View source for Education in Mali

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[[File:Lycéens kati.jpg|thumb|354x354px|A school in [[Kati]], [[Mali]].|alt=Image of schooling in Kati, Mali]]'''Education in [[Mali]]''' is considered a fundamental right of Malians.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/delivering-education-all-mali-report|title=Delivering Education For All in Mali (Report) {{!}} Oxfam International|website=www.oxfam.org|date=14 July 2014 |access-date=2019-10-21}}</ref> For most of Mali's history, the government split primary education into two cycles which allowed Malian students to take examinations to gain admission to secondary, tertiary, or higher education.<ref name=":9" /> Mali has recently seen large increases in school enrollment due to educational reforms.<ref name=":9" />

Mali has a long history about education, dating back to the years before 1960, when Mali was under the rule of [[France]].<ref name=":42" /> After gaining independence, the Malian government made many efforts to incorporate more [[Africa|African]] and bilingual education into classrooms.<ref name=":16" /> Additionally, after the 1990s, when the Malian government shifted from a one party system to a democracy, the government created policies which focused on [[literacy]] and educational quality.<ref name=":19" />

In addition to primary public and private schools, other types of schools in Mali include vocational and technical institutions, religious schools, community schools, and schools for those with disabilities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Education and Empowered Citizenship in Mali|last=Bleck|first=Jaimie|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781421417820|location=Baltimore|pages=71–99|oclc=918941428}}</ref> Especially since [[Islam]] is the main religion in Mali, [[Madrasa|madrassas]] and medersas are two Islamic institutions which many Malians attend.<ref name=":6" /> Additionally, community schools have become increasingly popular in this country since they are usually more accessible, especially to rural students, and allow students to engage with their communities.<ref name=":3" /> In recent years, many communities have created initiatives to incorporate deaf and disabled students into classrooms.<ref name=":10" />

With approximately half of Malians ages 15-24 illiterate, literacy has been an issue of concern for the Malian government.<ref name=":0" /> National programs to address this issue focus on first giving students the knowledge they need to read and write.<ref name=":21" /> Afterwards, communities and foreign countries try to incorporate [[post literacy]] and integrated literacy into educational programs to allow students to utilize their new skills to help the economy and community.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> One famous example of a literacy project Mali took part in is the Experimental World Literacy Program.<ref name=":2" />

The differences between [[French language|French]], Mali's national language, and local languages have caused many problems in education.<ref name=":21" /> Access, geographic location, gender bias, and the quality of education are also issues that many Malians face.<ref name=":8" /> Food, nutrition, disease, disability, and educational inefficiencies contribute to some of the problems with education in this country.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":15" /> Nevertheless, there have been many domestic and foreign initiatives to confront some of these issues.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":14" /> Additionally, foreign policies, such as those in the United States and France, and community initiatives, such as the mobilization of animatrices, have developed Malian education.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":32" />

== History ==

=== Education during French colonial rule ===
During the French colonization of West Africa, the French Navy constructed some of the first schools in Mali.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Obichere|first=Boniface I.|date=1976|title=Politicians and Educational Reform in French-Speaking West-Africa: A Comparative Study of Mali and Ivory Coast|journal=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria|volume=8|issue=3|pages=55–68|issn=0018-2540|jstor=41971250}}</ref> In 1877, the French introduced the first public schools to Mali which were collectively known as the Schools of Hostages, a name inspired by the tensions between the French and indigenous chiefs.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|url=https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/942/Mali-HISTORY-BACKGROUND.html|title=Mali - History Background|website=education.stateuniversity.com|language=en|access-date=2019-10-20}}</ref> However, by 1899, these public schools were renamed to the Schools for Sons of Chiefs, or Les Ecoles des Fils des Chefs, as a part of a larger French effort to cooperate with the indigenous population.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":42" /> [[Joseph Gallieni]] and [[Louis Archinard]] are two individuals who contributed to the opening of some of these first schools during the 19th century.<ref name=":32" />

During the French rule of Mali, the education was mainly geared towards teaching information about France and the French language rather than Malian traditions.<ref name=":42" /> Many historians and authors, such as Charles Cutter, believe that Malians did not enjoy many rights during this era and faced an identity crisis while assimilating to French culture.<ref name=":42" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cutter|first=Charles H.|date=1966|title=Mali: A Bibliographical Introduction|journal=African Studies Bulletin|volume=9|issue=3|pages=74–87|doi=10.2307/523253|jstor=523253}}</ref> To avoid this crisis, Malians relied on maintaining oral traditions.<ref name=":5" /> Additionally, many Malians sent their children to traditional and Islamic schools in an effort to have their children learn more about the cultural traditions of Mali.<ref name=":42" /> For example, in [[Kayes]], after the first French schools opened up, ethnic groups decided to send their children to madrassas and medersas, or private Islamic schools taught in [[Arabic]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Education and Empowered Citizenship in Mali|last=Bleck|first=Jaimie|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781421417820|location=Baltimore|pages=24–55|oclc=918941428}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=Dianna|date=2015|title=Choosing Medersa: Discourses on Secular versus Islamic Education in Mali, West Africa|journal=Africa Today|volume=61|issue=3|pages=45–63|doi=10.2979/africatoday.61.3.45|jstor=10.2979/africatoday.61.3.45|s2cid=141894424}}</ref> These ethnic groups, along with many others in Mali, believed that sending children to these schools was a way to make a political and religious statement, acquire merit, and create an African-Muslim identity.<ref name=":6" /> In 1906, the French created their own version of medersas in [[Djenné]] and [[Timbuktu]] in the French language, which allowed students to pursue career opportunities within the French administration.<ref name=":6" />

The French passed the Ordinance of November 24th, 1903 which developed public education in French West Africa.<ref name=":32" /> This was part of a larger effort to create more primary and regional schools.<ref name=":42" /> Specifically, this ordinance developed more schools at various levels ranging from the local level to the secondary and vocational levels.<ref name=":32" /> Additionally, it allowed teachers to gain more experience and training.<ref name=":32" /> Although this ordinance made major breakthroughs in the development of schools, historians such as Boniface Obichere cite it as being discriminatory against native Malians.<ref name=":32" />   

=== Education post-independence ===
[[File:Soumaré et modibo Keita 1963.jpg|thumb|357x357px|Modibo Keita in 1963|alt=Picture of Modibo Keita in 1963]]
In 1960, Mali gained independence from France.<ref name=":42" /> Immediately following independence, only about a tenth of Malians were literate and attending school.<ref name=":42" /> During this time period, many West African politicians were a part of the [[Rassemblement Démocratique Africain]], which was a political group that partially focused on developing educational and literacy opportunities in West African communities.<ref name=":32" /> In fact, [[Modibo Keïta]], the first President of Mali, used this ideology along with his socialist philosophy to develop a new educational system in 1962.<ref name=":32" /> This system focused on tooling Malians with skills to contribute to the nation's economy.<ref name=":32" /> Additionally, it split up the educational structure into two ministries.<ref name=":32" /> Specifically, the Ministry of Basic Education, Youth and Sports oversaw primary education whereas the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education and Scientific Research was put in charge of education higher than the primary level.<ref name=":32" />

In 1980, when Mali was governed under a dictatorship, literacy percentages fell to levels as low as 13.6% for adults and 25.6% for Malians ages 15 to 24.<ref name=":42" /> However, a democratic movement in the 1990s resulted in the government making education more accessible by lowering educational fees and increasing the production of schools.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Education and Empowered Citizenship in Mali|last=Bleck|first=Jaimie|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2015|isbn=9781421417820|location=Baltimore|pages=1–23|oclc=918941428}}</ref> By 2000, those same literacy percentages increased by 26.7% and 38.7% respectively.<ref name=":42" /> Additionally, by 1999, the government officially recognized bilingual education since most families spoke in one of fifty-six local languages.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Nyst|first=Victoria|date=2015|title=The Sign Language Situation in Mali|journal=Sign Language Studies|volume=15|issue=2|pages=126–150|issn=0302-1475|jstor=26190976}}</ref> Nevertheless, as mentioned in a study by [[Jaimie Bleck]] on the Malian capital of [[Bamako]], this liberalization of education led to the crowding of students in public schools and a shift in interest towards private schools.<ref name=":7" /> For example, some sections of Bamako have over 40% of students enrolled in private schools.<ref name=":4" />

== Educational structure ==

=== Cycles of schooling ===
In the 1980s, Malian education followed a two cycle system.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Hough|first=J. R.|date=1989|title=Inefficiency in Education-The Case of Mali|journal=Comparative Education|volume=25|issue=1|pages=77–85|issn=0305-0068|jstor=3099004|doi=10.1080/0305006890250108}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHp6CAAAQBAJ&q=Mali&pg=PT246|title=Education in West Africa|last1=Takyi-Amoako|first1=Emefa|last2=Diarra|first2=Mohamed Chérif|date=2015-05-21|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=9781441177858|pages=Ch. 18|language=en}}</ref> During the first cycle, children began their education in state schools at the age of seven or eight for six years before taking the CEP Exam which stands for the Certificate de Fin d'Etudes du Premier Cycle in French.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> Many students found the first cycle to be difficult, especially because Malian schools were primarily in French, a language that most Malians, especially those that lived in rural areas, had little experience with.<ref name=":8" /> Thus, 1 in 6 students in the first cycle opted to attend medersas.<ref name=":8" /> Afterwards, a student who successfully completed the second cycle of education, which took three years, was eligible to take an examination known as the Diploma in Basic Education also known as the Diplôme d'Etudes Fondamentales.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> After 2012, the government merged these two cycles into one,  but the examinations that the students had to take stayed in place.<ref name=":9" /> Currently, children ages 7 to 15 are required to attend school, which lasts from October to June every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/ml|title=Mali|date=2016-11-27|website=uis.unesco.org|access-date=2019-11-19}}</ref>   

=== Government hierarchy ===
[[File:Minister of higher education of Mali.jpg|thumb|346x346px|Minister of Higher Education of Mali|alt=Picture of Minister of Higher Education of Mali]]
The Malian education system is hierarchical in governance.<ref name=":9" /> The National Minister and the National Directorate of Higher Education are both in charge of public universities at the national level.<ref name=":9" /> The AE which stands for the Académies d'Enseignement heads regional education.<ref name=":9" /> Additionally, the CAP or Centres for Pedagogical Activities is responsible for local education.<ref name=":9" />

Public education is directed and funded from the national level.<ref name="ministry">[http://www.education.gov.ml/ Ministry of Education] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204045526/http://www.education.gov.ml/|date=2009-02-04}}. Retrieved 2009-02-10</ref> The Ministry has two Ministerial level officers, each heading one independent arm of the Ministry.<ref name="ministry" /> The ''Ministre de L’Education de Base, de L’Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales'' (Ministry of Basic Education, Literacy, and National Languages) is responsible for Primary education, literacy programs outside the schools, and the promotion and standardization of "National Languages", such as Bambara and Tamcheq, other than the official language, French.<ref name="ministry" />

The ''Ministre des Enseignements Secondaire, supérieur et de la Recherche scientifique'' (Ministry of Secondary and Superior Education, and Scientific Research) is tasked with government Secondary schools, university, and an array of vocational, technical, and research centres.<ref name="ministry" /> As of 2008, the Minister of Basic Education, Literacy, and National Languages was [[Sidibé Aminata Diallo|Sidibe Aminata Diallo]]<ref>[http://www.education.gov.ml/spip.php?rubrique1 Ministre de L’Education de Base, de L’Alphabétisation et des Langues Nationales] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081230232434/http://www.education.gov.ml/spip.php?rubrique1|date=2008-12-30}}.Retrieved 2009-02-10</ref> and the Minister of Secondary and Superior Education, and Scientific Research was [[Ahmadou Touré|Amadou Toure]].<ref>[http://www.education.gov.ml/spip.php?rubrique21 Ministre des Enseignements Secondaire, supérieur et de la Recherche scientifique] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312022039/http://www.education.gov.ml/spip.php?rubrique21|date=2009-03-12}}.Retrieved 2009-02-10</ref>

=== Primary schools ===
{{See also|List of schools in Mali}}

==== Public schools ====
The Malian Ministry of Education is responsible for managing public schools in Mali.<ref name=":3" /> These secular schools are taught in Mali's national language, French.<ref name=":3" /> Many parents often pay fees for their children to attend these schools which is considered illegal according to Malian law.<ref name=":3" /> Additionally, teachers are kept under a contract which limits the amount of training these educators have access to prior to beginning teaching.<ref name=":3" /> This leads to frequent strikes, a shortage of teachers, and large class sizes.<ref name=":3" />

==== Private schools ====
Compared to their public counterparts, private schools in Mali are more expensive to attend.<ref name=":3" /> These extra resources paired with lower amounts of government regulation allow these institutions to have smaller class sizes.<ref name=":3" /> They also give students employment connections after graduation.<ref name=":3" /> Like public schools, these institutions are also mainly taught in French, but they can be secular or religious.<ref name=":3" /> Mali has many private Christian schools which are mainly managed by the [[Catholic Church|Catholic church]].<ref name=":3" />

=== Secondary, tertiary, and higher education ===
{{See also|List of universities in Mali}}
After primary education, students can choose to continue upon their academic track and attend a lycée for three years which ends with an exam called the [[Baccalauréat|Baccalaureat]].<ref name=":9" /> Doing well on this examination can help students gain admission to universities for higher and tertiary education.<ref name=":9" /> Conversely, Malian students can take a more pre-professional track and opt to attend a two or four year vocational program to obtain a technical degree.<ref name=":9" /> These forms of education have generally diversified over the past few years, since many students are now literate in many different languages such as Arabic, French, [[Latin]], and local languages.<ref name=":6" /> One famous example of a long lasting secondary school in Mali is the Higher Technical School.<ref name=":42" />

Increased spending on primary education, especially for children in rural areas and girls, has had the unintended effect of overtaxing the secondary school system.  At the end of their primary schooling, students may take entrance exams for secondary school admissions, called the ''diplôme d’étude fondamentale'' (Fundamental Studies Diploma or DEF).  In 2008 more than 80,000 students passed these exams, yet around 17,000—40% of whom were girls—were denied placement in secondary schools.<ref name="irin0209">[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=82801 MALI: Students left behind in race for education MDG].  IRIN/United Nations.  6 February 2009.</ref>   While the government contends these students should be placed in limited places based on their diploma, their age, and their academic history, some Malians contend that gender discrimination plays a role in denying spots to girls.<ref name="irin0209" />

Students in Mali pay no tuition fees, but private secondary and vocational schooling may charge $600 a year (in Bamako, 2008), in a nation where the average yearly salary was $500 in 2007 according to the [[World Bank]].<ref name="irin0209" />

One of the oldest universities in the world — [[Sankore Madrasah|Sankore]] in Timbuktu — dates back to the 15th century.[[File:Timbuktu Mosque Sankore.jpg|thumb|279x279px|Sankore in Timbuktu, Mali|alt=Picture of Sankore in Timbuktu, Mali]]
The [[University of Bamako]], also known as the University of Mali, is a 1990s aggregation of older institutions of higher education in the Bamako area. Its main campus is in the neighborhood of Badalabougou. 

The University includes five Faculties and two institutes: 

* The Science and Technology faculty (Faculté des sciences et techniques or FAST),
* The Medical faculty (Faculté de Médecine, de Pharmacie et d’Odento-Stamologie or FMPOS),
* The Humanities, Arts, and Social Science faculty (Faculté des Lettres, Langues, Arts et Sciences Humaines or FLASH),
* The Law and Public Service faculty (Faculté des Sciences Juridiques et Politiques FSJP),
* The Science of Economy and Management Faculty ("Faculté des Sciences Economiques et de Gestion" or FSEG,
* The Institute of Management ( "Institut Universitaire de Management" or IUG),
* The Higher Institute for Training and Applied Research ("Institut Supérieur de Formation et de Recherche Appliquée" or ISFRA).<ref>[http://www.ml.refer.org/u-bamako/index.php University of Bamako] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129172642/http://www.ml.refer.org/u-bamako/index.php|date=2009-01-29}}. retrieved 2009-02-10.</ref>

=== Islamic education ===
Islamic education began in the Malian religion as early as the 16th century, when Timbuktu had 150 Qur'anic schools.<ref name=":4" /> Many Malians, especially those who reside in Bamako, [[Sikasso]], and Kayes, attend madrassas, which are private Islamic schools that are mainly taught in Arabic for primary education.<ref name=":3" /> These institutions also teach French, as required by the Malian law, and receive international aid from regions such as the US and Europe.<ref name=":3" /> Similarly, many Malians attend informal Qur'anic schools which teach students how to read Arabic through using local languages.<ref name=":3" /> These schools do not receive government aid.<ref name=":3" /> A medersa also helps students learn how to recite the Qur'an, but additionally provides students with an education about western issues, Islamic, European, and French history, mathematics, and Arabic.<ref name=":6" />

=== Community education ===
In the 1990s, the [[USAID]], or United States Agency for International Development, created a community school program mainly for primary education in Mali.<ref name=":3" /> These institutions are not for profit and are primarily overseen by community leaders.<ref name=":3" /> Community schools are taught in either French or local languages and provide students with technical, vocational, and literacy courses.<ref name=":7" /> These schools are generally flexible and cater to the needs of a community.<ref name=":3" /> Parents typically pay for their children to attend these institutions through community resources.<ref name=":3" /> Nevertheless, community schools have increased the rate of primary education in places which are known for having low enrollment rates, such as Sikasso.<ref name=":4" />
=== Education for the deaf ===
Due to the large population of the deaf community in Mali, the Malian government created initiatives to address educational opportunities for deaf students.<ref name=":10" /> In 1993, Bala Keita created the EDA or École pour les défients auditifs in Bamako which provides special education to deaf Malians.<ref name=":10" /> In the past three decades, Sikasso, [[Koutiala]], [[Ségou]], and [[Douentza]] saw an increase in schools for the deaf due to figures such as Dramane Diabaté and Dominique Pinsonneault.<ref name=":10" /> One example of a school for the deaf is Jigiya Kalanso.<ref name=":10" />

=== Vocational and technical education ===
After primary school, Malians can optionally attend vocational and technical schools which provide pre-professional certificates and education.<ref name=":32" /> A few examples of vocational and technical schools include the National School for Engineers, Lycée Technique, Lycée Agricole de Katibougou, the Agricultural Apprenticeship Centers at [[M'Pessoba]] and Samanko, and the School for Veterinarians in Bamako.
<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":42" />

==Literacy==
Literacy initiatives in Mali occur in three stages: learning to read and write, post literacy, and integrating literacy into life activities.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last1=Ouane|first1=Adama|last2=Amon-Tanoh|first2=Yvette|date=December 1990|title=Literacy in French-Speaking Africa: A Situational Analysis|journal=African Studies Review|volume=33|issue=3|pages=21|doi=10.2307/524184|jstor=524184|s2cid=146237101 }}</ref> According to the [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]], or UNESCO, 35.47% of Malians that are 15 years or older are able to read and write as of 2018.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/country/ML|title=Mali|date=2016-11-27|website=uis.unesco.org|access-date=2019-10-08}}</ref> Specifically, the 2018 literacy rates for Malians ages 15-24 and 65 years and older were 50.13% and 19.08%, respectively.<ref name=":0" /> For each of these three groups, the percentage of the male population that was literate was higher than the percentage of the female population that was literate.<ref name=":0" /> Although the government implemented literacy programs immediately after Mali gained independence, these initiatives became much more prominent during the democratic movements of the 1990s.<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Gadio|first=Moussa|date=June 2011|title=Policy Review on Adult Learning: The Adult Non-formal Education Policy of Mali, West Africa|journal=Adult Learning|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=20–24|doi=10.1177/104515951102200303|issn=1045-1595|doi-access=free}}</ref> Literacy programs currently have a large presence in rural communities.<ref name=":21" />

=== Post literacy ===
[[File:MC, Radio, information, education - UNESCO - PHOTO0000003507 0001.tiff|thumb|357x357px|Broadcast of UNESCO Functional Literacy Program|alt=UNESCO Function Literacy Program Image]]
Post literacy is defined as the process of helping neo-literates utilize their new knowledge and skills to develop the community and environment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Cisse|first=Seydou|date=2001|title=Post Literacy in Mali|url=https://www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/ausgaben/number-57/basic-education-in-practice/post-literacy-in-mali/|journal=Journal AED - Adult Education and Development|volume=51|access-date=2019-10-23|archive-date=2022-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213185213/https://www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/ausgaben/number-57/basic-education-in-practice/post-literacy-in-mali|url-status=dead}}</ref> Post literacy efforts in Mali revolve around the idea of functional literacy which focuses on making practical applications of new literacy skills.<ref name=":1" /> Functional literacy allows Malians to use their skills for community and national development.<ref name=":21" /> Institutions such as the [[Direction Nationale de l'Alphabétisation Fonctionelle et de la Linguistique Appliquée|National Directorate of Functional Literacy and Applied Linguistics]] have been major proponents of providing adequate avenues for Malian neo-literates to practice their new skills.<ref name=":1" /> For example, in one specific campaign for neo-literates in the 1990s, the number of neo-literates doubled to 60,282 in a four year span.<ref name=":1" />

A few examples of resources the National Directorate of Functional Literacy and Applied Linguistics, or DNAFLA, distributes are newspapers, educational booklets, paperbacks, and educational radio broadcasts and films.<ref name=":1" /> The DNAFLA diversified their education after beginning the Further Education for Neo-literates program in 1977 which allowed local Malians to develop action plans for post-literacy education.<ref name=":1" /> Two examples of trainings that the DNAFLA now offers are education in agriculture and health care.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, many post literacy institutions stress the importance of neo-literates using their skills to make a community impact.<ref name=":1" />

=== Integrated literacy ===
Integrated literacy involves pairing literacy efforts with economic development.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Turrittin|first=Jane|date=February 1989|title=Integrated Literacy in Mali|journal=Comparative Education Review|volume=33|pages=59–76|doi=10.1086/446812|s2cid=143699761}}</ref> Mali took part in UNESCO's Experimental World Literacy Program from 1965 to 1975 which involved integrated literacy programs.<ref name=":2" /> This was part of a larger effort to incorporate educational reform into government policy.<ref name=":2" /> This initiative transformed classrooms into a source of learning about the various economic spheres of Mali and also allowed students to pursue their entrepreneurial goals.<ref name=":2" /> According to a study about integrated literacy in rural Mali, developments in integrated literacy for [[Bambara language|Bambara]] speakers led to economic growth in Mali.<ref name=":2" />

== Barriers ==
[[Amadou Sanogo]], the leader of the 2012 coup d'état, citied the Malian education system as one of the reasons for his dissatisfaction with the Malian government.<ref name=":6" /> Examples of problems with this education system include differences in vocabulary, an inability to access education, gender differences, and inefficiencies in education.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Gelli|first1=Aulo|last2=Masset|first2=Edoardo|last3=Diallo|first3=Amadou Sekou|last4=Assima|first4=Amidou|last5=Hombrados|first5=Jorge|last6=Watkins|first6=Kristie|last7=Drake|first7=Lesley|date=2014-11-01|title=Agriculture, nutrition and education: On the status and determinants of primary schooling in rural Mali before the crises of 2012|journal=International Journal of Educational Development|volume=39|pages=205–215|doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.07.003|issn=0738-0593|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondaccesstran00aikmrich|quote=Mali.|title=Beyond Access: Transforming Policy and Practice for Gender Equality in Education|last1=Aikman|first1=Sheila|last2=Unterhalter|first2=Elaine|date=2005|publisher=Oxfam|isbn=9780855985295|pages=[https://archive.org/details/beyondaccesstran00aikmrich/page/181 181]–195|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Puchner|first=Laurel|date=2001|title=Researching Women's Literacy in Mali: A Case Study of Dialogue among Researchers, Practitioners, and Policy Makers|journal=Comparative Education Review|language=en|volume=45|issue=2|pages=242–256|doi=10.1086/447663|s2cid=141820908|issn=0010-4086}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Puchner|first=L.|date=2003-07-01|title=Women and literacy in rural Mali: a study of the socio-economic impact of participating in literacy programs in four villages|journal=International Journal of Educational Development|volume=23|issue=4|pages=439–458|doi=10.1016/S0738-0593(03)00015-4|issn=0738-0593}}</ref> A few causes of these problems are geographic location, food and disease, and the poor quality of teaching.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/mali/fact-sheets/mali-education-program-overview|title=Education Program Overview {{!}} Fact Sheet {{!}} Mali|date=2019-02-13|website=[[USAID]]|language=en|access-date=2019-10-21|archive-date=2022-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617113512/https://www.usaid.gov/mali/fact-sheets/mali-education-program-overview|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Thuilliez|first1=Josselin|last2=d'Albis|first2=Hippolyte|last3=Niangaly|first3=Hamidou|last4=Doumbo|first4=Ogobara|date=2017-08-01|title=Malaria and Education: Evidence from Mali|url=https://academic.oup.com/jae/article/26/4/443/3003166|journal=Journal of African Economies|language=en|volume=26|issue=4|pages=443–469|doi=10.1093/jae/ejx004|issn=0963-8024|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Language barriers ===
When Mali became independent from France, only 7% of Malians were literate in French.<ref name=":4" /> A study by J.R. Hough revealed that the French language is a barrier to education in Mali since many people have not been exposed to this language, and most Malians speak local languages.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":8" /> Neo-literates often have a difficult time utilizing their new skills since most publications and resources are in French.<ref name=":21" /> Although Mali's first President, Modibo Keita, tried to utilize local languages, the government was still predominantly run in French.<ref name=":4" />
=== Access and regional differences ===
With gross primary enrollment and gross higher education enrollment increasing by factors of 2.75 and 16.7 respectively in two decades, Mali faces a severe shortage of teachers.<ref name=":9" /> In addition to logistical issues, political issues have negatively affected educational enrollment rates.<ref name=":13" /> Specifically following the Crisis of 2012, over half a million citizens were displaced from their primary locations of education.<ref name=":13" /> Additionally, this led to an increase in food prices which further decreased the amount of money parents had to send their children to school.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, many parents cannot afford school prices due to high school fees or the contributions required by community schools.<ref name=":12" />

Geographic location is often cited as a cause of low enrollment rates.<ref name=":12" /> In 2009, although Bamako, Mali's capital, had a 90% primary enrollment rate, this percentage was much lower in rural areas of Mali, where 7 in 10 Malians live.<ref name=":12" /> About 7 in 100 primary students live over 5 kilometers from their institution of education.<ref name=":12" /> Additionally, 1 in 12 schools have zero classrooms or just one classroom, and many of these classrooms suffer from poor infrastructure.<ref name=":12" /> A study about food insecure Malian villages revealed that a fifth of schools in these areas are outside.<ref name=":13" />

=== Food and nutrition ===
The [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agricultural Organization]] of the United Nations considers Mali a low income food deficit country.<ref name=":13" /> In 2005, the [[World Food Programme]] classified 2 in 5 Malians as being food insecure or susceptible to food insecurity.<ref name=":13" /> According to a 2013 study by Masset and Gelli which surveyed food insecure villages, food insecurity leads to fewer educational opportunities.<ref name=":13" /> Food insecurity decreases interest in obtaining education and puts more of a focus on labor.<ref name=":13" /> Consequently, these villages had lower attendance rates than the rest of the country.<ref name=":13" /> 40% of children who were old enough to attend primary school actually enrolled in primary school, which is about 20% lower than the national average.<ref name=":13" /> Additionally, a lack of proper nutrition can be detrimental to a child's brain formation.<ref name=":15" /> When children do not get proper nutrition, their physical and cognitive development suffers.<ref name=":15" /> This leads to lower levels of participation in educational systems and low levels of performance for those who do participate.<ref name=":15" />

=== Disability and disease ===
[[File:Diseases treated by Yaya Konate. Wellcome L0069388.jpg|thumb|292x292px|Poster in Mali that translates Malian diseases into Bambara and French|alt=Malian diseases in Bambara and French]]
According to the [[World Health Organization]], approximately 2 million Malians are considered disabled.<ref name=":14" /> As of 2000, there were 200,000 people who were deaf in Mali.<ref name=":10" /> A study by researcher and author Victoria Nyst revealed that meningitis and other diseases are main contributors to deafness, especially because Mali is a part of the [[African meningitis belt]].<ref name=":10" /> Most deaf Malians do not have access to formal education in sign language.<ref name=":10" /> This is because there are no sign language classes for those who aren't deaf, leading to untrained teachers, interpreters, and parents.<ref name=":10" /> This propagates a system in which the deaf population has less access to information about government initiatives such as major health campaigns.<ref name=":10" /> In order to address this, the government has unsuccessfully tried to incorporate deaf students into hearing schools.<ref name=":10" /> As an alternative, many deaf Malians are sent to other countries such as France and [[Russia]].<ref name=":10" />

[[Malaria]] is also an issue which affects educational development.<ref name=":15" /> In a 2010 study about the effects of malaria on the village of [[Diankabou]], researchers found that malaria was responsible for the majority of deaths of children under 5 years old and over a third of all visits to health clinics.<ref name=":15" /> Additionally, they found that malaria during pregnancy can negatively affect the development of a child.<ref name=":15" /> Once a child is born, malaria can lead to speech delay and mental retardation for children under 5.<ref name=":15" /> Thus, this disease is the main cause of students not attending class.<ref name=":15" /> This study also revealed that malaria negatively influences educational and cognitive development.<ref name=":15" />

=== Gender disparities ===
{{Further|Women in Mali}}
Net enrollment rates and literacy rates are generally lower for girls compared to boys in Mali.<ref name=":23" /> This disparity can be further magnified by geographic differences.<ref name=":16" /> A 2012 survey discovered that 84.9% of women in rural areas who were surveyed had not formally completed any form of education.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Mali 2012–13|journal=Studies in Family Planning|volume=46|issue=2|pages=227–236|issn=0039-3665|jstor=24642182|doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.2015.00026.x|pmid=26059992}}</ref> Only 2.2% of all women surveyed, including those who lived in urban areas, had completed primary school.<ref name=":20" /> A study about pastoralist schools in the [[Gao]] region of Northeast Mali revealed that the primary enrollment rate for girls was less than 60% which was approximately 20% lower than the primary enrollment rate of boys in that region.<ref name=":16" /> Whereas both boys and girls in Gao suffer from living many kilometers away from school in communities with frequent droughts, girls must face gender bias in schooling  and societal pressures to marry early and earn a high dowry through pursuing higher education.<ref name=":16" /> The government perpetuated this system by forcing mainly pastoralist boys to go to boarding school.<ref name=":16" />

According to a study about rural Mali by Laurel Puchner, women often have a difficult time incorporating new literacy skills outside of the classroom, especially because they face discrimination in the areas of society that utilize neo-literate skills.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":11" /> Additionally, many people, such as the researchers in this study, argue that students do not actually become literate through these programs due to inefficiencies in the implementation of literacy education.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":11" /> For example, in the four villages where the Puchner study took place, many Malians were illiterate mainly because they endured poor learning conditions and had few print resources to become educated.<ref name=":11" />

=== Inefficiencies ===

==== Enrollment, completion, and dropout rates ====
[[File:Écolier.jpg|thumb|325x325px|A math lesson in Kati, Mali|alt=Classroom image in Kati, Mali]]
In 2017, the primary net enrollment rate in Mali was 61%.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|url=http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/country/mali|title=Education Statistics|website=datatopics.worldbank.org|access-date=2019-11-19}}</ref> In terms of gender, 65% of boys and 58% of girls were enrolled in primary education.<ref name=":23" /> However, the completion rate of primary education was 50% during the 2017 school year.<ref name=":23" /> In the 1980s, these numbers were far more inefficient.<ref name=":8" /> In fact, 1 in 7 students dropped out within the first three years of primary education, and 20,000 students were not able to successfully graduate to their second year of education.<ref name=":8" /> These repetitions were not limited to a student's first year.<ref name=":8" /> Considering students who dropout, the average length of time to complete a 9 year cycle of Malian education was 23 years.<ref name=":8" /> These inconsistent, lengthy cycles led to lower enrollment rates.<ref name=":8" /> For example, at one point, 1 in 10 Timbuktu children were attending school.<ref name=":8" /> Despite these facts, Mali still faces a shortage of teachers.<ref name=":8" /> In 2008, the trained teacher to student ratio was 1 to 105.<ref name=":12" /> These issues can lead to illiteracy for adult populations.<ref name=":23" /> In 2015, the adult literacy rate was 33%.<ref name=":23" /> A 2013 study about Malian education revealed that citizens with lower education levels are more likely to turn to agriculture and migration rather than continuing to pursue education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Land|first1=Victoria|last2=Hummel|first2=Diana|date=2013|title=Vulnerability and the Role of Education in Environmentally Induced Migration in Mali and Senegal|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=18|issue=4|issn=1708-3087|jstor=26269395}}</ref>

==== Quality of teaching ====
In terms of the quality of education that Malian teachers have received, 1 in 3 primary education teachers have not completed their second cycle of education.<ref name=":12" /> There have been initiatives such the Alternative Teaching Staff Recruitment Strategy or SARPE which tools teachers with 90 days of training, which many teachers cite as being too short in length.<ref name=":12" /> Additionally, strikes related to wages are not uncommon.<ref name=":12" /> For example, there was a strike by secondary teachers during the 2006 to 2007 school year related to the fact that teachers are paid on a monthly contractual basis with low wages.<ref name=":12" />

== Initiatives ==

=== Policies post independence ===

==== 1962 Educational Reform Law ====
This law was passed right after Mali gained independence in an effort to improve the quality of Malian education and the accessibility of schooling.<ref name=":9" /> This was part of a larger effort to decolonize Mali post independence and shift the French-focused curriculum towards incorporating more information about Africa.<ref name=":9" /> This law introduced the Functional Literacy Program which provided education for adults who could not read or write in their local languages.<ref name=":9" /> Additionally, this reform created the cyclical educational structure and specifically split Malian education into a 5 year cycle followed by a 4 year cycle.<ref name=":32" />

==== Other policies ====
The government continued to make changes to the Malian educational system in the 1960s.<ref name=":32" /> In 1964, they created the National Pedagogic Institute made up of Malian, French, American, and UNESCO officials whose main purpose was to improve the Malian curriculum and textbooks.<ref name=":32" /> However, this institute suffered from logistical inefficiencies and often didn't meet their original goals.<ref name=":32" /> In addition to curriculum reform, the government initiated efforts to expand the number of schools. <ref name=":32" /> By 1967, although there were 53 private schools, public schools were better able to compete with private education.<ref name=":32" /> Towards the end of this decade, the government developed the existing structure of Malian education.<ref name=":32" /> In 1968, the Ministry of National Education became a joint institution with the Ministry of Youth and Sports.<ref name=":32" /> In 1969, the school cycle lengths were modified yet again to 6 years and 3 years, respectively.<ref name=":32" /> Finally, in 1970, the government implemented the DEF, or Diploma d'Etudes Fondamental, which served as merit based exam to determine which students were able to transition to secondary and vocational schools following primary education.<ref name=":32" />

=== Policies post-democracy ===

==== Policies in the 1990s ====
In 1992, the Malian government officially declared access to education as a constitutional right.<ref name=":19" /> These views were part of a larger democratic movement that took place in Mali in the 1990s.<ref name=":7" /> Consequently, seven years later, on December 29, 1999, the Mali National Parliament passed the Education Act which created more educational opportunities for Malians.<ref name=":9" /> During this decade, the government focused on non traditional education for adults and literacy.<ref name=":19" /> Additionally, the government made more efforts to recruit and train teachers by giving primary educators two to four years of training.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Ten Year Education Development Program ====
In 1998, the government passed the Ten Year Educational Development Plan as a way to make education universal, higher in quality, and more accessible.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" /> Additionally, this plan was meant to reduce gender and geographic-based inequalities in education.<ref name=":13" /> Also known as PRODEC or the Programme Décennal de Dévelopment de l'Education, this program made major developments in popularizing bilingual education and improving the quality of textbooks.<ref name=":12" /> The government actually met their GER, or gross enrollment ration, goal by reaching a primary gross enrollment rate of 80% in 2008.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" />

==== Policies in the 2000s ====
The 2000s were defined by further improvements in Malian education, especially in terms of flexibility.<ref name=":16" /> In addition to continuing to popularize bilingual education, the government allowed schools to complement core classes with community based classes.<ref name=":16" /> After a 2002 study by [[Oxfam]] and the Institute for Popular Education revealed that educational resources are often difficult to access and convey gender biases, Oxfam developed a program to reduce educational gender discrimination and provide aid to low income families.<ref name=":16" /> Researchers also advocated for more funding for adult education after discovering some of the inefficiencies in literacy programs for non traditional students.<ref name=":19" /> Additionally, in 2009, the government implemented a nutritional program for underserved communities across Mali.<ref name=":13" />

=== Animatrices ===
Animatrices are local women and community leaders that make an effort to reduce gender bias in education.<ref name=":16" /> These individuals generally have experience with social work and teach parents about the importance of equality in Malian education.<ref name=":16" /> Additionally, they ensure that girls are regularly attending class and encourage any girls that drop out of school to return to class.<ref name=":16" /> In a study about Gao, where animatrices are prominent, researchers found that the number of girls that attended schools nearly doubled in a three year span.<ref name=":16" />

=== Foreign aid ===
[[File:Community Libraries, Mali (24751559607).jpg|thumb|333x333px|Implementation of USAID Selective Integrated Reading Activity|alt=Community libraries for USAID Selective Integrated Reading Activity]]
Since 1987, [[Child Aid]] USA has been an organization that works to implement literacy programs for Malians and improve community education.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, USAID, is an organization that provides aid to 9 regions of Mali to improve early literacy programs and community education.<ref name=":14" /> One major program that this organization developed was the Selective Integrated Reading Activity that helped over 300,000 Malians learn how to read.<ref name=":14" /> Most recently, in 2018, USAID provided over 18 million US dollars in aid to Mali.<ref name=":14" /> One other US based organization that helped Mali was the United States Department of Agriculture which promoted the [[McGovern-Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition Program]] in Mali.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|url=https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/291053/|title=The Impact of Food for Education Program on Literacy Improvement in Mali|date=2019|editor-last=Gulati|editor-first=Kajal|editor-last2=Safarha|editor-first2=Elnaz}}</ref> This three- part program provided more training to teachers which improved the reading abilities of students.<ref name=":22" /> France and the World Bank are two other major donors to Mali.<ref name=":12" /> 

=== Disability policies ===
The Equitable Access to Education Program, Education Emergency Support Activity, and the Persons with Disabilities Project have each improved the quality of education for disabled Malians.<ref name=":14" /> In terms of education for the deaf, the French version of [[American Sign Language]], or ASL, and [[Malian Sign Language]], which is also known as LSM, are the two main forms of sign language in Mali.<ref name=":10" /> Although LSM utilizes local languages, which Malians are more familiar with, the United States supports ASL initiatives in Mali through working with the Peace Corps.<ref name=":10" /> In contrast, the [[World Federation of the Deaf]] is one of the major organizations that advocates for LSM.<ref name=":10" /> In 2007, the Endangered Language Documentation Program of the Hans Rausing Endangered Language Project created Project LSM which researched LSM and released their findings to the National Library in Mali.<ref name=":10" />

=== SAFE ===
In order to improve agricultural education, the Sasakawa-Global 2000 Institute created SAFE, or the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education.<ref name=":18">{{cite thesis|last=Kante, Assa, Edwards, Craig, Blackwell, Cindy, Henneberry, Shida and Key|first=James|date=2010|title=An assessment of the Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education's (SAFE) training program in Mali: Graduates' perceptions of the training's impact as well as opportunities and constraints related to Supervised Enterprise Projects (SEPs)|type=Dissertation/Thesis|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/928086372/|access-date=2019-10-20|via=ProQuest}}</ref> This fund was incorporated into Mali in 2002 and has given Malians opportunities to obtain either a two year diploma or a Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Extension and Rural Development.<ref name=":18" /> One major component of this program is the Supervised Enterprise Project which provides shadowing and internship opportunities for students and a chance for Malians to develop their agricultural opportunities through collaborating with farmer mentors and local universities.<ref name=":18" /> For example, this program incorporates hundreds of hours of coursework and approximately 7 months of research.<ref name=":18" /> Since 2002, over 150 professionals have graduated from this program or worked on a project, and 50 Malians received diplomas in 2007.<ref name=":18" /> 

==See also==
{{commonscat|Education in Mali}}
* [[List of schools in Mali]]
*[[Mali]]
*[[Literacy]]
*[[Functional illiteracy]]
*[[Education in Africa]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mali topics}}
{{Education in Africa}}
{{World topic|Education in|noredlinks=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Education In Mali}}
[[Category:Education in Mali| ]]