/some prepositions that can mean multiple English prepositions (i.e. ''en'' in Spanish can mean on, in, or at). When translating back to the ESL learners' respective L1, a particular preposition's translation may be correct in one instance, but when using the preposition in another sense, the meaning is sometimes quite different. "One '''of''' my friends" translates to (transliterated) ''wahed '''min''' isdiqa'i'' in Arabic. ''Min'' is the Arabic word for "from", so it means one "from" my friends. "I am '''on''' page 5" translates to ''ich bin '''auf''' Seite 5'' in German just fine, but in Arabic it is ''Ana '''fee''' safha raqm 5'' (I am "in" page 5).
* ''' Word formation ''' – [[Derivation (linguistics)|Word formation]] in English requires much [[rote learning]]. For example, an adjective can be negated by using the [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] ''un-'' (e.g. ''unable''), ''in-'' (e.g. ''inappropriate''), ''dis-'' (e.g. ''dishonest''), ''non-'' (non-standard) or ''a-'' (e.g. ''amoral''), as well as several rarer prefixes.
* '''Size of lexicon''' – The [[History of the English language|history of English]] has resulted in a very large vocabulary, including one stream from [[Old English]] and one from the [[Normans|Norman]] infusion of [[Latin]]-derived terms. (Schmitt & Marsden claim that English has one of the largest vocabularies of any known language.) One estimate of the lexicon puts English at around 250,000 unique words. This requires more work for a learner to master the language.
* '''Collocations''' – [[Collocations|Collocation]] in English is the tendency for words to occur together with others. For example, nouns and verbs that go together ("ride a bike" or "drive a car"). Native speakers tend to use chunks{{clarify|date=September 2013}} of collocations and ESL learners make mistakes with collocations.
* '''Slang and colloquialisms''' – In most native English-speaking countries, many slang and colloquial terms are used in everyday speech. Many learners may find that classroom based English is significantly different from how English is usually spoken in practice. This can often be difficult and confusing for learners with little experience of using English in Anglophone countries. Also, slang terms differ greatly between different regions and can change quickly in response to popular culture. Some phrases can become unintentionally rude if misused.
* '''Silent letters''' - Within English, almost every letter has the 'opportunity' to be silent in a word, except ''F, J, Q, R, V'', and ''Y''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espressoenglish.net/silent-letters-in-english-from-a-to-z/|title=Silent Letters in English from A-Z|date=3 May 2012 }}</ref> The most common is ''e'', usually at the end of the word and used to elongate the previous vowel(s). The common usage of silent letters can throw off how ESL learners interpret the language (especially those who are fluent in a Germanic language), since a common step to learning words in most languages is to pronounce them phonetically. Words such as ''queue'', ''Colonel'', ''knight'' and ''Wednesday'' tend to throw off the learner, since they contain large amounts of silent letters.

===First-language literacy===
Learners who have had less than eight years of formal education in their first language are sometimes called ''adult ESL literacy learners''. Usually, these learners have had their first-language education interrupted.<ref name="Johansson 2000">Johansson, Li., Angst, K., Beer, B., Martin, S., Rebeck, W., Sibilleau, N. (2000) Canadian language benchmarks 2000: ESL for literacy learners. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. p. ii</ref> Many of these learners require a different level of support, teaching approaches and strategies, and a different curriculum from mainstream adult ESL learners. For example, these learners may lack study skills and transferable language skills,<ref name="Johansson 2000"/><ref>Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English Language Learners with Limited Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. pp. 5, 13.</ref> and these learners may avoid reading or writing.<ref>Johansson, Li., Angst, K., Beer, B., Martin, S., Rebeck, W., Sibilleau, N. (2000) Canadian language benchmarks 2000: ESL for literacy learners. Ottawa: Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks. p. ii.</ref> Often these learners do not start classroom tasks immediately, do not ask for help, and often assume the novice role when working with peers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ramírez-Esparza | first1 = N. | last2 = Harris | first2 = K. | last3 = Hellermann | first3 = J. | last4 = Richard | first4 = C. | last5 = Kuhl | first5 = P. K. | last6 = Reder | first6 = S. | year = 2012 | title = Socio-Interactive Practices and Personality in Adult Learners of English With Little Formal Education | journal = Language Learning | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 541–570 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2011.00631.x }}</ref> Generally, these learners may lack self-confidence.<ref>Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English Language Learners with Limited Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. p. 12.</ref> For some, prior schooling is equated with status, cultured, civilized, high class, and they may experience shame among peers in their new ESL classes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Klassen|first1=C.|last2=Burnaby|first2=B.|year=1993|title=Those who know": Views on literacy among adult immigrants in Canada|journal=TESOL Quarterly|volume=27|issue=3|pages=377–397|doi=10.2307/3587472|jstor=3587472}}</ref><ref name="Bigelow, M. 2010 p. 13">Bigelow, M., & Schwarz, R. L. (2010). Adult English Language Learners with Limited Literacy. National Institute for Literacy. p. 13.</ref>

===Second-language literacy===
Learners who have not had extensive exposure to reading and writing in a second language, despite having acceptable spoken proficiency, may have difficulties with the reading and writing in their L2. Joann Crandall (1993)<ref>{{cite journal | title = Professionalism and Professionalization of Adults ESL Literacy | journal = TESOL Quarterly | volume = 27 | issue = 3| pages = 479–515 }}</ref> has pointed out that most teacher training programs for TESOL instructors do not include sufficient, in most cases "no", training for the instruction in literacy. This is a gap that many scholars feel needs to be addressed.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

=== Importance of reading in ESL instruction ===
According to some English professionals, reading for pleasure is an important component in the teaching of both native and foreign languages:<ref>{{Cite book|title=The power of reading|last=Krashen|first=S.|publisher=Libraries Unlimited|year=1993|location=Englewood, CO|pages=23}}</ref>
{{blockquote|"Studies that sought to improve writing by providing reading experiences in place of grammar study or additional writing practice found that these experiences were as beneficial as, or more beneficial than, grammar study or extra writing practice."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stotsky|first=S.|date=1983|title=Research on reading/writing relationships: a synthesis and suggested directions|journal=Language Arts|volume=60|issue=5 |pages=637|doi=10.58680/la198326313 }}</ref>|}}Reading bilingual or code-switched texts can be valuable in ESL instruction. Scholars such as Lourdes Torres argue that texts incorporating code-switching like authors such as Gloria Anzaldúa, Sandra Cisneros, or Junot Díaz, who are known for blending English and Spanish in their work, help reflect the linguistic realities of bilingual individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Torres |first=L. |date=2007-03-01 |title=In the Contact Zone: Code-switching Strategies by Latinola Writers |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/melus/32.1.75 |journal=MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=75–96 |doi=10.1093/melus/32.1.75 |issn=0163-755X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Their findings highlight how code-switching is used as a literary and cultural strategy that validates bilingual identity and engages readers who navigate between languages.

===Differences between spoken and written English===
{{for|further discussion of English spelling patterns and rules|Phonics}}
As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] than [[spoken language]].

* ''Spelling and pronunciation'': probably the biggest difficulty for non-native speakers, since the relation between English [[spelling]] and pronunciation does not follow the [[alphabetic principle]] consistently. Because of the many changes in pronunciation which have occurred since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and the large influx of foreign words (mainly from [[Norman language|Norman French]], [[Classical Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]) with different and overlapping spelling patterns,<ref>[[Diane McGuinness|McGuinness, Diane]]. (2004). ''Early Reading Instruction'' Cambridge: MIT Press 41.</ref> English spelling and pronunciation are difficult even for native speakers to master. This difficulty is shown in such activities as [[spelling bee]]s. The generalizations that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions, leading to a considerable amount of [[rote learning]]. The spelling and pronunciation system causes problems in both directions: a learner may know a word by sound but be unable to write it correctly (or indeed find it in a dictionary) or they may see a word written but not know how to pronounce it or mislearn the pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are dozens of rules that are 75% or more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Abbott | first1 = M | year = 2000 | title = Identifying reliable generalizations for spelling words: The importance of multilevel analysis | journal = The Elementary School Journal | volume = 101 | issue = 2| pages = 233–245 | doi = 10.1086/499666 | s2cid = 144630056 }}</ref>

There is also debate about "meaning-focused" learning and "correction-focused" learning. Supporters for the former think that using speech as the way to explain [[Meaning (linguistics)|meaning]] is more important. However, supporters of the latter do not agree with that and instead think that grammar and correct habit is more important.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://englishlikeanative.co.uk/why-learning-perfect-english-grammar-is-bad-for-your-speaking-fluency/ |title=Why learning perfect English grammar is bad for your speaking fluency |date=3 November 2021 |publisher=www.englishlikeanative.co.uk |access-date=2021-11-23}}</ref>

===Technology===

* Technology plays an integral part in our lives and has become a major instrument in the field of education. [[Educational technology|Educational technologies]] make learning and teaching of English language more convenient and enable new opportunities. The video talks about the history of technology in education and its current integration in learning. Computers have made an entry into education in the past decades and have brought significant benefits to teachers and students alike. Computers help learners by making them more responsible for their own learning. Studies have shown that one of the best ways of improving one's learning ability is to use a computer where all the information one might need can be found. In today's [[developed world]], a computer is one of a number of systems that help learners to improve their language. [[Computer Assisted Language Learning]] (CALL) is a system which aids learners to improve and practice language skills. It provides a stress-free environment for learners and makes them more responsible. Computers can provide help to ESL learners in many different ways such as teaching students to learn a new language. The computer can be used to test students about the language they already learn. It can assist them in practicing certain tasks. The computer permits students to communicate easily with other students in different places. In recent years the increasing use of mobile technology, such as smartphones and tablet computers, has led to a growing usage application created to facilitate language learning, such as The Phrasal Verbs Machine from Cambridge. In terms of online materials, there are many forms of online materials such as blogs, wikis, [[webquest]]s. For instance, blogs can allow English learners to voice their opinions, sharpen their writing skills, and build their confidence. However, some who are introverted may not feel comfortable sharing their ideas on the blog. Class wikis can be used to promote collaborative learning through sharing and co-constructing knowledge. On-line materials are still just materials and thus need to be subject to the same scrutiny of evaluation as any other language material or source.
* [[Augmented reality|Augmented reality (AR)]] is another emerging technology that has an important place in language education. It allows for merging of the virtual objects into the real world, as if they co-exist in the same time and place.<ref name="Huertas-Abril-2021">{{Cite journal|last1=Huertas-Abril|first1=Cristina A.|last2=Figueroa-Flores|first2=Jorge F.|last3=Gómez-Parra|first3=María Elena|last4=Rosa-Dávila|first4=Emarely|last5=Huffman|first5=Lisa F.|date=2021-05-13|title=Augmented reality for ESL/EFL and bilingual education: an international comparison|url=http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/educacionXX1/article/view/28103|journal=Educación XX1|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=189–208|doi=10.5944/educxx1.28103|doi-broken-date=25 June 2025 | s2cid=236570636 |issn=2174-5374|doi-access=free}}</ref> The research has shown 8 benefits of AR in the educational setting: 1. Collaboration; 2. Connectivity; 3. Student centred; 4.Community; 5. Exploration; 6. Shared knowledge; 7. Multisensory experience; 8. Authenticity.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Sheehy|first1=Kieron|title=Augmentation with the Virtual|date=2014|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137335814_4|work=Augmented Education|pages=63–78|place=New York|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|access-date=2021-11-27|last2=Ferguson|first2=Rebecca|last3=Clough|first3=Gill| doi=10.1057/9781137335814_4 | isbn=978-1-349-46539-2 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Learners have mentioned that AR increased classroom engagement and student motivation.<ref name="Huertas-Abril-2021" /> Two applications that have been tested in the ESL setting are QuiverVision and JigSpace.<ref name="Huertas-Abril-2021" />  QuiverVision offers colouring pages that can be brought to life using Android or iOS devices. JigSpace can be a helpful resource in learning complex scientific, technical and historical concepts for ESL students.
* Increasing social nature of internet opened up new opportunities for language learners and educators.<ref name="Kessler-2013">{{Cite journal|last=Kessler|first=Greg|date=December 2013|title=Teaching ESL/EFL in a World of Social Media, Mash-Ups, and Hyper-Collaboration|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tesj.106|journal=TESOL Journal|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=615–632|doi=10.1002/tesj.106|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Videos, memes and chats are all sources of authentic language that are easily accessible via mobile devices or computers.<ref name="Kessler-2013" /> Additional benefit for English language learners is that non-textual representation can be more beneficial for students with various learning preferences.
* Integration of games and gaming in language learning has recently received a surge of interest.<ref name="Kessler-2013" /> There are games that have been specifically designed for English language learning while there are others that can be adapted to this context. Games to Learn English includes multiple games that can be played to develop language skills. Trace Effects is a game developed by [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] which helps learners not only increase their language knowledge but also explore American culture. The most important features of gaming are their collaborative and interactive nature<ref name="Kessler-2013" /> which makes learning engaging for learners.
* The learning ability of language learners can be more reliable with the influence of a [[dictionary]]. Learners tend to carry or are required to have a dictionary which allows them to learn independently and become more responsible for their own work. In these modern days, education has upgraded its methods of teaching and learning with dictionaries where digital materials are being applied as tools. Electronic dictionaries are increasingly a more common choice for ESL students. Most of them contain native-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and example sentences in English. They can speak the English word to the learner, and they are easy to carry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, so students are often instructed to put their names on them.

===Varieties of English===
* The [[English language in England]] (and other parts of the [[United Kingdom]]) exhibits significant differences by region and class, noticeable in structure (vocabulary and grammar), [[accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] (pronunciation) and in [[dialect]].
* The numerous communities of English native speakers in [[English-speaking world|countries all over the world]] also have some [[Contrastive rhetoric|noticeable differences]] like [[Irish English]], [[Australian English]], [[Canadian English]], [[Newfoundland English]], etc. For instance, the following are words that only make sense in their originating cultures: [[Toad in the hole]], [[Gulab jamun]], [[Spotted Dick]], etc.
* Attempts have been made by [[John Dryden]] and others to [[Linguistic prescription|regulate English]] to conform to a specific class or community. However, English as a [[lingua franca]] has no proscribing organization that controls any [[prestige dialect]] for the language – unlike the [[French language|French]] ''[[French Academy|Academie de la langue française]]'', [[Spanish language|Spain]]'s ''[[Real Academia Española]]'', or [[Esperanto]]'s ''[[Akademio de Esperanto|Akademio]]'' – and so is not [[Racialization|racialized]].

Teaching English, therefore, involves not only helping the student to use the form of English most suitable for their purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the student will be able to discern meaning even when the words, grammar, or pronunciation are different from the form of English they are being taught to speak. Some professionals in the field have recommended incorporating information about non-standard forms of English in ESL programs. For example, in advocating for classroom-based instruction in [[African-American English]] (also known as Ebonics), linguist Richard McDorman has argued, "Simply put, the ESL syllabus must break free of the longstanding intellectual imperiousness of the standard to embrace instruction that encompasses the many "Englishes" that learners will encounter and thereby achieve the culturally responsive pedagogy so often advocated by leaders in the field."<ref>{{cite web|last=McDorman|first=Richard E.|title=Understanding African-American English (AAE): A Course in Language Comprehension and Cross-Cultural Understanding for Advanced English Language Learners in the United States|url=https://tesolblog.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Course-Development-Project_Richard-McDorman.pdf|year=2012}}</ref>

==Social challenges and benefits==

===Class placement===
ESL students often suffer from the effects of [[Tracking (education)|tracking]] and [[ability grouping]]. Students are often placed into low ability groups based on scores on [[standardized test]]s in English and math.<ref name="Providing Support or Denying Access?">{{cite journal|last=Troyna|first=Barry|title=Providing Support or Denying Access? The experiences of students designated as 'ESL' and 'SN' in a multi-ethnic secondary school|doi=10.1080/0013191930450101|volume=45|journal=Educational Review|pages=3–11|year=1993}}</ref> There is also low mobility among these students from low to high performing groups, which can prevent them from achieving the same academic progress as [[native speaker]]s.<ref name="Providing Support or Denying Access?" /> Similar tests are also used to place ESL students in college-level courses. Students have voiced frustration that only non-native students have to prove their language skills, when being a native speaker in no way guarantees college-level academic literacy.<ref name="Access to Higher Education">{{cite journal|last=Kanno|first=Yasuko|title=Immigrant and Refugee ESL Students' Challenges to Accessing Four-Year College Education: From Language Policy to Educational Policy|journal=Journal of Language, Identity & Education|volume=9|issue=5|pages=310–328|doi=10.1080/15348458.2010.517693|year=2010|s2cid=143947455}}</ref> Studies have shown that these tests can cause different passing rates among linguistic groups regardless of high school preparation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Patkowski|first=Mark|title=Basic Skills Tests and Academic Success of ESL College Students|journal=TESOL Quarterly|jstor=3587096|volume=25|issue=4|pages=735–738|year=1991|doi=10.2307/3587096}}</ref>

In Canada, ESL students are generally designed for those from immigrant households who were raised in non-English speaking homes.<ref name="Abdel-Nabi-2018">{{Cite web |last=Abdel-Nabi |first=Hadeel |date=2018-03-12 |title=Stop Putting Minority Kids in ESL Classes if They Don't Need It |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/stop-putting-minority-kids-in-esl-classes-if-they-dont-need-it/ |access-date=2025-06-04 |website=Vice |language=en-US}}</ref> Provincial education guidelines across the country commonly use this criterion to determine eligibility for support.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://education.alberta.ca/media/1477344/supporting-esl-students-promising-esl-strategies-in-alberta.pdf |title=Supporting English as a Second Language Students: Promising ESL Strategies in Alberta |date=2009 |access-date=June 4, 2025}}</ref> The purpose of the program is to support children who struggle with English, but has been critiqued for its categorization for qualification into the program.<ref name="Abdel-Nabi-2018" /> This vague categorization of minority students who do not speak English within their homes creates a space for further [[marginalization]], reflecting the deeply rooted influence of [[soft power]] and the dominance of English within education systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scott Adams |first=Erin Elysia |date=2024-07-13 |title=Unsettling the Settler Language: Reducing Neocolonial Impact in an English as an Additional Language School |url=https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/oip/411 |journal=The Dissertation in Practice at Western University}}</ref> 

===Dropout rates===
[[Dropping out|Dropout]] rates for ESL students in multiple countries are much higher than dropout rates for native speakers. The [[National Center for Education Statistics]] (NCES) in the United States reported that the percentage of dropouts in the non-native born [[Hispanic]] youth population between the ages of 16 and 24 years old is 43.4%.<ref name="DelliCarpini">{{cite web|last=DelliCarpini|first=Margo|title=Teacher Collaboration for ESL/EFL Academic Success|url=http://iteslj.org/Techniques/DelliCarpini-TeacherCollaboration.html|publisher=The Internet TESL Journal}}</ref> A study in [[Canada]] found that the high school dropout rate for all ESL students was 74%.<ref name="Canada dropout rates">{{cite web|last=Watt|first=David|title=The Dynamics of ESL Dropout|url=http://tesl.tcnj.edu/PDF%20Resources/EJ639316%20%20Mainstreaming%20ESL%20Learners.Dynamics%20of%20ESL%20Dropout.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915054338/http://tesl.tcnj.edu/PDF%20Resources/EJ639316%20%20Mainstreaming%20ESL%20Learners.Dynamics%20of%20ESL%20Dropout.pdf|archive-date=2012-09-15}}</ref> High dropout rates are thought to be due to difficulties ESL students have in keeping up in mainstream classes, the increasing number of ESL students who enter middle or high school with interrupted prior formal education, and accountability systems.<ref name="DelliCarpini"/>

The accountability system in the US is due to the [[No Child Left Behind Act]]. Schools that risk losing funding, closing, or having their principals fired if test scores are not high enough begin to view students that do not perform well on standardized tests as liabilities.<ref name=NCLB>{{cite web|last=Oleck|first=Joan|title=NCLB's Accountability Requirement Feeds Drop-out Rates|url=http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/article/CA6533974.html|publisher=School Library Journal}}</ref> Because dropouts actually increase a school's performance, critics claim that administrators let poor performing students slip through the cracks. A study of [[Texas]] schools operating under No Child Left Behind found that 80% of ESL students did not graduate from high school in five years.<ref name=NCLB />

===Access to higher education===
ESL students face several barriers to [[higher education]]. Most [[college]]s and [[universities]] require four years of English in high school.  In addition, most colleges and universities only accept one year of ESL English.<ref name="Access to Higher Education" /> It is difficult for ESL students that arrive in the United States relatively late to finish this requirement because they must spend a longer time in ESL English classes in high school, or they might not arrive early enough to complete four years of English in high school. This results in many ESL students not having the correct [[course credit|credits]] to apply for college, or enrolling in [[summer school]] to finish the required courses.<ref name="Access to Higher Education" /> 

Even after overcoming credit and admission barriers, multilingual students in college often face additional challenges in writing-intensive courses. For example, Scholar Sara P. Alvarez highlights that these students are evaluated by academic English standards that do not account for their full linguistic abilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alvarez |first=Sara P. |date=2018-10-25 |title=Multilingual Writers in College Contexts |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.903 |journal=Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=342–345 |doi=10.1002/jaal.903 |issn=1081-3004|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The different perspectives challenge institutions to move beyond simply granting access to ESL students and toward creating equitable learning environments that support their academic success and identity as writers. 

ESL students can also face additional financial barriers to higher education because of their language skills. Those that don't place high enough on college placement exams often have to enroll in ESL courses at their universities. These courses can cost up to $1,000 extra, and can be offered without credit towards graduation.<ref name="Access to Higher Education" /> This adds additional financial stress on ESL students that often come from families of lower [[socioeconomic status]]. The latest statistics show that the [[median household income]] for school-age ESL students is $36,691 while that of non-ESL students is $60,280.{{failed verification|date=February 2013}}<ref>{{cite news|title=A distinctive population|url=http://www.edweek.org/ew/index.html|newspaper=Education Week|date=6 July 2020}}</ref> College tuition has risen sharply in the last decade, while family income has fallen. In addition, while many ESL students receive a [[Pell Grant]], the maximum grant for the year 2011–2012  covered only about a third of the cost of college.<ref>{{cite news|last=Stern|first=Linda|title=College Costs Outpace Inflation: College Board|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/27/college-costs-outpace-inf_n_1034715.html|publisher=Reuters|date=October 27, 2011}}</ref>

===Interaction with native speakers===
ESL students often have difficulty interacting with native speakers in school. Some ESL students avoid interactions with native speakers because of their frustration or embarrassment at their poor English. [[Immigrant]] students often also lack knowledge of [[popular culture]], which limits their conversations with native speakers to academic topics.<ref name="ESL vs. Mainstream">{{cite journal|last=Harklau|first=Linda|title=ESL Versus Mainstream Classes: Contrasting L2 Learning Environments|journal=TESOL Quarterly|jstor=3587433|volume=28|issue=2|pages=241–272|year=1994|doi=10.2307/3587433}}</ref> In classroom group activities with native speakers, ESL students often do not participate, again because of embarrassment about their English, but also because of cultural differences: their native cultures may value silence and individual work at school in preference to social interaction and talking in class.<ref name="Providing Support or Denying Access?" />

These interactions have been found to extend to teacher-student interactions as well. In most mainstream classrooms, a teacher-led discussion is the most common form of lesson. In this setting, some ESL students will fail to participate, and often have difficulty understanding teachers because they talk too fast, do not use visual aids, or use native [[colloquialisms]]. ESL students also have trouble getting involved with [[extracurricular activities]] with native speakers for similar reasons. Students fail to join extra-curricular activities because of the [[language barrier]], the cultural emphasis of academics over other activities, or failure to understand traditional pastimes in their new country.<ref name="ESL vs. Mainstream" />

===Social benefits===
Supporters of ESL programs claim they play an important role in the formation of peer networks and adjustment to school and society in their new homes. Having class among other students learning English as a second language relieves the pressure of making mistakes when speaking in class or to [[peer group|peers]]. ESL programs also allow students to be among others who appreciate their native language and [[culture]], the expression of which is often not supported or encouraged in mainstream settings. ESL programs also allow students to meet and form friendships with other non-native speakers from different cultures, promoting racial [[Toleration|tolerance]] and [[multiculturalism]].<ref name="ESL vs. Mainstream" />

=== Controversy over ethical administration of ESL programs ===
ESL programs have been critiqued for focusing more on revenue-generation than on educating students.<ref>Eaton, S. E. (2009). ''Marketing of Revenue-generating ESL Programs at the University of Calgary: A qualitative study.'' (Doctor of Philosophy). University of Calgary, Calgary.</ref><ref>Friesen, N., & Keeney, P. (2013). Internationalizing the Canadian campus: ESL students and the erosion of higher education. ''University Affairs''. Retrieved from [https://www.universityaffairs.ca/opinion/in-my-opinion/internationalizing-the-canadian-campus/]</ref> This has led to controversy over how ESL programs can be managed in an ethical manner.

=== Professional and Technical Communication Advocacy ===
The field of technical and professional communication has the potential to disrupt barriers that hinder ESL learners from entering the field, although it can just as easily perpetuate these issues. One study by Matsuda & Matsuda sought to evaluate introductory-level textbooks on the subject of technical communication. Among their research, they found that these textbooks perpetuated the "myth of linguistic homogeneity—the tacit and widespread acceptance of the dominant image of composition students as native speakers of a privileged variety of English."<ref>Matsuda, A., & Kei Matsuda, P. (2011). Globalizing writing studies: The case of US technical communication textbooks. Written Communication, 28(2), 172-192.</ref> While the textbooks were successful in referencing global and international perspectives, the portrayal of the intended audience, the you of the text, ultimately alienated any individual not belonging to a predominantly white background and culture. In constructing this guise, prospective ESL learners are collectively lumped into an "other" group that isolates and undermines their capacity to enter the field.

Furthermore, this alienation is exacerbated by the emergence of English as the pinnacle language for business and many professional realms. In Kwon & Klassen's research, they also identified and criticized a "single native-speaker recipe for linguistic success,"<ref>Kwon, M. H., & Klassen, M. D. (2018). Preparing for English-Speaking Professional Communities: Navigating L2 Learners' Linguistic Identity in L1-Dominant Professional Communication Courses. Journal of English as an International Language, 13, 15-35. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1247076.</ref> which contributed to anxieties about entering the professional field for ESL technical communicators. These concerns about an English-dominated professional field indicate an affective filter that provides a further barrier to social justice for these ESL individuals. These misconceptions and anxieties point towards an issue of exclusivity that technical and professional communicators must address. This social justice concern becomes an ethical concern as well, with all individuals deserving usable, accessible, and inclusive information.

There is a major concern about the lack of accessibility to translation services and the amount of time and attention their English proficiency is given throughout their educational experiences. If a student lacks an understanding of the English language and still needs to participate in their coursework, they will turn to translations in order to aid their efforts. The issue is that many of these translations rarely carry the same meaning as the original text. The students in this study said that a translated text is "pretty outdated, covers only the basics or is terribly translated," and that "The technical vocabulary linked to programming can be complicated to assimilate, especially in the middle of explanatory sentences if you don't know the equivalent word in your native language."<ref>Guo, P. J. (2018, April). Non-native English speakers learning computer programming: Barriers, desires, and design opportunities. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems, 1-14.</ref> Students can't be proficient in their given subjects if the language barrier is complicating the message. Researchers found that syntax, semantics, style, etc., scramble up the original messages.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} This disorientation of the text fogs up the message and makes it difficult for the student to decipher what they are supposed to be learning. This is where additional time and attention are needed to bridge the gap between native English speakers and ESL students. ESL students face difficulties in areas concerning lexico-grammatical aspects of technical writing., overall textual organization and comprehension, differentiation between genres of technical communication and the social hierarchies that concern the subject matter.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.2989/16073614.2010.545032|title=Teaching technical writing in multilingual contexts: A meta-analysis|year=2010|last1=Winberg|first1=Christine|last2=Van Der Geest|first2=Thea|last3=Lehman|first3=Barbara|last4=Nduna|first4=Joyce|journal=Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies|volume=28|issue=3|pages=299–308|s2cid=145726448|url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/6596060/16073614.2010.545032.pdf }}</ref> This inhibits their ability to comprehend complex messages from English texts, and it would be more beneficial for them to tackle these subjects individually. The primary issue with this is the accessibility to more instruction. ESL students need an individual analysis of their needs and this needs to revolve around the student's ability to communicate and interpret information in English.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.2307/3588504|jstor = 3588504|title = Mediating Language Learning: Teacher Interactions with ESL Students in a Content-Based Classroom|last1 = Gibbons|first1 = Pauline|journal = TESOL Quarterly|year = 2003|volume = 37|issue = 2|pages = 247–273}}</ref> Due to the civil rights decision of Lauv v. Nichols<ref>NCELA. (n.d.). Q: What legal obligations do schools have to English language learners (ELLs)? Retrieved November 18, 2020, from https://ncela.ed.gov/faqs/view/6</ref> school districts are required to provide this additional instruction based on the needs of students, but this requirement still needs to be acted on.

Many ESL students have issues in higher-level courses that hinder their academic performances due to the complicated language used in these courses being at a more complex level than what many ESL students were taught.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1109/ProComm48883.2020.00009|chapter=Kindly Requested is Your Rapt Attention: Embedded Support for ESL Students in Technical Writing Classes|title=2020 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (ProComm)|year=2020|last1=Arnett|first1=E. Jonathan|last2=Palmer|first2=Laura A.|last3=Taylor|first3=Katherine|pages=25–29|isbn=978-1-7281-5563-0|s2cid=221913472}}</ref> In many cases of ESL students learning Computer Programming, they struggle with the language used in instructional manuals. Writing media centers have caused ESL students issues with universities unable to provide proofreading in their writing media center programs. This causes many ESL students to have difficulties writing papers for high-level courses that require a more complex lexicon than what many of them were taught.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1002/tesq.406|title=Second Language Graduate Students' Experiences at the Writing Center: A Language Socialization Perspective|year=2018|last1=Okuda|first1=Tomoyo|last2=Anderson|first2=Tim|journal=TESOL Quarterly|volume=52|issue=2|pages=391–413}}</ref> Fortunately, university tutors have had successes with teaching ESL students how to write a more technically complex language that ESL students need to know for their courses, but it raises the question of if ESL learners need to know a more complex version of the English language to succeed in their professional careers.<ref>{{Cite book|doi=10.1109/ProComm48883.2020.00009|chapter=Kindly Requested is Your Rapt Attention: Embedded Support for ESL Students in Technical Writing Classes|title=2020 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (ProComm)|year=2020|last1=Arnett|first1=E. Jonathan|last2=Palmer|first2=Laura A.|last3=Taylor|first3=Katherine|pages=25–29|isbn=978-1-7281-5563-0|s2cid=221913472}}</ref>

==Peer tutoring for ESL students==
Peer tutoring refers to an instructional method that pairs up low-achieving English readers, with ESL students that know minimal English and who are also approximately the same age and same grade level. The goal of this dynamic is to help both the tutor, in this case, the English speaker, and the tutee, the ESL student. [[Monolingual]] tutors are given the class material in order to provide tutoring to their assigned ESL tutee. Once the tutor has had the chance to help the student, classmates get to switch roles in order to give both peers an opportunity to learn from each other. In a study, which conducted a similar research, their results indicated that low-achieving readers that were chosen as tutors, made a lot of progress by using this procedure. In addition, ESL students were also able to improve their grades due to the fact that they increased their approach in reading acquisition skills.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Houghton | first1 = S. | last2 = Bain | first2 = A. | year = 1993 | title = Peer Tutoring with ESL and Below-Average Readers | journal = Journal of Behavior Education | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 125–142 | doi = 10.1007/bf00947032 | s2cid = 144968548 }}</ref>

===Importance===
Since there is not enough funding to afford tutors, and teachers find it hard to educate all students who have different learning abilities, it is highly important to implement peer-tutoring programs in schools. Students placed in ESL program learn together along with other non-English speakers; however, by using peer tutoring in a classroom it will avoid the separation between regular English classes and ESL classes. These programs will promote community between students that will be helping each other grow academically.<ref name="Simmons, D. 1995">{{cite journal | last1 = Simmons | first1 = D. | last2 = Fuchs | first2 = L. Fuchs | last3 = Mathes | first3 = P. | last4 = Hodge | first4 = J. | year = 1995 | title = Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the reading achievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students in regular classrooms | journal = The Elementary School Journal | volume = 95 | issue = 5| pages = 387–408 | doi = 10.1086/461851 | s2cid = 144318450 }}</ref> To further support this statement, a study researched the effectiveness of peer tutoring and explicit teaching in classrooms. It was found that students with [[learning disabilities]] and low performing students who are exposed to the explicit teaching and peer tutoring treatment in the classroom, have better academic performance than those students who do not receive this type of assistance. It was proven that peer tutoring is the most effective and no cost form of teaching<ref name="Simmons, D. 1995"/>

===Benefits===
It has been proven that peer-mediated tutoring is an effective tool to help ESL students succeed academically. Peer tutoring has been utilized across many different academic courses and the outcomes for those students that have different learning abilities are outstanding. Classmates who were actively involved with other peers in tutoring had better academic standing than those students who were not part of the tutoring program.<ref name="Peer Tutoring Systems: Applications">{{cite journal | last1 = Heron | first1 = T. E. | last2 = Villareal | first2 = D. M. | last3 = Yao | first3 = M. | last4 = Christianson | first4 = R. J. | last5 = Heron | first5 = K. M. | year = 2006 | title = Peer Tutoring Systems: Applications in Classroom and Specialized Environments | journal = Reading & Writing Quarterly | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 27–45 | doi = 10.1080/10573560500203517 | s2cid = 145608304 }}</ref> Based on their results, researchers found that all English student learners were able to maintain a high percentage of English academic words on weekly tests taught during a tutoring session.  It was also found that the literature on the efficacy of peer tutoring service combined with regular classroom teaching, is the best methodology practice that is effective, that benefits students, teachers, and parents involved.<ref name="Peer Tutoring Systems: Applications"/>

===Research on peer English immersion tutoring===
Similarly, a longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of the paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program with Spanish speaking English learners in order to increase students' English reading outcomes.<ref name="Baker, D. L. 2012">{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = D. L. | last2 = Park | first2 = Y. | last3 = Baker | first3 = S. K. | last4 = Basaraba | first4 = D. L. | last5 = Kame'Enui | first5 = E. J. | last6 = Beck | first6 = C. T. | year = 2012 | title = Effects of a paired bilingual reading program and an English-only program on the reading performance of English learners in Grades 1–3 | journal = Journal of School Psychology | volume = 50 | issue = 6| pages = 737–758 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsp.2012.09.002 | pmid = 23245498 }}</ref> Students whose primary language was Spanish and were part of the ESL program were participants of this study. Three different approaches were the focus in which immersing students in English from the very beginning and teaching them reading only in that language; teaching students in Spanish first, followed by English; and teaching students to read in Spanish and English simultaneously. This occurs through a strategic approach such as structured English immersion or sheltered instruction.

Findings showed that the paired bilingual reading approach appeared to work as well as, or better than, the English-only reading approach in terms of reading growth and results. Researchers found differences in results, but they also varied based on several outcomes depending on the student's learning abilities and academic performance.<ref name="Baker, D. L. 2012"/>

===ESL teachers' training===
Teachers in an ESL class are specifically trained in particular techniques and tools to help students learn English. Research says that the quality of their teaching methods is what matters the most when it comes to educating English learners. It was also mentioned{{who|date=November 2018}} how it is highly important for teachers to have the drive to help these students succeed and "feel personal responsibility."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Calderón | first1 = Slavin | last2 = Sánchez | first2 = M. | year = 2011 | title = Effective Instruction for English Learners | journal = The Future of Children | volume = 21 | issue = 1| pages = 103–127 | doi = 10.1353/foc.2011.0007 | pmid = 21465857 | s2cid = 22399319 | url = https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/xw42nj018 }}</ref> It is important to highlight the idea that the school system needs to focus on school-wide interventions in order to make an impact and be able to help all English learners. There is a high need for comprehensive professional development for teachers in the ESL program.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/5286/chapter/10|title=Read "Improving Schooling for Language-Minority Children: A Research Agenda" at NAP.edu|year=1997|doi=10.17226/5286|isbn=978-0-309-14167-3|language=en}}</ref>

===Effects of peer tutoring on the achievement gap===
Although peer tutoring has been proven to be an effective way of learning that engages and promotes [[academic achievement]] in students, does it have an effect on the [[achievement gap]]? It is an obvious fact that there is a large academic performance disparity between White, Black, and Latino students, and it continues to be an issue that has to be targeted.<ref name="Williams">Williams, A. (2011). A call for change: Narrowing the achievement gap between white and minority students. Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues, and Ideas, 84(2), 65-71.</ref> In an article, it was mentioned that no one has been able to identify the true factors that cause this discrepancy. However it was mentioned that by developing effective peer tutoring programs in schools could be a factor that can potentially decrease the [[achievement gap]] in the United States.<ref name="Williams"/>

==Exams for learners==
{{See also|Category:English language tests}}

Learners of English are often eager to get accreditation and a number of exams are known internationally:<ref>Sources for this are found at the university websites. Given that there are thousands of tertiary institutions that accept one or more of these for entrance requirements, they simply can not be footnoted individually here</ref>
* [[IELTS]] (International English Language Testing System) is the world's most popular English test for higher education and immigration. It is managed by the [[British Council]], [[Cambridge Assessment English]] and [[IDP Education]]. It is offered in Academic, General and Life Skills versions. IELTS Academic is the normal test of English proficiency for entry into universities in the UK, Australia, Canada, and other [[British English]] countries. IELTS General is required for immigration into Australia and New Zealand. Both versions of IELTS are accepted for all classes of UK visa and immigration applications. IELTS Life Skills, was introduced in 2015 specifically to meet the requirements for some classes of UK visa application.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/check-uk-visa#21980509|title=Check if you need a UK visa|work=gov.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/guidance-on-applying-for-uk-visa-approved-english-language-tests|title=Applying for a UK visa: approved English language tests|work=gov.uk|access-date=May 18, 2015}}</ref>
* [[CaMLA]], a collaboration between the [[University of Michigan]] and [[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] offer a suite of American English tests, including the MET (Michigan English Test), the [[MTELP|MTELP Series]] (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), [[MELAB]] (Michigan English Language Assessment Battery), CaMLA EPT (English Placement Test), YLTE (Young Learners Test of English), ECCE and ECPE.
* [[TOEFL]] (Test of English as a Foreign Language), an [[Educational Testing Service]] product, developed and used primarily for academic institutions in the US, and now widely accepted in tertiary institutions in Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the UK, Japan, South Korea, and Ireland. The current test is an Internet-based test and is thus known as the TOEFL iBT. Used as a proxy for [[English for Academic Purposes]].
* [[International Test of English Proficiency|iTEP]] (International Test of English Proficiency), developed by former [[ELS Language Centers]] President Perry Akins' Boston Educational Services, and used by colleges and universities such as the [[California State University]] system. iTEP Business is used by companies, organizations, and governments, and iTEP SLATE (Secondary Level Assessment Test of English) is designed for middle and high school-age students.
* [[Pearson Test of English Academic|PTE Academic]] (Pearson Test of English Academic), a [[Pearson PLC|Pearson]] product, measures reading, writing, speaking and listening as well as grammar, oral fluency, pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and written discourse. The test is computer-based and is designed to reflect international English for academic admission into any university requiring English proficiency.
* [[TOEIC]] (Test of English for International Communication), an Educational Testing Service product for [[Business English]] used by 10,000 organizations in 120 countries. Includes a listening and reading test as well as a speaking and writing test introduced in selected countries beginning in 2006.
* [[Trinity College London ESOL]] offers the Integrated Skills in English (ISE) series of 5 exams which assesses reading, writing, speaking and listening and is accepted by academic institutions in the UK. They also offer Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE), a series of 12 exams, which assesses speaking and listening, and ESOL Skills for Life and ESOL for Work exams in the UK only.
* [[Cambridge Assessment English]] offers a suite of globally available examinations including General English: [[Cambridge English: Key (KET)|Key English Test]] (KET), [[Preliminary English Test]] (PET), [[First Certificate in English]] (FCE), [[Certificate in Advanced English]] (CAE) and [[Certificate of Proficiency in English]] (CPE).
* [[London Tests of English]] from [[Pearson Language Tests]], a series of six exams each mapped to a level from the [[#The Common European Framework|Common European Framework (CEFR) – see below]].
* [[Secondary Level English Proficiency test]]
* [[MTELP]] (Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency), is a language certificate measuring a student's English ability as a second or foreign language. Its primary purpose is to assess a learner's English language ability at an academic or advanced business level.

Many countries also have their own exams. ESOL learners in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland usually take the national [[Skills for Life]] qualifications, which are offered by several [[exam boards]]. EFL learners in [[People's Republic of China|China]] may take the [[College English Test]], the Test for English Majors (TEM), and/or the [[Public English Test System]] (PETS). People in Taiwan often take the [[General English Proficiency Test]] (GEPT). In Greece, English students may take the PALSO (PanHellenic Association of Language School Owners) exams.

===The Common European Framework===
{{Main|Common European Framework of Reference for Languages}}
Between 1998 and 2000, the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[language policy]] division developed its [[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages]]. The aim of this framework was to have a common system for foreign language testing and certification, to cover all European languages and countries.

The Common European Framework (CEF) divides language learners into three levels:
* A. Basic User
* B. Independent User
* C. Proficient User

Each of these levels is divided into two sections, resulting in a total of six levels for testing (A1, A2, B1, etc.).

This table compares ELT exams according to the CEF levels:

{|- class="wikitable"
|-
!CEF Level
![[Association of Language Testers in Europe|ALTE]] Level
![[Regulated Qualifications Framework|RQF]] Level
![[PTE General]]
![[Trinity College London ESOL]] [[Graded Examinations in Spoken English|GESE]]
![[Trinity College London ESOL]] [[Integrated Skills in English|ISE]]
![[UBELT]] exam
![[IELTS]]
![[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] [[BULATS]]
![[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] [[Business English Certificate|BEC]]
![[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] General
![[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] [[Cambridge Young Learners' English Tests|YLE]]
![[Cambridge English Language Assessment]] Skills for Life<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/exams-and-qualifications/|title=Exams|work=cambridgeenglish.org}}</ref>
![[CaMLA]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridgemichigan.org/test-takers/scores/|title=Scores|work=cambridgemichigan.org|access-date=June 17, 2015}}</ref>
|-
!C2
|Level 5
|Level 3
|Level 5
|Grade 12
|ISE IV
|4.0–5.0
|8.5–9.0
|90–100
|n/a
|CPE
|n/a
|n/a
|ECPE
|-
!C1
|Level 4
|Level 2
|Level 4
|Grade 10, 11
|ISE III
|3.0–3.5
|7.0–8.0
|75–89
|Higher
|CAE
|n/a
|Level 2
|MET, [[MELAB]]
|-
!B2
|Level 3
|Level 1
|Level 3
|Grade 7, 8, 9
|ISE II
|2.0–2.5
|5.5–6.5
|60–74
|Vantage
|FCE
|n/a
|Level 1
|MET, [[MELAB]], ECCE
|-
!B1
|Level 2
|Entry 3
|Level 2
|Grade 5, 6
|ISE I
|1.5
|4.0–5.0
|40–59
|Preliminary
|PET
|n/a
|Entry 3
|MET, [[MELAB]]
|-
!A2
|Level 1
|Entry 2
|Level 1
|Grades 3, 4
|ISE 0
|1.0
|n/a
|20–39
|n/a
|KET
|Flyers
|Entry 2
|MET, YLTE
|-
!A1
|Breakthrough
|Entry 1
|Level A1
|Grade 2
|n/a
|<1.0
|n/a
|0-19
|n/a
|n/a
|Movers
|Entry 1
|YLTE
|}

==Qualifications for teachers==
Qualifications vary from one region or jurisdiction to the next. There are also different qualifications for those who manage or direct TESOL programs<ref>Eaton, S. E. (2009). ''Marketing of Revenue-generating ESL Programs at the University of Calgary: A qualitative study.'' (Doctor of Philosophy), University of Calgary, Calgary. Retrieved from [http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED508999 eric.ed.gov]</ref><ref>Bailey, K. M., & Llamas, C. N. (2012). Language program administrators' knowledge and skills. In M. Christison & F. L. Stoller (Eds.), ''Handbook for language program administrators'' (2nd. ed., pp. 19-34). Burlingame, CA: Alta Book Center Publishers.</ref>

===Non-native speakers===
Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}. They are [[state school]] teachers in countries around the world, and as such, they hold the relevant [[teaching qualification]] of their country, usually with a specialization in teaching English. For example, [[Teacher|teachers]] in [[Hong Kong]] hold the [[Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers]]. Those who work in private [[language school]]s may, from commercial pressures, have the same qualifications as native speakers (see below). Widespread problems exist of minimal qualifications and poor quality providers of training, and as the industry becomes more professional, it is trying to self-regulate to eliminate these.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tesol-law.com/Vol_2_2008_tda.php |title="TESOL Certificates. Teaching or Deceiving the EFL/ESL Teaching Profession" by Tom Davidson, March 2008 volume 2 ''TESOL Law Journal'' |access-date=2008-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511205524/http://www.tesol-law.com/Vol_2_2008_tda.php |archive-date=2008-05-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Australian qualifications===
The Australian Skills Quality Authority<ref>The Australian Skills Quality and Authority. https://asqa.gov.au</ref> accredits vocational TESOL qualifications such as the 10695NAT [[Certificate IV in TESOL]] and the 10688NAT Diploma in TESOL. As ASQA is an [[Australian Government]] accreditation authority, these qualifications rank within the Australian Qualifications Framework.<ref>[[Australian Qualifications Framework]]</ref> And most graduates work in vocational colleges in [[Australia]]. These TESOL qualifications are also accepted internationally and recognized in countries such as [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[China]].

===British qualifications===
Common, respected qualifications for teachers within the [[United Kingdom]]'s sphere of influence include certificates and diplomas issued by [[Trinity College London ESOL]] and [[UCLES|Cambridge English Language Assessment]] (henceforth Trinity and Cambridge).

A certificate course is usually undertaken before starting to teach. This is sufficient for most EFL jobs and for some ESOL ones. [[CertTESOL]] (Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), issued by Trinity, and [[CELTA]] (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults), issued by Cambridge, are the most widely taken and accepted qualifications for new teacher trainees. Courses are offered in the UK and in many countries around the world. It is usually taught full-time over a one-month period or part-time over a period of up to a year.

Teachers with two or more years of teaching experience who want to stay in the profession and advance their career prospects (including school management and teacher training) can take a diploma course. Trinity offers the Trinity Licentiate Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages ([[LTCL DipTESOL|DipTESOL]]) and Cambridge offers the Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults ([[DELTA (ELT)|DELTA]]). These diplomas are considered to be equivalent and are both accredited at level 7 of the revised [[National Qualifications Framework]]. Some teachers who stay in the profession go on to do an [[Master of Arts|MA]] in a relevant discipline such as [[applied linguistics]] or ELT. Many UK [[master's degrees]] require considerable experience in the field before a candidate is accepted onto the course.

The above qualifications are well-respected within the UK EFL sector, including private [[language school]]s and [[higher education]] language provision. However, in England and Wales, in order to meet the government's criteria for being a qualified teacher of ESOL in the Learning and Skills Sector (i.e. post-compulsory or [[further education]]), teachers need to have the Certificate in Further Education Teaching Stage 3 at level 5 (of the revised NQF) and the Certificate for ESOL Subject Specialists at level 4. Recognised qualifications which confer one or both of these include a [[Postgraduate Certificate in Education]] (PGCE) in ESOL, the CELTA module 2, and [[City and Guilds of London Institute|City & Guilds]] 9488. Teachers of any subject [[state school|within the British state sector]] are normally expected to hold a PGCE and may choose to specialise in ELT.

===Canadian qualifications===
Teachers teaching adult ESL in Canada in the federally funded Language Instruction to Newcomers (LINC) program must be TESL certified. Most employers in Ontario encourage certification by TESL Ontario. Often this requires completing an eight-month graduate certificate program at an accredited university or college. See the TESL Ontario or TESL Canada websites for more information.

===United States qualifications===
Some U.S. instructors at [[community college]]s, private language schools and [[universities]] qualify to teach English to adult non-native speakers by completing a [[Master of Arts]] (MA) in TESOL. Other degrees may be a Master in Adult Education and Training or Applied Linguistics.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bentley|first1=John|title=What is ESL? A Comprehensive Guide to the World of Teaching English
|url=https://www.internationalteflacademy.com/blog/what-is-esl-comprehensive-guide-to-teaching-english-as-a-second-language|publisher=International TEFL Academy|access-date=2 February 2024}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} This degree also qualifies them to teach in most EFL contexts. There are also a growing number of online programs offering TESOL degrees.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Egbert |first1=J. |last2=Thomas |first2=M. |year=2001 |title=The new frontier: A case study in applying instructional design for distance teacher education |journal=Journal of Technology and Teacher Education |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=391–405}}</ref> In fact, "the growth of Online Language Teacher Education (OLTE) programs from the mid-1990s to 2009 was from 20 to more than 120".<ref>{{cite web|last=Murray|first=D.|year=2013|title=A case for online English language teacher education|work=The International Research Foundation for English Language Education|url=http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013.pdf}}</ref>

In many areas of the [[United States]], a growing number of K–12 public school teachers are involved in teaching ELLs (English Language Learners, that is, children who come to school speaking a home language other than English). The qualifications for these classroom teachers vary from state to state but always include a state-issued teaching certificate for public instruction. This state licensing requires substantial practical experience as well as course work. In some states, an additional specialization in ESL/ELL is required. This may be called an "endorsement". Endorsement programs may be part of a graduate program or maybe completed independently to add the endorsement to the initial teaching certificate

An MA in TESOL may or may not meet individual state requirements for K–12 public school teachers. It is important to determine if a graduate program is designed to prepare teachers for adult education or K–12 education.

The MA in TESOL typically includes second-language acquisition theory, linguistics, pedagogy, and an internship.  A program will also likely have specific classes on skills such as reading, writing, pronunciation, and grammar. Admission requirements vary and may or may not require a background in education and/or language. Many graduate students also participate in teaching practica or clinicals, which provide the opportunity to gain experience in classrooms.<ref>{{cite web|title=Accredited Online ESL Teaching Programs|url=https://www.onlineu.com/degrees/esl|publisher=OnlineU.com|access-date=20 October 2017|date=2013-07-18}}</ref>

In addition to traditional classroom teaching methods, speech pathologists, linguists, actors, and voice professionals are actively involved in teaching pronunciation of American English—called accent improvement, accent modification, and accent reduction—and serve as resources for other aspects of spoken English, such as word choice.

It is important to note that the issuance of a teaching certificate or license for K–12 teachers is not automatic following completion of degree requirements. All teachers must complete a battery of exams (typically the [[Praxis test]] or a specific state test subject and method exams or similar, state-sponsored exams) as well as supervised instruction as [[student teacher]]s. Often, ESL certification can be obtained through extra college coursework. ESL certifications are usually only valid when paired with an already existing teaching certificate. Certification requirements for ESL teachers vary greatly from state to state; out-of-state teaching certificates are recognized if the two states have a reciprocity agreement.

The following document states the qualifications for an ESL certificate in the state of Pennsylvania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.education.pa.gov/Documents/Teachers-Administrators/Certification%20Preparation%20Programs/Specific%20Program%20Guidelines/English%20as%20a%20Second%20Language%20Program%20Specialist%20Guidelines.pdf|title=Error}}</ref>

===Chile qualifications===
Native speakers will often be able to find work as an English teacher in Chile without an ESL teaching certificate. However, many private institutes give preference to teachers with a TEFL, CELTA, or TESOL certificate. The [[Ministry of Education (Chile)|Chilean Ministry of Education]] also sponsors the [[English Opens Doors]] program, which recruits native English speakers to come work as teaching assistants in Chilean public schools. English Opens Doors requires only a bachelor's degree in order to be considered for acceptance.

===United Arab Emirates qualifications===
Native speakers must possess teacher certification in their home country in order to teach English as a foreign language in most institutions and schools in United Arab Emirates (UAE). Otherwise, CELTA/TESOL/TEFL/ Certificate or the like is required along with prior teaching experience.

==Professional associations and unions==
* TESOL International Association ([[Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages|TESOL]]) is a [[Professional body|professional organization]] based in the United States. In addition, TESOL International Association has more than 100 statewide and regional affiliates in the United States and around the world, see below.
* The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language ([[IATEFL]]) is a professional organization based in the United Kingdom.
* Professional organizations for teachers of English exist at national levels. Many contain phrases in their title such as the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT), TESOL Greece in [[Greece]], or the [[Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers]] (SPELT). Some of these organizations may be bigger in structure (supra-national, such as TESOL Arabia in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf states]]), or smaller (limited to one city, state, or province, such as [[CATESOL]] in [[California]]). Some are affiliated with TESOL or IATEFL.
* The National Association for Teaching English and other Community Languages to Adults ([[NATECLA]]) which focuses on teaching ESOL in the United Kingdom.
* [[National Union of General Workers (Zenrokyo)|National Union of General Workers]] is a [[Labor unions in Japan|Japanese union]] which includes English teachers.
* [[University and College Union]] is a British [[trade union]] which includes lecturers of ELT.

==Acronyms and abbreviations==
{{See also|Language education}}
Note that some of the terms below may be restricted to one or more countries, or may be used with different meanings in different countries, particularly the US and UK. See further discussion is [[#Terminology and types|Terminology, and types]] above.

===Types of English===
*'''1-to-1''' - [[One to one lesson]]
* '''BE''' – [[Business English]]
* '''EAL''' – English as an additional language
* '''EAP''' – [[English for Academic Purposes|English for academic purposes]]
* '''EFL''' – English as a foreign language
* '''EE''' - [[Extramural English]]
* '''EIL''' – English as an [[World language|international language]] (see main article at [[International English]])
* '''ELF''' – English as a ''[[lingua franca]]'', a common language that is not the mother tongue of any of the participants in a discussion
* '''ELL''' – English language learner
* '''ELT''' – English language teaching
* '''ESL''' – English as a second language
* '''ESOL''' – English for speakers of other languages
* '''ESP''' – [[English for specific purposes]], or English for special purposes (e.g. technical English, scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for waiters)
* '''EST''' – English for science and technology (e.g. technical English, scientific English)
* '''TEFL''' – [[Teaching English as a second or foreign language]]. This link is to a page about a subset of TEFL, namely travel-teaching. More generally, see the discussion in [[#Terminology and types|Terminology and types]].
* '''TESL''' – Teaching English as a second language
* '''TESOL''' – Teaching English to speakers of other languages, or Teaching English as a second or other languages. Also the short name for TESOL International Association.
* '''TYLE''' – Teaching Young Learners English. Note that "Young Learners" can mean under 18, or much younger.

===Other abbreviations===
* '''BULATS''' – Business Language Testing Services, a computer-based test of business English, produced by CambridgeEsol. The test also exists for French, German, and Spanish.
* '''CELT''' – Certificate in English Language Teaching, certified by the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland (ACELS).
* '''[[CELTA]]''' – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults
* '''[[CELTYL]]''' – Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners
* '''[[Delta (ELT)|Delta]]''' – Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults
* '''[[Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English|ECPE]]''' – Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English
* '''[[IELTS]]''' – International English Language Testing System
* '''[[London Tests of English|LTE]]''' – London Tests of English by [[Pearson Language Tests]]
* '''OLTE''' – Online Language Teacher Education
* '''[[TOEFL]]''' – Test of English as a Foreign Language
* '''[[TOEIC]]''' – Test of English for International Communication
* '''[[UCLES]]''' – [[University of Cambridge]] Local Examinations Syndicate, an exam board
* ELICOS – English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students, commonly used in [[Australia]]

==See also==
{{Portal|Education|Language}}
* [[Spanish as a second or foreign language]]

===Language terminology===
* [[Foreign language]]
* [[Glossary of language teaching terms and ideas]]
* [[Second language]]
* [[Basic English]]

===General language teaching and learning===
* [[Applied linguistics]]
* [[Contrastive rhetoric]]
* [[Language education]]
* [[Second-language acquisition]]

===English language teaching and learning===
* [[Assistant Language Teacher]]
* [[Academic English]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[Structured English Immersion]], a framework for teaching English language learners in public schools
* [[Teaching English as a foreign language]] (TEFL)
* [[Translanguaging]]

===Contemporary English===
* [[Comparison of American and British English]]
* [[English language]]
* [[English studies]]
* [[International English]]

===Dictionaries and resources===
* [[Advanced learner's dictionary]]
* [[Foreign language writing aid]]

===Statistics===
* [[EF English Proficiency Index]]

==References and notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|32em}}
* {{cite book|author1=Marianne Celce-Murcia|author2=Marguerite Ann Snow|title=Teaching English as a Second Or Foreign Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kJ4MQEACAAJ|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Heinle|isbn=978-1-111-35169-4}}
* {{cite book|author1=Adrienne L. Herrell|author2=Michael Jordan|title=50 Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwLPoQEACAAJ|year=2016|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-380245-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Nancie Atwell|title=In the Middle: A Lifetime of Learning about Writing, Reading, and Adolescents|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntHjoAEACAAJ|year=2014|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0-325-02813-2}}
* Grace Hui Chin Lin & Paul Shih Chieh Chien (2009). [http://ebooks.lib.ntu.edu.tw/1_file/author_provided/20110725/04.pdf ''An Introduction to English Teaching''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810122505/http://ebooks.lib.ntu.edu.tw/1_file/author_provided/20110725/04.pdf |date=2021-08-10 }}, Germany. 
* Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English (new edition). Essex, UK: Pearson Longman.
* Betty Schrampfer Azar & Stacy A. Hagen. Fundamentals of English Grammar, 4th edition, Allyn & Bacon.
* Understanding and Using English Grammar, 5th Edition by Azar and Hagen.
* {{cite book|author1=Janet Lane|author2=Ellen Lange|title=Writing Clearly: Grammar for Editing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwekuAAACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-35197-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Keith S. Folse|title=Keys to Teaching Grammar to English Language Learners: A Practical Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iU_cjwEACAAJ|year=2016|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-03667-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Michael Swan|title=Practical English usage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJ5AAQAAIAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-442098-3}}
* Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2006); How Languages Are Learned (4th ed.); Oxford: Oxford University Press
* {{cite book|author1=J. Michael O'Malley|author2=Lorraine Valdez Pierce|title=Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners: Practical Approaches for Teachers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEViQgAACAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-201-59151-4}}
* Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2010); Language Assessment (2nd ed.); Pearson Longman.
* {{cite book|author=Kelly Gallagher|title=Deeper Reading: Comprehending Challenging Texts, 4-12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XB7FAXjDj0C|year=2004|publisher=Stenhouse Publishers|isbn=978-1-57110-384-0}}
* Eric Henderson, The Active Reader: Strategies for Academic Reading and Writing, Third Edition. {{ISBN|9780199012459}}
* Advanced Reading Power 4 2nd edition by Mikulecky and Jeffries, Pearson Longman, 2014.
* Marina Rozenberg, Perspectives: Academic Reading Skills and Practice, OUP. {{ISBN|9780199009541}}
* Spack, Ruth. Guidelines: A Cross-Cultural Reading/Writing Text, New York: St. Martin's Press. 
* {{cite book|author=John J. Ruszkiewicz|title=A Reader's Guide to College Writing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMLZCQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|isbn=978-1-4576-6893-7}}
* Clear Speech from the Start, 2nd Edition by Judy B. Gilbert
* {{cite book|author=Sue F. Miller|title=Targeting Pronunciation: Communicating Clearly in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0DlAQAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Heinle/Cengage Learing|isbn=978-0-618-55496-6}}
* Skillful Listening & Speaking. Student's Book 3 by  Mike Boyle & Ellen Kisslinger
* Leap High Intermediate Listening and Speaking by Dr. Ken Beatty.
* Pathways Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking by MacIntyre.
* Douglas, Scott R. Academic Inquiry: Writing for Post-Secondary Success. Don Mills, Ont: Oxford University Press, 2014.
* Joy M. Reid. The Process of Composition, Pearson Education.
* Leki, Ilona. Academic Writing:  Exploring Processes and Strategies (2nd ed). New York: Cambridge University Press. 1998.
* Easy Writer – A Pocket Reference, 4th edition by Andrea A. Lunsford.
* {{cite book|author1=Jane Straus|author2=Lester Kaufman|author3=Tom Stern|title=The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GflvAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-78556-0}}
* Stoynoff, S. & Chapelle, C. A. (2005). ESOL tests and testing: A resource for teachers and administrators. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
*{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Amy S. |author-link=Amy S. Thompson |title=[[The Role of Context in Language Teachers' Self Development and Motivation: Perspectives from Multilingual Settings]] |year=2021 |location=Bristol |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=9781800411173}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
<!-- Do NOT add commercial links to Wikipedia. They will be found and removed. See Wikipedia:External links for more. -->
* [https://eal.britishcouncil.org EAL Nexus – Free teaching resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111122801/https://eal.britishcouncil.org/ |date=2014-11-11 }}
* [http://www.lep.gov/ Limited English Proficiency] - Interagency site of the [[Federal Government of the United States]]
* [http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/about-academic-phrasebank/ Academic Phrasebank] - University of Manchester
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040310164800/http://www.studentservices.canterbury.ac.nz/elsp/ENGR110/ Notes on grammar and academic writing]—special series by [[University of Canterbury]]
* [https://esl.wiki ESL.Wiki: English as a Second Language Wikibook]

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{{Language school}}
{{English official language clickable map}}
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