View source for Ecosystem ecology

{{Short description|Study of living and non-living components of ecosystems and their interactions}}
[[Image:Ecoecolfigure1.jpg|thumb|280px|Figure 1. A [[riparian forest]] in the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]], [[New Hampshire]] (USA).]]

'''Ecosystem ecology''' is the integrated study of living ([[Biotic component|biotic]]) and non-living ([[Abiotic component|abiotic]]) components of [[ecosystem]]s and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This [[science]] examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as [[chemical]]s, [[bedrock]], [[soil]], [[plant]]s, and [[animal]]s. Ecosystem ecologists study these relationships on large scales, linking biological diversity with ecosystem sustainability and function.

Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structures and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact with each other. Ultimately, this helps us understand how to maintain high quality water and economically viable commodity production. A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional processes, ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems. These include [[primary productivity]] (production of [[biomass (ecology)|biomass]]), [[decomposition]], and [[trophic level|trophic]] interactions.

Studies of ecosystem function have greatly improved human understanding of sustainable production of [[Fodder|forage]], [[fiber]], [[fuel]], and provision of [[water]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rehman |first1=Abdul |last2=Farooq |first2=Muhammad |last3=Lee |first3=Dong-Jin |last4=Siddique |first4=Kadambot H. M. |date=October 18, 2022 |title=Sustainable agricultural practices for food security and ecosystem services |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11356-022-23635-z |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=29 |issue=56 |pages=84076–84095 |doi=10.1007/s11356-022-23635-z |pmid=36258111 |bibcode=2022ESPR...2984076R |issn=0944-1344|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Functional processes are mediated by regional-to-local level [[climate]], [[Disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]], and management. Thus ecosystem ecology provides a powerful framework for identifying ecological mechanisms that interact with global environmental problems, especially [[global warming]] and degradation of surface water.

This example demonstrates several important aspects of ecosystems:
# Ecosystem boundaries are often nebulous and may fluctuate in time
# Organisms within ecosystems are dependent on ecosystem level biological and physical processes
# Adjacent ecosystems closely interact and often are interdependent for maintenance of community structure and functional processes that maintain productivity and [[biodiversity]]

These characteristics also introduce practical problems into natural resource management. Who will manage which ecosystem? Will timber cutting in the forest degrade recreational fishing in the stream? These questions are difficult for land managers to address while the boundary between ecosystems remains unclear; even though decisions in one ecosystem will affect the other. We need better understanding of the interactions and interdependencies of these ecosystems and the processes that maintain them before we can begin to address these questions.

Ecosystem ecology is an inherently interdisciplinary field of study. An individual ecosystem is composed of [[populations]] of [[organisms]], interacting within communities, and contributing to the cycling of [[nutrients]] and the flow of [[energy]]. The ecosystem is the principal unit of study in ecosystem ecology.

Population, community, and physiological ecology provide many of the underlying biological mechanisms influencing ecosystems and the processes they maintain. Flowing of energy and cycling of matter at the ecosystem level are often examined in ecosystem ecology, but, as a whole, this science is defined more by subject matter than by scale. Ecosystem ecology approaches organisms and abiotic pools of energy and nutrients as an integrated system which distinguishes it from associated sciences such as [[biogeochemistry]].<ref name= "CH 03">Chapman, S.K., Hart, S.C., Cobb, N.S., Whitham, T.G., and Koch, G.W.  (2003).  "Insect herbivory increases litter quality and decomposition: an extension of the acceleration hypothesis". in: ''Ecology'' 84:2867-2876.</ref>

Biogeochemistry and [[hydrology]] focus on several fundamental ecosystem processes such as biologically mediated chemical cycling of nutrients and physical-biological cycling of water. Ecosystem ecology forms the mechanistic basis for regional or global processes encompassed by landscape-to-regional hydrology, global biogeochemistry, and earth system science.<ref name= "CH 03"/>

== History ==
Ecosystem ecology is philosophically and historically rooted in terrestrial ecology. The ecosystem concept has evolved rapidly during the last 100 years with important ideas developed by [[Frederic Clements]], a botanist who argued for specific definitions of ecosystems and that physiological processes were responsible for their development and persistence.<ref>Hagen, J.B. (1992). ''An Entangled Bank: The origins of ecosystem ecology''. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J.</ref> Although most of Clements ecosystem definitions have been greatly revised, initially by [[Henry Gleason]] and [[Arthur Tansley]], and later by contemporary ecologists, the idea that physiological processes are fundamental to ecosystem structure and function remains central to ecology.

[[Image:Silver Spring Model.jpg|thumb|240px|Figure 3. Energy and matter flows through an ecosystem, adapted from the Silver Springs model.<ref>Odum, H.T. (1971). ''Environment, Power, and Society''. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.</ref> H are herbivores, C are carnivores, TC are top carnivores, and D are decomposers. Squares represent biotic pools and ovals are fluxes or energy or nutrients from the system.]] Later work by [[Eugene Odum]] and [[Howard T. Odum]] quantified flows of energy and matter at the ecosystem level, thus documenting the general ideas proposed by Clements and his contemporary [[Charles Sutherland Elton|Charles Elton]].

In this model, energy flows through the whole system were dependent on biotic and abiotic interactions of each individual component ([[species]], inorganic pools of nutrients, etc.). Later work demonstrated that these interactions and flows applied to [[nutrient cycle]]s, changed over the course of [[ecological succession|succession]], and held powerful controls over ecosystem productivity.<ref>Odum, E.P 1969. "The strategy of ecosystem development". in: ''Science'' 164:262-270.</ref><ref name ="L70">Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher and R. S. Pierce. (1970). "Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed-ecosystem". in: ''Ecological Monographs'' 40:23-47.</ref> Transfers of energy and nutrients are innate to ecological systems regardless of whether they are aquatic or terrestrial. Thus, ecosystem ecology has emerged from important biological studies of plants, animals, [[Terrestrial ecoregion|terrestrial]], [[aquatic ecosystem|aquatic]], and [[marine (ocean)|marine]] ecosystems.

==Ecosystem services==
{{main|Ecosystem services}}
Ecosystem services are ecologically mediated functional processes essential to sustaining healthy [[human]] societies.<ref>Chapin, F.S. III, B.H., Walker, R.J., Hobbs, D.U., Hooper, J.H., Lawton, O.E., Sala, and D., Tilman. (1997). "Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems". in: ''Science'' 277:500-504.</ref> Water provision and filtration, production of [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] in [[forestry]], [[agriculture]], and [[fisheries]], and removal of [[greenhouse gas]]es such as [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) from the [[atmosphere]] are examples of ecosystem services essential to [[public health]] and economic opportunity. [[Nutrient cycling]] is a process fundamental to agricultural and forest production.

However, like most ecosystem processes, nutrient cycling is not an ecosystem characteristic which can be “dialed” to the most desirable level. Maximizing production in degraded systems is an overly simplistic solution to the complex problems of hunger and economic security. For instance, intensive [[fertilizer]] use in the midwestern United States has resulted in degraded fisheries in the [[Gulf of Mexico]].<ref>Defries, R.S., J.A. Foley, and G.P. Asner. (2004). "Land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function". in: ''Frontiers in ecology and environmental science''. 2:249-257.</ref> Regrettably, a “[[Green Revolution]]” of intensive chemical fertilization has been recommended for agriculture in [[developed countries|developed]] and [[developing countries]].<ref>Chrispeels, M.J. and Sadava, D. (1977). ''Plants, food, and people''. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.</ref><ref>Quinones, M.A., N.E. Borlaug, C.R. Dowswell. (1997). "A fertilizer-based green revolution for Africa". In: ''Replenishing soil fertility in Africa''. Soil Science Society of America special publication number 51. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI.</ref> These strategies risk alteration of ecosystem processes that may be difficult to restore, especially when applied at broad scales without adequate assessment of impacts. Ecosystem processes may take many years to recover from significant disturbance.<ref name ="L70"/>

For instance, large-scale forest clearance in the [[northeastern United States]] during the 18th and 19th centuries has altered soil texture, dominant vegetation, and nutrient cycling in ways that impact forest productivity in the present day.<ref>Foster, D. R. (1992). "Land-use history (1730-1990) and vegetation dynamics in central New England, USA". In: ''Journal of Ecology'' 80: 753-772.</ref><ref>Motzkin, G., D. R. Foster, A. Allen, J. Harrod, and R. D. Boone. (1996). "Controlling site to evaluate history: vegetation patterns of a New England sand plain". In: ''Ecological Monographs'' 66: 345-365.</ref> An appreciation of the importance of ecosystem function in maintenance of productivity, whether in agriculture or forestry, is needed in conjunction with plans for restoration of essential processes. Improved knowledge of ecosystem function will help to achieve long-term sustainability and stability in the poorest parts of the world.

==Operation==
Biomass productivity is one of the most apparent and economically important ecosystem functions. Biomass accumulation begins at the cellular level via photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires water and consequently global patterns of annual biomass production are correlated with annual precipitation.<ref>Huxman TE, ea.(2004). "Convergence across biomes to a common rain-use efficiency". ''Nature''. 429: 651-654</ref> Amounts of productivity are also dependent on the overall capacity of plants to capture sunlight which is directly correlated with plant leaf area and N content.

[[Primary production|Net primary productivity]] (NPP) is the primary measure of biomass accumulation within an ecosystem. Net primary productivity can be calculated by a simple formula where the total amount of productivity is adjusted for total productivity losses through maintenance of biological processes:

:NPP = GPP – R<sub>producer</sub>

[[Image:Ecoecolfigure4.jpg|thumb|240px|Figure 4. Seasonal and annual changes in ambient carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) concentration at Mauna Loa Hawaii (Atmosphere) and above the canopy of a deciduous forest in Massachusetts (Forest). Data show clear seasonal trends associated with periods of high and low NPP and an overall annual increase of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>. Data approximates of those reported by Keeling and Whorf<ref>Keeling, C.D. and T.P. Whorf. (2005). "Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> records from sites in the SIO air sampling network". In: ''Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change''. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A.</ref> and Barford.<ref name = "B01"/>]] Where GPP is gross primary productivity and R<sub>producer</sub> is photosynthate ([[Carbon]]) lost via [[cellular respiration]].

NPP is difficult to measure but a new technique known as eddy co-variance has shed light on how natural ecosystems influence the atmosphere. Figure 4 shows seasonal and annual changes in CO<sub>2</sub> concentration measured at [[Mauna Loa]], [[Hawaii]] from 1987 to 1990. CO<sub>2</sub> concentration steadily increased, but within-year variation has been greater than the annual increase since measurements began in 1957.

These variations were thought to be due to seasonal uptake of CO<sub>2</sub> during summer months.  A newly developed technique for assessing ecosystem NPP has confirmed seasonal variation are driven by seasonal changes in CO<sub>2</sub> uptake by vegetation.<ref>Goulden, M. L., J. W. Munger, S.-M. Fan, B. C. Daube, and S. C. Wofsy, (1996). "Effects of interannual climate variability on the carbon dioxide exchange of a temperate deciduous forest". In: ''Science'' 271:1576-1578</ref><ref name = "B01">Barford, C. C., ea. (2001). "Factors controlling long and short term sequestration of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> in a mid-latitude forest". In: ''Science'' 294: 1688-1691</ref>  This has led many scientists and policy makers to speculate that ecosystems can be managed to ameliorate problems with [[global warming]]. This type of management may include reforesting or altering forest harvest schedules for many parts of the world.

===Decomposition and nutrient cycling===
[[Decomposition]] and nutrient cycling are fundamental to ecosystem biomass production. Most natural ecosystems are [[nitrogen]] (N) limited and biomass production is closely correlated with N turnover.<ref>Vitousek, P.M. and Howarth, R.W. (1991). "Nitrogen limitation on land and in the sea: how can it occur?" In: ''Biogeochemistry'' 13:87-115.</ref><ref>Reich, P.B., Grigal, D.F., Aber, J.D., Gower, S.T. (1997). "Nitrogen mineralization and productivity in 50 hardwood and conifer stands on diverse soils". In: ''Ecology'' 78:335-347.</ref>
Typically external input of nutrients is very low and efficient recycling of nutrients maintains productivity.<ref name ="L70"/> Decomposition of plant litter accounts for the majority of nutrients recycled through ecosystems (Figure 3). Rates of plant litter decomposition are highly dependent on litter quality; high concentration of phenolic compounds, especially [[lignin]], in plant litter has a retarding effect on litter decomposition.<ref name= "M 82">Melillo, J.M., Aber, J.D., and Muratore, J.F. (1982).  "Nitrogen and lignin control of hardwood leaf litter decomposition dynamics". In: ''Ecology'' 63:621-626.</ref><ref>Hättenschwiler S. and P.M. Vitousek (2000). "The role of polyphenols in terrestrial ecosystem nutrient cycling". In: ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'' 15: 238-243</ref> More complex C compounds are decomposed more slowly and may take many years to completely breakdown. Decomposition is typically described with [[exponential decay]] and has been related to the mineral concentrations, especially manganese, in the [[leaf litter]].<ref>Davey MP, B Berg, P Rowland, BA Emmett. 2007. Decomposition of oak leaf litter is related to initial litter Mn concentrations. Canadian Journal of Botany. 85(1). 16-24.</ref><ref>Berg B, Davey MP, Emmett B, Faituri M, Hobbie S, Johansson MB, Liu C, De Marco A, McClaugherty C, Norell L, Rutigliano F, De Santo AV. 2010. Factors influencing limit values for pine needle litter decomposition - a synthesis for boreal and temperate pine forest systems. Biogeochemistry. 100: 57-73</ref>

[[Image:Ecoecolfigure5.jpg|thumb|240px|Figure 5. Dynamics of decomposing plant litter (A) described with an exponential model (B) and a combined exponential-linear model (C).]]  
Globally, rates of decomposition are mediated by litter quality and climate.<ref>Meentemeyer, V.  1978  "Macroclimate and lignin control of litter decomposition rates". in: ''Ecology'' 59:465-472.</ref> Ecosystems dominated by plants with low-lignin concentration often have rapid rates of decomposition and nutrient cycling.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Talbot |first1=Jennifer M. |last2=Treseder |first2=Kathleen K. |date=February 1, 2012 |title=Interactions among lignin, cellulose, and nitrogen drive litter chemistry–decay relationships |url=https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/11-0843.1 |journal=Ecology |language=en |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=345–354 |doi=10.1890/11-0843.1 |pmid=22624316 |bibcode=2012Ecol...93..345T |issn=0012-9658}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flanagan |first1=P. W. |last2=Cleve |first2=K. Van |date=1983-10-01 |title=Nutrient cycling in relation to decomposition and organic-matter quality in taiga ecosystems |url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/x83-110 |journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research |language=en |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=795–817 |doi=10.1139/x83-110 |bibcode=1983CaJFR..13..795F |issn=0045-5067|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Simple carbon (C) containing compounds are preferentially metabolized by [[decomposer]] microorganisms which results in rapid initial rates of decomposition, see Figure 5A,<ref>Aber, J.D., and J.M., Melillo  (1982). "Nitrogen immobilization in decaying hardwood leaf litter as a function of initial nitrogen and lignin content". In: ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' 60:2263-2269.</ref> models that depend on constant rates of decay; so called “k” values, see Figure 5B.<ref>Olson, J.S. (1963). "Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems". In: ''Ecology'' 44:322-331.</ref> In addition to litter quality and climate, the activity of soil fauna is very important <ref>{{cite journal |author1=Castro-Huerta, R. |author2=Falco, L. |author3=Sandler, R. |author4=Coviella, C. |year=2015 |title=Differential contribution of soil biota groups to plant litter decomposition as mediated by soil use |journal=[[PeerJ]] |volume=3 |pages=e826 |doi=10.7717/peerj.826 |pmid=25780777 |pmc=4359044 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

However, these models do not reflect simultaneous linear and non-linear decay processes which likely occur during decomposition. For instance, [[proteins]], [[sugars]] and [[lipids]] decompose exponentially, but lignin decays at a more linear rate<ref name= "M 82"/> Thus, litter decay is inaccurately predicted by simplistic models.<ref>Carpenter, S.A. (1981). "Decay of heterogeneous detritus: a general model". In: ''Journal of theoretical biology''  89:539-547.</ref>

A simple alternative model presented in Figure 5C shows significantly more rapid decomposition that the standard model of figure 4B. Better understanding of decomposition models is an important research area of ecosystem ecology because this process is closely tied to nutrient supply and the overall capacity of ecosystems to sequester CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere.

===Trophic dynamics===
Trophic dynamics refers to process of energy and [[nutrient]] transfer between organisms. Trophic dynamics is an important part of the structure and function of ecosystems. Figure 3 shows energy transferred for an ecosystem at Silver Springs, Florida. Energy gained by primary producers (plants, P) is consumed by herbivores (H), which are consumed by carnivores (C), which are themselves consumed by “top- carnivores”(TC).

One of the most obvious patterns in Figure 3 is that as one moves up to higher [[trophic level]]s (i.e. from plants to top-carnivores) the total amount of energy decreases. Plants exert a “bottom-up” control on the energy structure of ecosystems by determining the total amount of energy that enters the system.<ref>Chapin F.S. III, Matson, P.A., and Mooney, H.A. (2003). ''Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology''. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y.</ref>

However, predators can also influence the structure of lower trophic levels from the top-down. These influences can dramatically shift dominant species in terrestrial and marine systems<ref>Belovsky, G.E. and J.B. Slade. (2000). "Insect herbivory accelerates nutrient cycling and increases plant production". In: ''Proceedings of the national academy of sciences'' (USA). 97:14412-14417.</ref><ref name="Frank et al. 2005">Frank et al. 2005.</ref> The interplay and relative strength of top-down vs. bottom-up controls on ecosystem structure and function is an important area of research in the greater field of ecology.

Trophic dynamics can strongly influence rates of decomposition and nutrient cycling in time and in space. For example, herbivory can increase litter decomposition and nutrient cycling via direct changes in litter quality and altered dominant vegetation.<ref>Hunter, M.D. (2001). "Insect population dynamics meets ecosystem ecology: effects of herbivory on soil nutrient dynamics". In: ''Agricultural and Forest Entomology'' 3:77-84.</ref> Insect herbivory has been shown to increase rates of decomposition and nutrient turnover due to changes in litter quality and increased [[frass]] inputs.<ref name= "CH 03"/><ref>Swank, W.T., Waide, J.B., Crossley, D.A., and Todd R.L. (1981). "Insect defoliation enhances nitrate export from forest ecosystems". In: ''Oecologia'' 51:297-299.</ref> 
 
However, insect outbreak does not always increase nutrient cycling. Stadler<ref>Stadler, B., Solinger, St., and Michalzik, B. (2001). "Insect herbivores and the nutrient flow from the canopy to the soil in coniferous and deciduous forests". In: ''[[Oecologia]]'' 126:104-113</ref> showed that C rich honeydew produced during aphid outbreak can result in increased N immobilization by soil microbes thus slowing down nutrient cycling and potentially limiting biomass production. North Atlantic marine ecosystems have been greatly altered by overfishing of cod. Cod stocks crashed in the 1990s which resulted in increases in their prey such as shrimp and snow crab<ref name="Frank et al. 2005"/> Human intervention in ecosystems has resulted in dramatic changes to ecosystem structure and function. These changes are occurring rapidly and have unknown consequences for economic security and human well-being.<ref>The intimate relation between ecosystem services and well-being was highlighted in the [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]</ref> Further research can help make the effects of biodiversity changes on ecosystem function more clear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mori |first1=Akira S. |last2=Isbell |first2=Forest |last3=Cadotte |first3=Marc W. |date=May 19, 2023 |title=Assessing the importance of species and their assemblages for the biodiversity-ecosystem multifunctionality relationship |url=https://esajournals-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezp2.lib.umn.edu/journal/19399170 |journal=Ecology |volume=104 |issue=8 |doi=10.1002/ecy.4104 |bibcode=2023Ecol..104E4104M |via=Ecological Society of America|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Applications and importance==

===Lessons from two Central American cities===
The biosphere has been greatly altered by the demands of human societies. Ecosystem ecology plays an important role in understanding and adapting to the most pressing current environmental problems. Restoration ecology and [[ecosystem management]] are closely associated with ecosystem ecology. Restoring highly degraded resources depends on integration of functional mechanisms of ecosystems.<ref name= "E&T97">Ehrenfeld, J.G. and Toth, L.A. (1997). "Restoration ecology and the ecosystem perspective". in: ''Restoration Ecology''  5:307-317.</ref> By using strategies that consider both social and ecological goals as joint goals, [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development]] can be achieved by considering ecosystem ecology through a joint lens, rather than two separate ones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reyers |first1=Belinda |last2=Selig |first2=Elizabeth R. |date=2020-07-20 |title=Global targets that reveal the social–ecological interdependencies of sustainable development |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1230-6 |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=1011–1019 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1230-6 |pmid=32690904 |bibcode=2020NatEE...4.1011R |hdl=2263/78221 |issn=2397-334X|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Without these functions intact, economic value of ecosystems is greatly reduced and potentially dangerous conditions may develop in the field. For example, areas within the mountainous western highlands of [[Guatemala]] are more susceptible to catastrophic landslides and crippling seasonal water shortages due to loss of forest resources. In contrast, cities such as [[Totonicapán]] that have preserved forests through strong social institutions have greater local economic stability and overall greater human well-being.<ref>Conz, B.W. 2004. Continuity and Contestation: Conservation Landscapes in Totonicapán, Guatemala. University of Massachusetts Masters of Science thesis.</ref>

This situation is striking considering that these areas are close to each other, the majority of inhabitants are of [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] descent, and the topography and overall resources are similar. This is a case of two groups of people managing resources in fundamentally different ways. Ecosystem ecology provides the basic science needed to avoid degradation and to restore ecosystem processes that provide for basic human needs.

=== Climate change impacts ===
[[Climate change]] influences ecosystem ecology by altering the processes that drive global ecosystems. Many of these processes cause a decline in [[biodiversity]] which reduces ecosystem functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Andrew |last2=Germain |first2=Rachel M. |last3=Srivastava |first3=Diane S. |last4=Filotas |first4=Elise |last5=Dee |first5=Laura E. |last6=Gravel |first6=Dominique |last7=Thompson |first7=Patrick L. |last8=Isbell |first8=Forest |last9=Wang |first9=Shaopeng |last10=Kéfi |first10=Sonia |last11=Montoya |first11=Jose |last12=Zelnik |first12=Yuval R. |last13=Loreau |first13=Michel |date=January 29, 2020 |editor-last=Brose |editor-first=Ulrich |title=Scaling-up biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research |journal=Ecology Letters |language=en |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=757–776 |doi=10.1111/ele.13456 |issn=1461-023X |pmc=7497049 |pmid=31997566|bibcode=2020EcolL..23..757G }}</ref> Anthropogenic influences like [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and land cover change create added pressures for ecosystems, such as [[habitat fragmentation]] and degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malhi |first1=Yadvinder |last2=Franklin |first2=Janet |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Solan |first4=Martin |last5=Turner |first5=Monica G. |last6=Field |first6=Christopher B. |last7=Knowlton |first7=Nancy |date=2020-03-16 |title=Climate change and ecosystems: threats, opportunities and solutions |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=375 |issue=1794 |pages=20190104 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2019.0104 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=7017779 |pmid=31983329}}</ref> Additional stressors include shifts in species ranges and life cycle events. As the effects of climate change are exacerbated, these stressors will have a greater effect on ecosystems across the globe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Impacts on Ecosystems {{!}} Climate Change Impacts {{!}} US EPA |url=https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems |access-date=2025-05-01 |website=climatechange.chicago.gov}}</ref>

=== Relationship to One Health ===
[[One Health]] studies the intersection of human health, animal health, and biological health. Because of this, it is closely tied to ecosystem ecology. Healthy ecosystems can prevent the spread of diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Everard |first1=Mark |last2=Johnston |first2=Paul |last3=Santillo |first3=David |last4=Staddon |first4=Chad |date=September 2020 |title=The role of ecosystems in mitigation and management of Covid-19 and other zoonoses |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=111 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2020.05.017 |pmc=7247996 |pmid=32501392|bibcode=2020ESPol.111....7E }}</ref> One Health recognizes that healthy ecosystems are connected to the health of humans and animals, and thus considers ecosystem ecology. Extensive communication between communities and One Health researchers is essential for success within a broader ecosystem ecology framework.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gwakisa |first1=Paul |last2=George |first2=Janeth |last3=Sindato |first3=Calvin |last4=Ngonyoka |first4=Anibariki |last5=Nnko |first5=Happiness |last6=Assenga |first6=Justine |last7=Kimera |first7=Sharadhuli |last8=Nessele |first8=Moses Ole |date=2023-08-30 |title=Pillars for successful operationalization of one health as an ecosystem approach: experience from a human-animal interface in the Maasai steppe in Tanzania |journal=One Health Outlook |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=11 |doi=10.1186/s42522-023-00087-0 |doi-access=free |issn=2524-4655 |pmc=10469404 |pmid=37649116}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences}}
* [[Biogeochemistry]]
* [[Community ecology]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[Holon (philosophy)]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Systems ecology]]
* [[MuSIASEM]]
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== References ==
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{{Biology nav}}
{{modelling ecosystems}}
{{Systems}}

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[[Category:Systems ecology]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Ecological processes]]
[[Category:Ecosystems]]