View source for Education in Russia

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{{Infobox education
| country name          = Russia
| agency image          =
| agency                = [[Ministry of Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education]] and [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)|Ministry of Science and Higher Education]]
| leader titles         = Minister for Education and Minister for Science and Higher Education
| leader names          = [[Sergey Kravtsov (politician)|Sergey Kravtsov]]<ref name=educationminister>{{cite web|url=https://www.regeringen.se/sveriges-regering/utbildningsdepartementet/ |title=Utbildningsdepartementet |year=2019 |access-date=25 February 2019 |publisher=[[Government of Sweden]]  |language=sv}}</ref> and [[Valery Falkov]]
| budget                = 1.5 trillion rouble <ref>{{cite web |url=https://iz.ru/1606907/sofiia-tokareva/biudzhet-rf-na-2024-2026-gody-priniat-glavnye-tcifry |title = Известия}}</ref>
| funding per student   =
| budget year           = 2024
| primary languages     = Russian
| system type           = National
| established events    =
| established dates     =
| literacy year         =
| literacy total        =
| literacy men          =  99.7%<ref name="Archived copy">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html |title=CIA - the World Factbook -- Field Listing - Literacy |website=www.cia.gov |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html |archive-date=13 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| literacy women        =  99.6%<ref name="Archived copy"/>
| enroll total          =
| enroll primary        = 
| enroll secondary      = 
| enroll post-secondary =
| enrollment year       = 
| attain secondary      =
| attain post-secondary = 
| attainment year       =
| footnotes             =
}}

In [[Russia]], the state provides most education services regulating education through the [[Ministry of Education (Russia)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)|Ministry of Science and Higher Education]]. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia's expenditure on education has grown from 2.7% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2005 to 4.7% in 2018 but remains below the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] average of 4.9%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 June 2021 |title=Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/b35a14e5-en/1/3/4/3/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/b35a14e5-en&_csp_=9689b83a12cab1f95b32a46f4225d1a5&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=OECD Library |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-24 |title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>

Before 1990 the course of school training in the [[Soviet Union]] lasted 10 years, but at the end of 1990, an 11-year course officially came into operation. Education in state-owned secondary schools is free; ''first'' tertiary (university level) education is free with reservations: a substantial number of students enroll on full pay. Male and female students have equal shares in all stages of education,<ref name=EFA82>Education for all by 2015, p. 82 and underlying data tables</ref> except in [[tertiary education]] where women lead with 57%.<ref name=EFA316>Education for all by 2015, p. 316</ref>

A 2015 estimate by the United States [[Central Intelligence Agency]] puts the [[literacy rate]] in [[Russia]] at 99.7% (99.7% for men, 99.6% for women).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html "Country Comparison to the World of Literacy Rate"]</ref> According to a 2016 [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] estimate, 54% of Russia's adults (25- to 64-year-olds) have attained tertiary education, giving Russia the second-highest attainment of tertiary education among 35 OECD member countries.<ref name="keepeek.com">[http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/education/education-at-a-glance-2016/russian-federation_eag-2016-76-en#.WBTxUtJ95dg#page1 "Education at a glance in 2016: Russian Federation"]</ref> 47.7% have completed [[secondary education]] (the full 11-year course); 26.5% have completed [[middle school]] (9 years) and 8.1% have [[primary education|elementary education]] (at least 4 years). The highest rates of [[tertiary education]] (24.7%) are recorded among women aged 35 to 39 years (compared to 19.5% for men of the same age bracket).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_03_02.xls |title= Data tables of 2002 census: Breakdown by level of education |language= ru |access-date= 2008-10-06 |archive-date= 18 December 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071218121759/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_03_02.xls |url-status= dead }}</ref>

Compared with other OECD countries, Russia has close to average class sizes<ref>[https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e2f6a260-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/e2f6a260-en Indicator D2. What is the student-teacher ratio and how big are classes?]</ref> and some of the shortest instruction hours per year.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag2013%20(eng)--FINAL%2020%20June%202013.pdf#page=362 Education at a Glance 2013]</ref>

In 2014 the Pearson/[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] rated Russia's education as the 8th-best in Europe and the 13th-best in the world;<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-27314075 Top 20 Education Systems] BBC. ''Source:'' Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit.</ref> Russia's educational attainment was rated as the 21st-highest in the world, and the students' cognitive skills as the 9th-highest.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121201084111/http://thelearningcurve.pearson.com/index/index-ranking/cognitive-skills-highest Index - Which countries have the best schools?] ''Source:'' Pearson</ref>

In 2015 the OECD ranked Russian students' mathematics and science skills as the 34th-best in the world, between [[Sweden]] and [[Iceland]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/business-32608772 Asia tops biggest global school rankings] BBC. ''Source:'' [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]].</ref>

In 2016 the US company [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] rated Russia's higher education as the third-best in the world, measuring the percentage of high-school graduates who go on to attend college, the annual science and engineering graduates as a percentage of all college graduates, and science and engineering graduates as a percentage of the labor force.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-19/these-are-the-world-s-most-innovative-economies These Are the World's Most Innovative Economies] ''Source:'' Bloomberg Business.</ref>

In 2014 Russia ranked as the 6th most popular destination for international students.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 20 countries for international students |date=2014-07-17 |website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508122024/https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/jul/17/top-20-countries-international-students |archive-date=2022-05-08 |url-status=live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2014/jul/17/top-20-countries-international-students}}</ref>

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative<ref>{{Cite web |title=Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries |url=https://humanrightsmeasurement.org/ |access-date=2022-03-04 |website=humanrightsmeasurement.org}}</ref> finds that Russia is fulfilling 86.8% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education, based on its level of income.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Federation - HRMI Rights Tracker |url=https://rightstracker.org/ |access-date=2022-03-04 |website=rightstracker.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Levels of education==
According to the law,<ref>{{cite act|type=Federal Law|index=273-FZ|date=29 December 2012|legislature=[[State Duma]]|title=Об образовании в Российской Федерации|language=ru|trans-title=About education in Russian Federation|url=http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?searchres=&bpas=cd00000&a3=102000505&a3type=1&a3value=&a6=&a6type=1&a6value=&a15=&a15type=1&a15value=&a7type=1&a7from=&a7to=&a7date=29.12.2012&a8=273-%D4%C7&a8type=1&a1=&a0=&a16=&a16type=1&a16value=&a17=&a17type=1&a17value=&a4=&a4type=1&a4value=&a23=&a23type=1&a23value=&textpres=&sort=7&x=43&y=6}}</ref> the educational system of Russia includes 2 types of [[education]]: general and professional.

General education has the following levels:
* [[Preschool|Preschool education]] (level 0 according to the [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]])
* [[Primary education|Primary general education]] (level 1 according to the [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]]) – the duration of study is 4 years
* [[Middle school|Basic general education]] (level 2 according to the [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]]) – the duration of study is 5 years
* [[Secondary education|Secondary general education]] (level 3 according to the [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]]) – the duration of study is 2 years
Furthermore, there is also an additional general education (school-based study groups and clubs).

Professional education has the following levels:
* [[Training]] for [[profession]]s – it is available on the basis of [[Primary education|primary general education]]; the duration of study depends on the particular [[profession]], as a rule, not exceeding several months
* [[Vocational education]] – it is available on the basis of [[Middle school|basic general education]] or [[Secondary education|secondary general education]]; the duration of study is 3 years (on the basis of [[Secondary education|secondary general education]]) or 4 years (on the basis of [[Middle school|basic general education]]; in this case the program includes [[Secondary education|secondary general education]])
* [[Higher education]]:
** [[Bachelor's degree]] – it is available on the basis of [[Secondary education|secondary general education]]; the duration of study is 4 years
** [[Specialist degree]] – it is available on the basis of [[Secondary education|secondary general education]] and only for certain [[Medicine|medical]] and [[engineering]] specialties; the duration of study is from 5 to 6 years depending on the particular [[academic major]]
** [[Master's degree]] – it is available for persons who have any [[academic degree]]; the duration of study is 2 years
* [[Postgraduate education]] ([[graduate school]], [[Residency (medicine)|residency in medicine]], assistantship in the field of [[art]], [[Adjunctura in Russia|adjunctura]] in the field of [[military science]]) – it is available for persons who have a [[specialist degree]] or [[master's degree]]; the duration of study is from 2 to 4 years depending on academic discipline
Furthermore, there is also an additional professional education. It is available for graduates of [[Educational institution|institutions]] of [[Vocational education|vocational]] or [[higher education]].

==Preschool and primary school==
{{Update|date=January 2016}}

[[File:Detective film Doctor and Dancer Kidburg May 5 2018.ogv|thumb|Training the profession of a doctor, dancer and painter in Kidburg, the city of children. [[Saint-Petersburg]], 2018.]]
[[File:Cubes and fireman Kidburg May 5 2018.ogv|thumb|Training the profession of an architect, fireman and floral designer in Kidburg, 2018.]]
According to the 2002 census, 68% of children (78% urban and 47% rural) aged 5 were enrolled in [[kindergarten]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_03_04.xls |title=Data tables of 2002 census: Shares of children aged 3-9 attending school and pre-school institutions |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06 |archive-date=16 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216180302/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_03_04.xls |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to UNESCO data, enrollment in ''any'' kind of pre-school programme increased from 67% in 1999 to 84% in 2005.<ref name=EFA39>Education for all by 2015, pp. 39, 268-269</ref>

Kindergartens, unlike schools, are regulated by regional and local authorities. The [[Ministry of Education and Science (Russia)|Ministry of Education and Science]] regulates only a brief preschool preparation program for 5–6-year-old children. In 2004 the government attempted to charge the full cost of kindergartens to the parents; widespread public opposition caused a reversal of policy. Currently, local authorities can legally charge the parents not more than 20% of costs.<ref name=ARON/> Twins, children of university students, refugees, [[Chernobyl]] veterans, and other protected social groups are entitled to free service.<ref name=RG />

In 2019, pre-school (or Kindergarten) begins at the age of two months old to six years old.

The Soviet system provided for nearly universal primary (nursery, age 1 to 3) and kindergarten (age 3 to 7) service in urban areas, relieving working mothers from daytime childcare needs. By the 1980s, there were 88,000 preschool institutions; as the secondary-education study load increased and moved from the ten to eleven-year standard, the kindergarten programmes shifted from training basic social skills, or physical abilities, to preparation for entering the school level. After the collapse of the Soviet Union the number decreased to 46,000; kindergarten buildings were sold as real estate, irreversibly rebuilt and converted for office use.<ref name="PG">{{cite web|author=Kucher, Natalya|date=2007|title=Strane nyzhen detsky sad (''Стране нужен детский сад'')|url=http://www.pnp.ru/chapters/society/society_1958.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130504121314/http://www.pnp.ru/chapters/society/society_1958.html|archive-date=May 4, 2013|access-date=2008-10-07|work=Parlamentskaya Gazeta7|language=ru}}</ref> At the same time, a minority share of successful state-owned kindergartens, regarded as a [[vertical lift]] to quality schooling, flourished throughout the 1990s.<ref name=ARON /> Privately owned kindergartens, although in high demand, did not gain a significant share due to administrative pressure; share of children enrolled in private kindergartens dropped from 7% in 1999 to 1% in 2005.<ref name=EFA269>Education for all by 2015, p. 269</ref>

The improvement of the economy after the [[1998 Russian financial crisis|1998 crisis]], coupled with historical demographic peak, resulted in an increase in birth rate, first recorded in 2005.<ref name=PG /> Large cities encountered shortage of kindergarten vacancies earlier, in 2002. Moscow's kindergarten waiting list included 15,000 children; in the much smaller city of [[Tomsk]] (population 488,000) it reached 12,000.<ref name=ARON>{{cite web|author=Aronstam, Marina |title=Demograficheskaya sityatsiya i ocheredi v detskie sady (''Демографическая статистика и очереди в детские сады'') |url=http://www.russ.ru/teksty/demograficheskaya_statistika_i_ocheredi_v_detskie_sady |work=Russky Journal |date=March 8, 2008 |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327205727/http://www.russ.ru/teksty/demograficheskaya_statistika_i_ocheredi_v_detskie_sady |archive-date=March 27, 2008}}</ref> The city of Moscow instituted specialised ''kindergarten commissions'' that are tasked with locating empty slots for the children; parents sign their children on the waiting list as soon as they are born. The degree of the problem varies between districts, e.g. Moscow's [[Fili-Davydkovo District]] (population 78,000) has lost ''all'' of its kindergartens (residents have to compete for kindergarten slots elsewhere) while [[Zelenograd]] claims to have short queue.<ref name="RG">{{cite web|author=Masyukevich, Olga|date=April 13, 2007|title=Kak ustroit rebenka v detsky sad (''Как устроить ребенка в детский сад'')|url=http://www.rg.ru/2007/04/13/detsad.html|access-date=2008-10-07|work=Rossiyskaya Gazeta|language=ru}}</ref> Independent authors assert that bribes or "donations" for admission to kindergartens compete in amount with university admissions<ref name=ARON /> while authorities refute the accusation.<ref name=RG />

The number of Russian children enrolled in preschool institutions reached 7.44 million in 2020, marking a decrease from the previous year. The birth rate saw a decrease from 2020[https://www.statista.com/statistics/1038013/crude-birth-rate-russia-1840-2020/], after growing in the late 2000s and the early 2010s.

==Secondary school==
[[File:1 сентября - День знаний !.JPG|thumb|250px|The 1st of September, [[Knowledge Day]] in Russia]]

===General framework===
There were 59,260 general education schools in 2007–2008 school year, an increase from 58,503 in the previous year. However, prior to 2005–2006, the number of schools was steadily decreasing from 65,899 in 2000–2001.<ref name="ME1">{{cite web|date=2008-10-06|title=Statistics (in Russian): number of schools by type and year|url=http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1849/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101192754/http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1849/|archive-date=2008-11-01|publisher=Ministry of Education and Science|language=ru}}</ref> The 2007–2008 number includes 4,965 advanced learning schools specializing in foreign languages, mathematics etc.; 2,347 advanced general-purpose schools,<ref>Those identified as {{langx|ru|Гимназии и лицеи}}, ''gymnasiums'' and [[lycaeum]]s.</ref> and 1,884 schools for all categories of disabled children;<ref name=ME1 /> it does ''not'' include [[Vocational-technical school|vocational technical school]] and [[Tekhnikum|technicums]]. Private schools accounted for 0.3% of elementary school enrollment in 2005 and 0.5% in 2005.<ref name=EFA284>Education for all by 2015, p. 284</ref>

According to a 2005 [[UNESCO]] report, 96% of the adult population has completed lower secondary schooling and most of them also have an upper secondary education.<ref name="unesco">[http://www.uis.unesco.org/Library/Pages/DocumentMorePage.aspx?docIdValue=134&docIdFld=ID EDUCATION TRENDS IN PERSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE WORLD EDUCATION INDICATORS 2005 Edition] [[UNESCO]] Retrieved on July 2, 2009</ref>

Nine-year secondary education in Russia is compulsory since September 1, 2007.<ref name=194-FZ>{{cite web |url=http://www.rg.ru/2007/07/25/obrazovanie-izmenenia-dok.html |title=Federal law of 21 July 2007 No. 194-FZ |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06 |work=Rossiyskaya Gazeta}}</ref> Until 2007, it was limited to nine years with grades 10-11 optional; [[federal subjects of Russia]] could enforce higher compulsory standard through local legislation within the eleven–year federal programme. [[Moscow]] enacted compulsory eleven–year education in 2005,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.educom.ru/ru/documents/moscow.php |title=Moscow City law on secondary education in Moscow |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06 |publisher=Moscow city administration, department of education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923054641/http://www.educom.ru/ru/documents/moscow.php |archive-date=2008-09-23 |url-status=dead}}</ref> similar legislation existed in [[Altai Krai]], [[Sakha Republic|Sakha]] and [[Tyumen Oblast]]. A student of 15 to 18 years of age ''may'' drop out of school with the approval of his/her parent and local authorities,<ref>Federal law of Russia "On education", article 19.6</ref> and without their consent upon reaching age of 18.<ref>Federal law of Russia "On education", article 19.4</ref> Expulsion from school for multiple violations disrupting school life is possible starting at the age of 15.<ref>Federal law of Russia "On education", article 19.7</ref>

The eleven-year school term is split into elementary (years 1–4), middle (years 5–9), and senior (years 10–11) classes. The absolute majority of children attend full programme schools providing eleven-year education; schools limited to elementary or elementary and middle classes typically exist in rural areas. Of all the 59,260 schools in Russia, 36,248 provide the full eleven-year programme, 10,833 offer nine-year "basic" (elementary and middle) education, and 10,198 only offer elementary education.<ref name=ME1 /> Their number is disproportionately large compared to their share of students due to lesser class sizes in rural schools. In areas where school capacity is insufficient to teach all students on a normal, morning-to-afternoon, schedule, authorities resort to ''double-shift'' schools, where two streams of students (''morning shift'' and ''evening shift'') share the same facility. There were 13,100 ''double-shift'' and 75 ''triple-shift'' schools in 2007–2008, compared to 19,201 and 235 in 2000–2001.<ref name=ME1 />
[[File:Elektrostal - grammar school. Gymnasium № 6, modeling lesson. img 063.jpg|thumb|Elementary school in [[Elektrostal]]]]
Children are accepted to the first year at the age of 6 or 7, depending on the individual development of each child. Until 1990, starting age was set at seven years and schooling lasted ten years for students who were planning to proceed to higher education in Universities. Students who were planning to proceed to technical schools were doing so, as a rule, after the 8th year. The switch from a ten to eleven-year term was motivated by continuously increasing load in middle and senior years. In the 1960s, it resulted in a "conversion" of the fourth year from elementary to middle school. The decrease in elementary schooling led to greater disparity between children entering middle school; to compensate for the "missing" fourth year, elementary schooling was extended with a "zero year" for six-year-olds. This move remains a subject of controversy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dob.1september.ru/article.php?ID=200600702 |author=Nina Gutkina |publisher=1 sentyabrya |title=Vspomnim zabytoye staroye (''Вспомним забытое старое'') |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06}}</ref>

Children of elementary classes are normally separated from other classes within their own floor of a school building. They are taught, ideally, by a single teacher through all four elementary years (except for physical training and, if available, foreign languages); 98.5% of elementary school teachers are women.<ref>Teachers and educational quality, p. 143</ref> Their number decreased from 349,000 in 1999 to 317,000 in 2005.<ref name=EFA333>Education for all by 2015, p. 332-333</ref> Starting from the fifth year, each academic subject is taught by a dedicated subject teacher (80.4% women in 2004, an increase from 75.4% in 1991).<ref>Teachers and educational quality, p. 153</ref> Pupil-to-teacher ratio (11:1) is on par with developed European countries.<ref>Education counts..., p. 136</ref> Teachers' average monthly salaries in 2008 range from 6,200 roubles (200 US dollars) in [[Mordovia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saransk-online.ru/news/index.php?ID=3892 |title=V Mordovii pozdravlyaut uchiteley s professionalnym prazdnikom (''В Мордовии поздравляют учителей с профессиональным праздником'') |publisher=Saransk online |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314155845/http://www.saransk-online.ru/news/index.php?ID=3892 |archive-date=2012-03-14 }}</ref> to 21,000 roubles (700 US dollars) in Moscow.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rg.ru/2008/02/06/reg-centr/larionova.html |author=Nesterova, Olga |title=Uravnenie uchitelya. Srednaya zarplata shkolnykh pedagogov vyrosla do 21 tysyachi rubley (''Уравнение учителя. Средняя зарплата школьных педагогов выросла до 21 тысячи рублей'') |year=2008 |publisher=Rossiyskaya gazeta, 6 February 2008 |language=ru |access-date=2008-10-06}}</ref>
[[File:Школьник готовится к представлению своего проекта.jpg|thumb|A schoolboy is preparing to present his project]]
The school year extends from September 1 to the end of May and is divided into four terms. Study programme in schools is fixed; unlike in some Western countries, schoolchildren or their parents have no choice of study subjects. Class load per student (638 hours a year for nine-year-olds, 893 for thirteen-year-olds) is lower than in [[Chile]], [[Peru]] or [[Thailand]],<ref>Education counts..., p. 140</ref> and slightly lower than in most states of the United States,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/95/05/9505.pdf |author= Melodye Bush, Molly Ryan and Stephanie Rose |title=Number of Instructional Days/Hours in the School Year|year=2011 |publisher=Education Commission of the States |language=en |access-date=2017-03-30}}</ref> although official hours are frequently appended with additional class work. Students are graded on a 5-step scale, ranging in practice from 2 ("unacceptable") to 5 ("excellent"); 1 is a rarely used sign of extreme failure. Teachers regularly subdivide these grades (i.e. 4+, 5−) in daily use, but term and year results are graded strictly 2, 3, 4 or 5.

Some secondary schools conduct, in addition to the standard programme, an in-depth study of some subjects (schools focused on mathematics, foreign languages, arts, [[Military-focused secondary schools in Russia|military-related subjects]], etc.). These schools are considered more prestigious than the usual secondary schools.

===Vocational training option===

Upon completion of a nine-year program the student has a choice of either completing the remaining two years at normal school, or of a transfer to a [[Vocational education|specialized professional training school]]. Historically, those were divided into low-prestige [[Vocational-technical school|PTU]]s and better-regarded [[Tekhnikum|technicum]]s and medical (nurse level) schools; in the 2000s, many such institutions, if operational, have been renamed as ''colleges''. They provide students with a vocational skill qualification and a high school certificate equivalent to 11-year education in a normal school; the programme, due to its work training component, extends over 3 years. In 2007–08 there were 2,800 such institutions with 2,280,000 students.<ref name="ME2">{{cite web|title=Statistics (in Russian): number of vocational schools by type and year|url=http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1847/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604193236/http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1847/|archive-date=2008-06-04|access-date=2008-10-06|publisher=Ministry of Education|language=ru}}</ref> Russian vocational schools, like the [[Tech Prep]] schools in the USA, fall out of [[ISCED]] classification,<ref name=PA10/> thus the enrollment number reported by [[UNESCO]] is lower, 1.41 million;<ref>Participation in formal technical and vocational training, p. 79</ref> the difference is attributed to senior classes of technicums that exceed secondary education standard.<ref name=PA10>Participation in formal technical and vocational training, p. 10</ref>

All certificates of secondary education (Maturity Certificate, {{langx|ru|аттестат зрелости}}), regardless of issuing institution, conform to the same national standard and are considered, at least in law, to be fully equivalent.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=RUS | title=TVET in Russian Federation | publisher=UNESCO-UNEVOC | date=2012 | access-date=6 August 2014}}</ref> The state prescribes a minimum (and nearly exhaustive) set of study subjects that must appear in each certificate. In practice, extension of study terms to three years slightly disadvantages vocational schools' male students who intend to continue: they reach [[Conscription in Russia|conscription]] age before graduation or immediately after it, and normally must serve in the army before applying to undergraduate-level institutions.

Although all male pupils are eligible to postpone their conscription to receive higher education, they must be at least signed-up for the admission tests into the university the moment they get the conscription notice from the army. Most [[military commissariat]] officials are fairly considerate towards the potential recruits on that matter and usually allow graduates enough time to choose the university and sign-up for admission or enroll there on a paid basis despite the fact that the spring recruiting period has not yet ended by the time most students graduate. All those people may legally be commanded to present themselves to the recruitment centers the next day after graduation.

Males of conscription age that chose not to continue their education at any stage usually get notice from the army within half a year after their education ends, because of the periodic nature of recruitment periods in Russian army.

===Unified state examinations===

Traditionally, the universities and institutes conducted their own admissions tests regardless of the applicants' school record. There was no uniform measure of graduates' abilities; marks issued by high schools were perceived as incompatible due to grading variances between schools and regions. In 2003 the Ministry of Education launched the [[Unified state examination]] (USE) programme. The set of standardised tests for high school graduates, issued uniformly throughout the country and rated independent of the student's schoolmasters, akin to the North American [[SAT]], was supposed to replace entrance exams to state universities. Thus, the reformers reasoned, the USE would empower talented graduates from remote locations to compete for admissions at the universities of their choice,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-08-01 |title=ЕГЭ: большие перемены |url=https://iz.ru/771617/elena-loriia-elena-ladilova-roman-kretcul/ege-bolshie-peremeny |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230410051733/https://iz.ru/771617/elena-loriia-elena-ladilova-roman-kretcul/ege-bolshie-peremeny |archive-date=2023-04-10 |access-date=2024-12-15 |work=Известия |language=ru}}</ref> at the same time eliminating admission-related bribery, then estimated at 1 billion US dollars annually. In 2003, 858 university and college workers were indicted for bribery; the admission "fee" in [[MGIMO]] allegedly reached 30,000 US dollars.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rg.ru/2004/08/18/korruptsia.html | title=Priyomnaya komissiya - $ 30.00(''Приемная комиссия - $ 30.000'') | author=Kartashova, Larisa | date=18 August 2004 | publisher=Rossiyskaya gazeta, August 18, 2004 | language=ru |access-date=2008-10-08 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

University heads, notably [[Moscow State University]] rector [[Viktor Sadovnichiy]], resisted the change, arguing that their schools cannot survive without charging the applicants with their own entrance hurdles. Nevertheless, the legislators enacted USE in February 2007. In 2008, it was mandatory for the students and optional for the universities; it is fully mandatory since 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Приказ Минобрнауки России об утверждении Положения о формах и порядке проведения государственной (итоговой) аттестации обучающихся, освоивших основные общеобразовательные программы среднего (полного) общего образования |url=https://rg.ru/documents/2009/01/30/attestacia-dok.html |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=Российская газета |language=ru}}</ref> A few higher education establishments are still allowed to introduce their own entrance tests in addition to USE scoring; such tests must be publicized in advance.

Awarding USE grades involves two stages. In this system, a "primary grade" is the sum of points for completed tasks, with each of the tasks having a maximum number of points allocated to it. The maximum total primary grade varies by subject, so that one might obtain, for instance, a primary grade of 23 out of 37 in mathematics and a primary grade of 43 out of 80 in French. The primary grades are then converted into final or "test grades" by means of a sophisticated statistical calculation, which takes into account the distribution of primary grades among the examinees. This system has been criticized for its lack of transparency.

The first nationwide USE session covering all regions of Russia was held in the summer of 2008. 25.3% students failed the literature test, 23.5% failed mathematics; the highest grades were recorded in French, English and social studies. Twenty thousand students filed objections against their grades; one third of objections were settled in the student's favor.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-06-18 |title=Основной оценкой, которую школьники получили за ЕГЭ, стала "тройка" |url=https://rg.ru/2008/06/18/ege.html |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=Российская газета |language=ru}}</ref><!-- The following link has been introduced here: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_in_Russia&diff=prev&oldid=243898083 But it is currently dead and I can't find it at web.archive.org. Cyfal, 21 January 2023
<ref>{{cite web | title=Unified State Examination 2008 in Russia | url=http://visualrian.com/images/item/318850 | author=Andrianova, Nadezhda | year=2008 | publisher=RIA Novosti, June 13, 2008 | language=en, ru }}</ref> -->

The [[Basic State Exam]] is also held after nine years of education, two years before the Unified State Exam.<ref name="r880">{{cite web | title=Что такое ЕГЭ, ОГЭ, ГВЭ и ГИА? | website=Курсы ЕГЭ и ОГЭ | url=https://v-insayte.ru/egeoge | language=ru | access-date=2024-08-06}}</ref>

==Education for the disabled==

===Physical disability===
Children with [[physical disabilities]], depending on the nature and extent of the disability and the availability of local specialized institutions, attend either such institutions or special classes within regular schools. As of 2007, there were 80 schools for the blind and children with poor eyesight;<ref>Andreeva, p. 16</ref> their school term is extended to 12 years and classes are limited to 9–12 pupils per teacher. Education for the deaf is provided by 99 specialized kindergartens and 207 secondary boarding schools; children who were born deaf are admitted to specialized kindergartens as early as possible, ideally from 18 months of age; they are schooled separately from children who lost hearing ''after'' acquiring basic speech skills.<ref>Andreeva, p. 27–29</ref> Vocational schools for the working deaf people who have not completed secondary education exist in five cities only.<ref>Andreeva, p. 30</ref> Another wide network of specialist institutions takes care of children with mobility disorders. 60–70% of all children with [[cerebral palsy]] are schooled through this channel.<ref>Andreeva, p. 43</ref> Children are admitted to specialised kindergartens at three or four years of age and streamed into narrow specialty groups; the specialisation continues throughout their school term and may extend to thirteen years. The system, however, is not ready to accept children who also display evident [[developmental disability]]; they have no other option than [[home schooling]].<ref>Andreeva, p. 42, 46</ref> All graduates of physical disability schools are entitled to the same level of secondary education certificates as normal graduates.

There are 42 specialized vocational training (non-degree) colleges for disabled people; most notable are the School of Music for the Blind in [[Kursk]] and the Medical School for the Blind in [[Kislovodsk]]. Fully segregated undergraduate education is provided by two colleges: the Institute of Arts for the Disabled (enrollment of 158 students in 2007) and the Social Humanitarian Institute (enrollment of 250 students), both in [[Moscow]].<ref>Andreeva, p. 61–62</ref> Other institutions provide semi-segregated training (specialized groups within a normal college environment) or declare full disability access of their regular classes. [[Bauman Moscow State Technical University]] and [[Chelyabinsk State University]] have the highest number of disabled students (170 each, 2007). Bauman University focuses on education for the deaf; the Herzen Pedagogical Institute enroll different groups of physical disability. However, independent studies assert that the universities fail to integrate people with disabilities into their academic and social life.<ref>Andreeva, p.63–64</ref>

===Mental disability===

An estimated 20% of children leaving kindergarten fail to adjust to elementary school requirements and are in need of special schooling.<ref>Andreeva, p.34</ref> Children with delayed development who ''may'' return to normal schools and study along with normal children are trained at ''compensatory classes'' within regular schools. The system is intended to prepare these children for normal school at the earliest possible age, closing (compensating) the gap between them and normal students. It is a relatively new development that began in the 1970s and gained national approval in the 1990s.<ref>Andreeva, p.36</ref>

Persistent but mild [[mental disabilities]] that preclude co-education with normal children in the foreseeable future but do not qualify as ''moderate, heavy, or severe retardation''<ref>Andreeva, p. 37</ref> require specialized ''correction'' ({{langx|ru|коррекционные}}) boarding schools that extend from 8–9 to 18–21 years of age. Their task is to adapt the person to living in a modern society, rather than to subsequent education.<ref>Andreeva, p. 35</ref>

Children with stronger forms of intellectual disability are, as of 2008, mostly excluded from the education system. Some are trained within severe disability groups of the ''correction'' boarding schools and orphanages, others are aided only through counseling.<ref>Andreeva, p.37–38</ref>

==Tertiary (university level) education==
{{See also|List of institutions of higher education in Russia|Academic ranks in Russia}}
[[File:Lomonosov Moscow State University), October 2010.jpg|thumb|right|[[Main building of Moscow State University|Main building]] of the [[Moscow State University]] in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]]]]
[[File:Petrozavodsk 06-2017 img34 University.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Petrozavodsk State University]] in [[Petrozavodsk]], [[Republic of Karelia]]]]
According to a 2005 [[UNESCO]] report, more than half of the Russian adult population has attained a tertiary education, which is twice as high as the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] average.<ref name="unesco" />

As of the 2007–2008 academic year, Russia had 8.1 million students enrolled in all forms of tertiary education (including military and police institutions and postgraduate studies).<ref name=PA91>Participation in formal technical and vocational training, p. 91</ref> Foreign students accounted for 5.2% of enrollment, half of whom were from other [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] countries.<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b08_11/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/08-12.htm Rosstat education statistics] Retrieved on July 2, 2009</ref> 6.2 million students were enrolled in 658 state-owned and 450 private civilian university-level institutions licensed by the Ministry of Education; total [[teacher|faculty]] reached 625 thousands in 2005.<ref name=EFA341>Education for all by 2015, p. 341</ref>

The number of state-owned institutions was rising steadily from 514 in 1990 to 655 in 2002 and remains nearly constant since 2002. The number of private institutions, first reported as 193 in 1995, continues to rise.<ref name="ME3">{{cite web|title=Statistics (in Russian): tertiary professional education|url=http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1846/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531104416/http://www.ed.gov.ru/uprav/stat/1846/|archive-date=2008-05-31|access-date=2008-10-06|publisher=Ministry of Education|language=ru}}</ref> The trend for consolidation began in 2006 when state universities and colleges of [[Rostov-on-Don]], [[Taganrog]] and other southern towns were merged into [[Southern Federal University]], based in Rostov-on-Don; a similar [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]] was formed in [[Krasnoyarsk]] as [[Siberian Federal University]]; the third one emerged in [[Vladivostok]] as [[Far Eastern Federal University]].<ref name=MEDVE/> [[Moscow State University]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]] acquired the ''[[Collegiate university|federal university]]'' status in 2007 without further organisational changes.

[[Andrei Fursenko]], Minister of Education, is campaigning for a reduction in number of institutions to weed out [[diploma mill]]s and substandard colleges; in April 2008 his stance was approved by president [[Dmitry Medvedev]]: "This amount, around a thousand universities and two thousands spinoffs, does not exist anywhere else in the world; it may be over the top even for [[China]] ... consequences are clear: devaluation of education standard".<ref name=MEDVE>{{cite web | url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/24apr2008/vyz.html | title=V Rossii tak neopravdanno mnogo vuzov ... (''В России так неоправданно много вузов, что их бы хватило на весь Китай, уверен Медведев'') | year=2008 | publisher=Inferfax, April 24, 2008 | language=ru | access-date=2008-10-08 }}</ref> Even supporters of the reduction like [[Yevgeny Yasin]] admit that the move will strengthen consolidation of academia in Moscow, [[Saint Petersburg]] and [[Novosibirsk]] and devastate the provinces, leaving the [[federal subjects of Russia]] without colleges for training local school teachers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Interview with Yevgeny Yasin (in Russian)|url=http://www.radiorus.ru/issue.html?iid=190908&rid=2534|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719153849/http://www.radiorus.ru/issue.html?iid=190908&rid=2534|archive-date=July 19, 2011|access-date=2008-10-08|publisher=Radio of Russia, August 28, 2008|language=ru}}</ref> For a comparison, the [[Higher education in the United States|United States]] has a total of 4,495 [[Title IV]]-eligible, degree-granting institutions: 2,774 BA/BSc degree institutions and 1,721 AA/ASc degree institutions.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_275.asp |title = Digest of Education Statistics, 2010}}</ref>

Financial and visa difficulties have historically made it difficult to obtain higher education abroad for young adults in the post-Soviet era.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = 'We don't have any limits': Russian young adult life narratives through a social generations lens|last = Vandegrift|first = Darcie|date = July 24, 2015|journal = Journal of Youth Studies|volume = 19|issue = 2|pages = 221–236|doi = 10.1080/13676261.2015.1059930|s2cid = 143314298}}</ref>

===Traditional model<!--'Specialist diploma' redirects here-->===
{{anchor|Specialist diploma}}
{{see also|Specialist degree#The Specialist degree in the Commonwealth of Independent States}}
[[File:RIAN archive 312685 Graduates of the Moscow University's Higher School of Business.jpg|thumb|Graduates of the Moscow University's Higher School of Business]]
Unlike the United States or [[Bologna process]] model, Russian higher education was traditionally not divided into undergraduate (bachelor's) and graduate (master's) levels. Instead, tertiary education was undertaken in a single stage, typically five or six years in duration, which resulted in a '''specialist [[diploma]]'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->.<ref name="University level studies.">{{cite web| publisher=EuroEducation |title=EuroEducation.Net – The European Education Directory – Russia |url=http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/russco.htm|access-date=21 January 2023}}</ref> Specialist diplomas were perceived equal to Western MSc/MA qualification.<ref name="Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries">{{cite web|last=Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation|title=Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries|url=http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/|access-date=19 July 2013|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220114131/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Guidelines for the Recognition of Qualifications from the Other European Countries in the Russian Federation and of Russian Qualifications in the Other European Countries">{{cite web|last=Kouptsov|first=Oleg|title=Mutual Recognition of Qualifications: The Russian Federation and the Other European Countries|url=http://www.aic.lv/ace/tools/leg_aca/guid_rus.htm#_Toc17463769|work=Admissions Officers' and Credential Evaluators'. EAIE - European Association for International Education Professional Section|access-date=19 July 2013}}</ref> A specialist graduate needed no further academic qualification to pursue a professional career, with the exception of some (but not all) branches of medical professions that required a post-graduate [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] stage. Military college education lasted four years and was ranked as equivalent to ''specialist'' degree.

Historically, civilian tertiary education was divided between a minority of traditional wide curriculum [[University|universities]] and a larger number of narrow specialisation ''institutes'' (including art schools). Many of these institutes, such as the [[Moscow Engineering Physics Institute]], and the [[Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography]], are concentrated primarily in Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Institutes whose graduates are in wide demand throughout Russia, such as medical and teachers' institutes, are spread more evenly across the country. Institutes in geographically specific fields will tend to be situated in areas serving their specialties. Mining and metallurgy institutes are located in ore-rich territories, and maritime and fishing institutes are located in seaport communities.

Legal education in Russia exists both within universities and as standalone law institutes such as the [[Academic Law University]] (Russian: Академический правовой университет, АПУ) founded under the auspices of the [[Institute of State and Law]]. In the 1990s many technical institutes and new private schools created their own departments of law; as of 2008, law departments trained around 750 thousands students.<ref name=MEDVE/>
[[File:Факультет БИРХ МГУТУ имени К.Г. Разумовского (2).jpg|thumb|Students of the Moscow State University of Technology and Management]]
In the 1990s the institutes typically renamed themselves ''universities'', while retaining their historical narrow specialisation. More recently, a number of these new private 'universities' have been renamed back to 'institutes' to reflect their narrower specialization. In these institutes, the student's specialisation within a chosen department was fixed upon admission, and moving between different streams within the same department was difficult. Study programmes were (and still are) rigidly fixed for the whole term of study; the students have little choice in planning their academic progress. Mobility between institutions with compatible study programmes was allowed infrequently, usually due to family relocation from town to town.

===Move towards Bologna Process===
Russia is in the process of migrating from its traditional tertiary education model, incompatible with existing Western [[academic degree]]s, to a degree structure in line with the [[Bologna Process]] model. (Russia co-signed the Bologna Declaration in 2003.)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ria.ru/20030918/436076.html|title=18.09.2003 Россия присоединилась к Болонской конвенции|date=18 September 2003|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]}}</ref> In October 2007 Russia enacted a law that replaces the traditional five-year model of education with a two-tiered approach: a four-year [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]] ({{langx|ru|бакалавр}}) degree followed by a two-year [[master's degree|master's]] ({{langx|ru|магистр}}, ''magistr'') degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/25/10/2007/5703c98e9a79470eaf76788c#:~:text=%D0%92%20%D0%A0%D0%A4%20%D0%B2%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8F%20%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%83%D1%85%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F%20%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%20%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F,-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%20%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8%20%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80&text=%D0%9E%D0%B1%20%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82%20%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%2D%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B1%D0%B0,%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0%20%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2)%20%2D%20%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B9%20%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C.|title=25.10.2007 В РФ вводится двухуровневая система высшего образования|date=25 October 2007 |publisher=[[RBK Group|RBK]]}}</ref>

The move has been criticised for its merely formal approach: instead of reshaping their curriculum, universities would simply insert a BSc/BA accreditation in the middle of their standard five or six-year programmes. The job market is generally unaware of the change and critics predict that stand-alone BSc/BA diplomas will not be recognised as "real" university education in the foreseeable future, rendering the degree unnecessary and undesirable without further specialisation. Institutions like [[Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology|MFTI]] or [[Moscow Engineering Physics Institute|MIFI]] have practiced a two-tier breakdown of their ''specialist'' programmes for decades and switched to Bologna process designations well in advance of the 2007 law, but an absolute majority of their students complete all six years of MSc/MA curriculum, regarding BSc/BA stage as useless in real life.<ref name="GUR">{{cite web | url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/opinion/articles/2007/10/08/obrazovanie-katastrofa-ili-panaceya | title=Bolonsky prozess: katastrofa ili panacea(''Болонский процесс: Катастрофа или панацея'') | publisher=Vedomosti, October 20, 2007 | access-date=2008-10-08 | author=Guriyev, Sergey | year=2007 | language=ru | author-link1=Sergei Guriev}}</ref>

Student mobility among universities has been traditionally discouraged and thus kept at very low level; there are no signs that formal acceptance of the Bologna Process will help students seeking better education. Finally, while the five-year ''specialist'' training was previously free to all students, the new MSc/MA stage is not. The shift forces students to pay for what was free to the previous class; the cost is unavoidable because the BSc/BA degree alone is considered useless.<ref name=GUR/> Defenders of the Bologna Process argue that the final years of the ''specialist'' programme were formal and useless: academic schedules were relaxed and undemanding, allowing students to work elsewhere. Cutting the five-year ''specialist'' programme to a four-year BSc/BA will not decrease the actual academic content of most of these programmes.<ref name=GUR/>

==Post-graduate levels==
Postgraduate diploma structure so far retains its unique Soviet pattern established in 1934. The system makes a distinction between ''scientific degrees'', evidencing personal postgraduate achievement in scientific research, and related but separate ''academic titles'', evidencing personal achievement in university-level education.

There are two successive postgraduate ''degrees'': [[Candidate of Sciences]] (''Kandidat Nauk'') and [[Doctor of Sciences]] (''Doktor Nauk''). Both are a certificate of scientific, rather than academic, achievement, and must be backed up by original/novel scientific work, evidenced by publications in peer-reviewed journals and a dissertation defended in front of senior academic board. The titles are issued by [[Higher Attestation Commission]] of the Ministry of Education. A degree is always awarded in one of 23 predetermined fields of science, even if the underlying achievement belongs to different fields. Thus it is possible to defend two degrees of ''candidate'' independently, but not simultaneously; a ''doctor'' in one field may also be a ''candidate'' in a different field.

''Candidate of Sciences'' can be achieved within university environment (when the university is engaged in active research in the chosen field), specialised research facilities or within research and development units in industry. Typical ''Candidate of Sciences'' path from admission to diploma takes 2–4 years. The dissertation paper should contain a solution of an existing scientific problem, or a practical proposal with significant economical or military potential.<ref name=KAN/> The title is often perceived as equivalent to Western Ph.D., although this may vary depending on the field of study, and may not be seen as such outside of Russia but as a more significant degree.

''Doctor of Sciences'', the next stage, implies achieving significant scientific output. This title is often equated to the German or Scandinavian [[habilitation]]. The dissertation paper should summarize the author's research resulting in theoretical statements that are qualified as a new discovery, or solution of an existing problem, or a practical proposal with significant economical or military potential.<ref name=KAN>{{cite web | url=http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ru/docs/?id4=152&i4=24 | title=Rules for awarding scientific degrees | year=2002 | language=ru | publisher=Ministry of Education | access-date=2008-10-08 | archive-date=24 October 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024142544/http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ru/docs/?id4=152&i4=24 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The road from ''Candidate'' to ''Doctor'' typically takes 10 years of dedicated research activity; one in four candidates reaches this stage. The system implies that the applicants must work in their research field full-time; however, the degrees in social sciences are routinely awarded to active politicians.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,518754,00.html | title=The Russian Parliament's Intellectual Giants | author=Klussmann, Uwe | year=2007 | publisher=Der Spiegel, 21 November 2007 | access-date=2008-10-08 | newspaper=Spiegel Online }}</ref>

Academic ''titles'' of ''[[docent]]'' and ''professor'' are issued to active university staff who already achieved degrees of ''candidate'' or ''doctor''; the rules prescribe minimum residency term, authoring established study textbooks in their chosen field, and mentoring successful postgraduate trainees; special, less formal rules apply to professors of arts.<ref name=DOZ>{{cite web | url=http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ru/docs/?id4=153&i4=21 | title=Rules for awarding scientific titles | year=2002 | language=ru | publisher=Ministry of Education | access-date=2008-10-08 | archive-date=24 October 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024234407/http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ru/docs/?id4=153&i4=21 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

Military postgraduate education radically falls out of the standard scheme. It includes [[Military academies in Russia|military academy courses]] and [[Adjunctura in Russia|adjunctura]] ({{langx|ru|адъюнктура}}). Unlike their Western namesakes, Russian military academies are ''postgraduate'' institutions conducting the advance training career commissioned officer programmes. Passing the course of an academy does not result in an explicitly named degree and enables the graduate to proceed to a certain level of command (equivalent of [[battalion]] commander and above). Adjunctura is a military analogue of civilian [[graduate school]], which allow commissioned officers to get academic degree of [[candidate of sciences|candidate of military sciences]] and be appointed to teaching and scientific positions in military educational and [[Research institute|scientific research institutions]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Адъюнктура : Министерство обороны Российской Федерации|language=ru|url=http://ens.mil.ru/education/postgraduate.htm|access-date=8 March 2020|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302122526/http://ens.mil.ru/education/postgraduate.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Science outreach==
On 1 June 2021, the Federal Law of 5 April 2021 №85-FZ "On Amendments to the Federal Law 'About education in Russian Federation'"<ref>{{cite act|type=Federal Law|index=85-FZ|date=5 April 2021|legislature=[[State Duma]]|title=О внесении изменений в Федеральный закон "Об образовании в Российской Федерации"|language=ru|trans-title=On Amendments to the Federal Law "About education in Russian Federation"|url=http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?searchres=&bpas=cd00000&a3=102000505&a3type=1&a3value=&a6=&a6type=1&a6value=&a15=&a15type=1&a15value=&a7type=1&a7from=&a7to=&a7date=05.04.2021&a8=85-%D4%C7&a8type=1&a1=&a0=&a16=&a16type=1&a16value=&a17=&a17type=1&a17value=&a4=&a4type=1&a4value=&a23=&a23type=1&a23value=&textpres=&sort=7&x=67&y=13}}</ref> entered into force.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gordeev|first=Vladislav|date=1 June 2021|title=Закон о просветительской деятельности вступил в силу|language=ru|work=[[RBK Group|RBK]]|url=https://www.rbc.ru/politics/01/06/2021/60b4fc319a79475548f4f7af}}</ref> This law establishes the concept of the [[Science outreach|outreach activity]]: it is the activity, carrying out outside educational programs, which aims to dissemination of a knowledge and an experience, to formation of a skills, a values, and a competence, in order to intellectual, spiritual and moral, creative, physical, and (or) professional development of individual, and to meet educational needs of individual. The manner, conditions and implementation modalities of outreach activity and also the procedure for the control of such activity regulated by [[Government of Russia]]. Outreach activity can be carried out by public and local authorities and natural and juridical persons concluded a contracts with educational institutions in the order determined by [[Government of Russia]]. Although the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] and numerous cultural and educational societies opposed the bill,<ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=13 January 2021|title=В РАН призвали отозвать законопроект о контроле властей за просветительской деятельностью|language=ru|work=[[Vedomosti]]|url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/news/2021/01/13/853910-v-ran-prizvali-otozvat-zakonoproekt-o-kontrole-za-prosvetitelskoi-deyatelnostyu-razzhiganii-rozni}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=19 January 2021|title=Российские просветители выступили против закона о просветительской деятельности|language=ru|work=[[Colta.ru]]|url=https://www.colta.ru/news/26406-rossiyskie-prosvetiteli-vystupili-protiv-zakona-o-prosvetitelskoy-deyatelnosti}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Schiermeier|first=Quirin|date=12 February 2021|title=Russian academics decry law change that threatens scientific outreach|language=en|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00385-5|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-00385-5|pmid=33580221|s2cid=231909475|url-access=subscription}}</ref> it was adopted by the [[State Duma]], approved by the [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]] and signed by the [[President of Russia]] [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Bondarenko|first=Maria|date=5 April 2021|title=Путин подписал закон о просветительской деятельности|language=ru|work=[[RBK Group|RBK]]|url=https://www.rbc.ru/politics/05/04/2021/606b16f69a79476ab9a9c863}}</ref> 

According to scientists, science popularizers, educationalists, lawyers, this law, in fact, establishes the prior censorship of virtually every ways to share knowledge and conviction, contrary to the articles 19 and 29 of the [[Constitution of Russia]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Borisova|first=Alexandra|date=28 January 2021|title="Это форма предварительной цензуры": как поправки о просветительской деятельности отразятся на науке, бизнесе и обществе|language=ru|magazine=[[Forbes]]|url=https://www.forbes.ru/forbeslife/419721-eto-forma-predvaritelnoy-cenzury-kak-popravki-o-prosvetitelskoy-deyatelnosti}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bobenko|first1=Mayya|last2=Anisimova|first2=Natalia|last3=Poryvaeva|first3=Lyubov|date=16 March 2021|title=Какие претензии у ученых к новому закону о просветительской деятельности|language=ru|work=[[RBK Group|RBK]]|url=https://www.rbc.ru/society/16/03/2021/6050f2f19a79472d1a022044}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Pikhovkin|first=Alexander|date=27 April 2021|title=Запретительный порядок: как правительство собирается исполнять закон о просветительской деятельности|language=ru|magazine=[[Forbes]]|url=https://www.forbes.ru/obshchestvo/427933-zapretitelnyy-poryadok-kak-pravitelstvo-sobiraetsya-ispolnyat-zakon-o}}</ref> According to the authors, the law aims to shield Russian citizens against anti-Russian propaganda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://duma.gov.ru/news/50970/|date=16 March 2021|title=Каким будет новый закон о просветительской деятельности?|language=ru|publisher=[[State Duma]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date=1 June 2021|title=Russia Bans Unauthorized 'Foreign Influence' Educational Activities|language=en|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/06/01/russia-bans-unauthorized-foreign-influence-educational-activities-a74065}}</ref>

== Government propaganda ==
{{Further|Propaganda in Russia#Propaganda in education}}
On 21 May 2020, ''The Moscow Times'' reported that Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] made another effort to introduce "patriotic lessons" for Russian students.<ref>{{cite news|title=Putin Adds Patriotism, War History to School Curriculum|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/22/putin-adds-patriotism-war-history-to-school-curriculum-a70347|access-date=14 October 2023|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|publisher=Alexander Gubsky|date=22 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524012405/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/05/22/putin-adds-patriotism-war-history-to-school-curriculum-a70347|archive-date=24 May 2020|location=Amsterdam|language=en-us}}</ref> Following the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], the Russian government increased their efforts to introduce "patriotic education" into schools.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ilyushina|first1=Mary|title=Putin's war propaganda becomes 'patriotic' lessons in Russian schools|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/03/20/putin-russia-schools-ukraine|access-date=14 October 2023|newspaper=The Washington Post|publisher=Fred Ryan|date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327101413/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/03/20/putin-russia-schools-ukraine|archive-date=27 March 2022|location=Washington, D.C.|language=en-us}}</ref> Education Minister [[Sergey Kravtsov (politician)|Sergey Kravtsov]] is one of the architects of the ''[[Conversations about Important Things|Important Conversations]]'' lessons, which cover various topics from the Russian government's perspective, such as national identity, patriotism, traditional values and world events. The Associated Press reported that some parents were shocked by the [[militarism|militaristic]] nature of ''Important Conversations'' lessons, with some comparing them to the "patriotic education" of the former [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Litvinova|first1=Dasha|title=Russian students are returning to school, where they face new lessons to boost their patriotism|url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-school-ukraine-curriculum-war-history-putin-98b0110e32608c6652e8dfacd01d0b6a|work=AP News|publisher=Associated Press|date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902032349/https://apnews.com/article/russia-school-ukraine-curriculum-war-history-putin-98b0110e32608c6652e8dfacd01d0b6a|archive-date=2 September 2023|location=New York City|language=en-us}}</ref> Some Russian students and their parents have been investigated by the police, or threatened with expulsion, for refusing to attend the ''Important Conversations'' lessons.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Satanovskiy|first1=Sergey|title=Mandatory patriotism classes in Russian schools|url=https://www.dw.com/en/mandatory-patriotism-classes-in-russian-schools/a-63687952|work=DW News|publisher=Deutsche Welle|date=9 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110114042/https://www.dw.com/en/mandatory-patriotism-classes-in-russian-schools/a-63687952|archive-date=10 November 2022|location=Bonn|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Russian TV Airs Wartime 'Patriotism' Lessons for Schoolchildren|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/02/17/russian-tv-airs-wartime-patriotism-lessons-for-schoolchildren-a80253|work=The Moscow Times|publisher=Alexander Gubsky|date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314134533/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2023/02/17/russian-tv-airs-wartime-patriotism-lessons-for-schoolchildren-a80253|archive-date=14 March 2023|location=Amsterdam|language=en-us}}</ref> Putin hosted an inaugural lesson with selected students in the Russian exclave of [[Kaliningrad]], on 1 September 2022.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kotlyar|first1=Yevgenia|last2=Coalson|first2=Robert|title='It's Not Scary To Die For The Motherland': As War On Ukraine Rages, Russian Children Targeted For 'Patriotic' Education|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-schoolchildren-patriotic-education-ukraine-war/32016144.html|work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=2 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930150807/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-schoolchildren-patriotic-education-ukraine-war/32016144.html|archive-date=30 September 2022|location=Prague|language=en-us}}</ref>

== Education in languages of Russia ==

{| class="wikitable sortable" 
|-
! rowspan="2"| Language<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b03_33/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d010/i010620r.htm 4.17. Число общеобразовательных учреждений с обучением на языках народов и народностей России] (In Russian)</ref><ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b03_33/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d010/i010630r.htm 4.18. Число общеобразовательных учреждений, в которых родной (нерусский) язык изучается как предмет] (In Russian)</ref><ref>[http://www.coe.int/T/r/Human_rights/%5Brus_docs%5D/%5BRacism%5D/Doclad.asp Количество школ с обучением на языках народов и народностей России(на начало 1997/1998 учебного года)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806124347/http://www.coe.int/T/r/Human_rights/%5Brus_docs%5D/%5BRacism%5D/Doclad.asp|date=2011-08-06}} (In Russian)</ref> 
! colspan="6" class=unsortable| Number of schools with instruction in language 
! colspan="5" class=unsortable| The number of schools teaching the language as a subject !! class=unsortable| Population
|-
! 1995/96 !! 1997/98 !! 2000/01 !! 2001/02 !! 2002/03 !! 2013/14 !! 1995/96 !! 1997/98 !! 2000/01 !! 2001/02 !! 2002 / 03 !! 2002 (census)
|-
| [[Abaza language|Abaza]] || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0  || || 32 || || 31 || 32 || 35 || {{formatnum: 37942}}
|-
| [[Aghul language|Agul]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 24 |||| 0 || 0 || 0 || {{formatnum: 28297}}
|-
| [[Avar language|Avar]] || 584 || 592 || 497 || 589 || 537 || || 502 |||| 514 || 586 || 549 || {{formatnum: 814473}}
|-
| [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] || 31 || 36 || 35 || 37 || 20 || || 106 |||| 123 || 131 || 129 || {{formatnum: 128528}}
|-
| [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] || 5 || 7 || 6 || 6 || 6 || || 69 |||| 73 || 65 || 72 || {{formatnum: 621840}}
|-
| [[Altai language|Altai]] || 63 || 64 || 62 || 65 || 64 || || 106 |||| 115 || 121 || 128 || {{formatnum: 67239}}
|-
| [[Armenian language|Armenian]] || 2 || 6 || 7 || 3 || 7 || || 34 |||| 17 || 19 || 16 || {{formatnum:1130491}}
|-
| [[Balkar]] || 23 || 17 || 10 || 8 || 5 || || 68 |||| 78 || 88 || 89 || {{formatnum: 108426}}
|-
| [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]] || 892 || 906 || 884 || 886 || 911 || || 838 |||| 1222 || 1424 || 1426 || {{formatnum: 1673389}}
|-
| [[Buryat language|Buryat]] || 144 || 138 || 146 || 143 || 140 || || 298 |||| 347 || 338 || 344 || {{formatnum: 445175}}
|-
| [[Vepsian]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 3 |||| 4 || 5 || 5 || {{formatnum: 8240}}
|-
| [[Georgian language|Georgian]] || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || || 2 |||| 2 || 3 || 4 || {{formatnum: 197934}}
|-
| [[Dargwa language|Dargin]] || 233 || 233 || 186 || 188 || 187 || || 281 |||| 219 || 290 || 289 || {{formatnum: 510156}}
|-
| [[Dolgan language|Dolgan]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 12 |||| 13 || 13 || 13 || {{formatnum: 801}}
|-
| [[Hebrew]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 1 |||| 0 || 0 || 0 || {{formatnum: 229938}}
|-
| [[Yiddish]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 2 |||| 3 || 3 || 3 || {{formatnum: 229938}}
|-
| [[Ingush language|Ingush]] ||- ||- ||- ||- || 0 |||| 92 |||| 103 || 104 || 111 || {{formatnum: 413016}}
|-
| [[Itelmen language|Itelmen]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 2 |||| 3 || 2 || 2 || {{formatnum: 3180}}
|-
| [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] || 106 || 92 || 86 || 74 || 74 || || 179 |||| 188 || 208 || 219 || {{formatnum: 519958}}
|-
| [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || || 107 |||| 70 || 89 || 92 || {{formatnum: 653962}}
|-
| [[Kalmyk language|Kalmyk]] || 42 || 56 || 64 || 66 || 71 || || 220 |||| 204 || 196 || 200 || {{formatnum: 173996}}
|-
| [[Karachay language|Karachaevsky]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 105 |||| 110 || 107 || 111 || {{formatnum: 192182}}
|-
| [[Karelian language|Karelian]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 29 |||| 32 || 43 || 40 || {{formatnum: 93344}}
|-
| [[Ket language|Ket]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 6 |||| 6 || 8 || 5 || {{formatnum: 1494}}
|-
| [[Komi language|Komi]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 276 |||| 366 || 372 || 371 || {{formatnum: 293406}}
|-
| [[Komi-Perm language|Komi-Perm]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 82 |||| 81 || 77 || 67 || {{formatnum: 125235}}
|-
| [[Korean language|Korean]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 4 |||| 7 || 6 || 8 || {{formatnum: 148556}}
|-
| [[Koryak language|Koryak]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 20 |||| 25 || 21 || 15 || {{formatnum: 8743}}
|-
| [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]] || 72 || 91 || 75 || 73 || 71 || || 175 |||| 184 || 177 || 176 || {{formatnum: 422409}}
|-
| [[Lak language|Lak]] || 70 || 74 || 75 || 71 || 79 || || 105 |||| 107 || 102 || 106 || {{formatnum: 156545}}
|-
| [[Latvian language|Latvian]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || |||||| 2 || 2 || 3 || {{formatnum: 28520}}
|-
| [[Lezgin language|Lezgin]] || 148 || 122 || 149 || 137 || 148 || || 199 |||| 215 || 214 || 210 || {{formatnum: 411535}}
|-
| [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 1 |||| 7 || 6 || 2 || {{formatnum: 45569}}
|-
| [[Mansi language|Mansi]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 6 |||| 13 || 12 || 12 || {{formatnum: 11432}}
|-
| Mari ([[Hill Mari language|Mountain]]) || 41 || 43 || 39 || 33 || 20 || || 34 |||| 47 || 40 || 38 ||
|-
| Mari ([[Meadow Mari language|Meadow]]) || 298 || 283 || 276 || 259 || 258 || || 374 |||| 433 || 433 || 410 ||
|-
| Mordovia ([[Moksha language|Moksha]]) || 137 || 134 || 110 || 113 || 117 || || 137 |||| 118 || 127 || 121 ||
|-
| Mordovia ([[Mordvins|Erzya]]) || 101 || 95 || 96 || 97 || 83 || || 134 |||| 142 || 144 || 154 ||
|-
| [[Nanai language|Nanai]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 7 |||| 13 || 13 || 12 || {{formatnum: 12160}}
|-
| [[Nganasan language|Nganasan]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 3 |||| 0 || 0 || 0 || {{formatnum: 834}}
|-
| [[German language|German]] || 1 ||- || 4 || 4 || 0 || || 63 |||| 36 || 40 || 31 || {{formatnum: 597212}}
|-
| [[Nenets language|Nenets]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 34 |||| 36 || 39 || 35 || {{formatnum: 41302}}
|-
| [[Nivkh language|Nivkh]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 4 || 3 || 5 || {{formatnum: 5162}}
|-
| [[Modern Greek]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 4 || 2 || 2 || {{formatnum: 97827}}
|-
| [[Nogai language|Nogai]] || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 57 |||| 61 || 63 || 65 || {{formatnum: 90666}}
|-
| [[Ossetian language|Ossetia]] || 64 || 57 || 58 || 53 || 45 || || 202 |||| 160 || 199 || 197 || {{formatnum: 514875}}
|-
| [[Polish language|Polish]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 1 |||| 3 || 3 || 3 || {{formatnum: 73001}}
|-
| [[Rutul language|Rutulsky]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 17 |||| 20 || 18 || 17 || {{formatnum: 29929}}
|-
| [[Sami language|Sami]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 1 |||| 1 || 1 || 1 || {{formatnum: 1991}}
|-
| [[Selkup language|Selkup]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 5 || 6 || 5 || {{formatnum: 4249}}
|-
| [[Tabasaran language|Tabasaran]] || 71 || 69 || 70 || 57 || 71 || || 103 |||| 118 || 123 || 125 || {{formatnum: 131785}}
|-
| [[Tatar language|Tatar]] || 2374 || 2406 || 2280 || 2207 || 2166 || 757<ref>in [[Tatarstan]] [http://matbugat.ru/news/?id=8963 Ватаным Татарстан №216 18.12.2013] (In Tatar)</ref>|| 2185 |||| 2400 || 2524 || 2469 || {{formatnum: 5554601}}
|-
| [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 2 || 3 || 1 || {{formatnum: 2303}}
|-
| [[Tofalar language|Tofalar]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 3 |||| 2 || 2 || 3 || {{formatnum: 837}}
|-
| [[Tuvan language|Tuva]] || 150 || 151 || 152 || 151 || 153 || || 129 |||| 140 || 142 || 147 || {{formatnum: 243442}}
|-
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]] || 3 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 2 |||| 4 || 10 || 3 || {{formatnum: 92415}}
|-
| [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 8 |||| 8 || 7 || 5 || {{formatnum: 33053}}
|-
| [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] || 56 || 55 || 48 || 44 || 44 || || 469 |||| 431 || 464 || 452 || {{formatnum: 636906}}
|-
| [[Ukrainian Language|Ukrainian]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 8 || 4 || 5 || {{formatnum: 2942961}}
|-
| [[Finnish language|Finnish]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 63 |||| 69 || 62 || 66 || {{formatnum: 34050}}
|-
| [[Khakas language|Khakassia]] || 17 || 18 || 10 || 10 || 12 || || 96 |||| 96 || 88 || 93 || {{formatnum: 75622}}
|-
| [[Khanty language|Khanty]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 18 |||| 33 || 33 || 34 || {{formatnum: 28678}}
|-
| [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 12 |||| 0 || 0 || 0 || {{formatnum: 10366}}
|-
| [[Circassian language|Circassian]] || 8 || 7 || 7 || 8 || 7 || || 41 |||| 43 || 41 || 43 || {{formatnum: 60517}}
|-
| [[Chechen Language|Chechen]] || 20 || 23 || 21 || 18 || 19 || || 52 |||| 53 || 472 || 482 || {{formatnum: 1360253}}
|-
| [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] || 628 || 602 || 592 || 593 || 571 || || 404 |||| 439 || 429 || 451 || {{formatnum: 1637094}}
|-
| [[Chukchi language|Chukotka]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 34 |||| 39 || 35 || 35 || {{formatnum: 15767}}
|-
| [[Shor language|Shor]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 5 |||| 0 || 0 || 0 || {{formatnum: 13975}}
|-
| [[Evenk language|Evenk]] || 1 ||- || 6 ||- || 0 || || 40 |||| 43 || 44 || 31 || {{formatnum: 35527}}
|-
| [[Even language|Even]] || 3 || 2 || 2 || 2 || 0 || || 21 |||| 18 || 26 || 38 || {{formatnum: 19071}}
|-
| [[Eskimo language|Eskimo]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 4 |||| 4 || 3 || 4 || {{formatnum: 1750}}
|-
| [[Estonian language|Estonian]] || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || ||- |||| 1 || 1 || 1 || {{formatnum: 28113}}
|-
| [[Yukaghir languages|Yukaghir]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || || 2 |||| 2 || 2 || 2 || {{formatnum: 1509}}
|-
| [[Yakut language|Yakut]] || 430 || 419 || 426 || 441 || 445 || || 75 |||| 99 || 98 || 94 || {{formatnum: 443852}}
|-
! All!! 6826!! 6803!! 6482!! 6439!! 6334!! !! 8841!! !! 9619!! {{Formatnum: 10608}}!! {{Formatnum: 10532}}!! {{Formatnum: 24809544}}
|}
In December 2024, Russian State Duma accepted the law project, according to which schools will not accept foreign citizens who did not pass Russian language exam.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-11 |title=Детей мигрантов не будут принимать в школы без знания русского языка |url=http://duma.gov.ru/news/60547/ |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=Государственная Дума |language=ru}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Russia|Education}}
* [[List of universities in Russia]]
* [[Open access in Russia]]
* [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records]]
* [[List of Russian scientists]]
* [[Education in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Education in Bashkortostan]]
{{Clear}}

==Notes==
* {{cite web | url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/educgeneral/OOSC_EN_WEB_FINAL.pdf | title=Children out of school. Measuring exclusion from primary education | publisher=Montreal: UNESCO Institute of Statistics | year=2005 | access-date=2008-10-08 }}
* {{cite web | url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001547/154743e.pdf | title=Education for all by 2015: Will we make it? | publisher=UNESCO, Oxford University Press | year=2007 | access-date=2008-10-08 }}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/wei/2007/WEI2007report.pdf | title=Education counts: Benchmarking process in 19 WEI countries. World economic indicators - 2007 | year=2007 | publisher=Montreal: UNESCO Institute of Statistics | access-date=2008-10-08 }}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.unevoc.net/fileadmin/user_upload/pubs/UNEVOC_UIS_Report.pdf | title=Participation in formal technical and vocational training and education worldwide. An initial statistical study | publisher=UNESCO International center for technical and vocational education and training (UNEVOC) | year=2006 | access-date=2008-10-08 }}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/Teachers2006/TeachersReport.pdf | title=Teachers and educational quality: Monitoring global needs for 2015 | year=2006 | publisher=Montreal: UNESCO Institute of Statistics | access-date=2008-10-08 }}

==Further reading==
* 'Communism, Post-Communism, and Moral Education', Special Issue, ''The Journal of Moral Education,'' Vol. 34, No. 4, December, 2005, {{ISSN|0305-7240}} (print) {{ISSN|1465-3877}} (online). Guest Editor, W. John Morgan.   
* {{cite book | author=Andreeva, L. V. | title=Education of disabled people in the context of UNESCO EFA programme: experience of Russia | year=2007 | publisher=Saint Petersburg: Herzen University publishing house | isbn=978-5-8064-1149-6 |display-authors=etal}} see also: [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090319085501/http://www.unesco.ru/files/docs/educ/2007/publications/efa/Andreeva_2007_efa.pdf Russian version]
* Johnson, David, ed., ''Politics, Modernisation and Educational Reform in Russia: From Past to Present'' (2010)
* 'Russian Higher Education and the Post-Soviet Transition', Special Issue, ''European Journal of Education'', Vol. 47, No. 1, March, 2012, ISSN 0141-8211, Guest Editors, W. John Morgan and Grigori A. Kliucharev. 
* Morgan, W. John, Trofimova, Irina, and Kliucharev, Grigori A., ''Civil Society, Social Change, and a New Popular Education in Russia'', Routledge, London and New York, 2019, xiv and 188p. {{ISBN|978-0-415-70913-2}}.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/*/http://eng.mon.gov.ru/ The ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130719062728/http://eduof.ru/medialibrary/default.asp?ob_no=130574 The data base of the Russian Scientific Electronic Library: The numbers of citations of scientists of the Russian Federation under the heading "Education. Pedagogy "(just under this section in the database of the Russian citation index - 11,000 Russian scientists in the field of educational sciences). Date: May, 5, 2013]
* [http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Russian_Federation.pdf World Data on Education:Russia, UNESCO-IBE(2012)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127012724/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Russian_Federation.pdf |date=27 November 2020 }} - Overview of the Russian education system
* [http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct=RUS TVET in Russian Federation, UNESCO-UNEVOC(2012)] - Overview of the technical and vocational Russian educational system
* [http://www.education-worldwide.de/Education-in-Russia-7001_e.html?&seite=7001 Education in Russia], webdossier by Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education Server
* [https://eduinrus.ru/ Russian Education Centre] is a legally authorized representative working under the Aegis of the Ministry of Education and Science and the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation
* [https://www.edurussian.com/ Education in Russia for foreigners] legal representative working under the letters of authorization from Russian universities

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Russia topics}}
{{Education in Europe}}
{{World topic|Education in|noredlinks=yes}}
{{Education in Asia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Education In Russia}}
[[Category:Education in Russia| ]]