View source for Ecology of Bermuda

{{Short description |none}}
{{Use British English |date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates |date=December 2024}}
[[File:Image-Juniperus bermudiana - mature.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[Juniperus bermudiana|Bermuda cedar]] on the outskirts of [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]].]]

Bermuda's ecology has an abundance of unique [[flora]] and [[fauna]] due to the island's isolation from the mainland of North America. The wide range of [[Endemism|endemic]] species and the islands form a distinct [[ecoregion]], the '''Bermuda subtropical conifer forests'''. The variety of species found both on land and in the waters surrounding Bermuda have varying positive and negative impacts on the ecosystem of the island, depending on the species. There are varying [[Life|biotic]] and [[Abiotic component|abiotic]] factors that have threatened and continue to threaten the island's ecology. There are, however, also means of conservation that can be used to mitigate these threats.

==Setting==
Located 1,040 km (645 mi.) off the American East Coast, Bermuda is a crescent-shaped chain of 184 islands and islets that were once the rim of a volcano. The islands are slightly hilly rather than having steep cliffs, with the highest point being 79&nbsp;m. The coast has many bays and inlets, with sandy beaches especially on the south coasts. Bermuda has a semi-tropical climate, warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]] current. Bermuda is very densely populated. Twenty of the islands are inhabited.

Wildlife that could fly to the island or were carried there by winds and currents formed the species. There are no native [[mammal]]s other than [[bat]]s, and only two [[reptile]]s, but there are large numbers of birds, plants, and insects.<ref name=terrapin>{{cite journal |last=Parham |first=James |title=Introduced delicacy or native species? A natural origin of Bermudian terrapins supported by fossil and genetic data |date=23 April 2008 |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=216–219 |pmc=2429930|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0599 |pmid=18270164}}</ref><ref name=lizards>{{cite journal |pmc=2894854|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0011375 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...511375B |pmid=20614024|title=Bermuda as an Evolutionary Life Raft for an Ancient Lineage of Endangered Lizards |year=2010 |last1=Brandley |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Wang |first2=Yuezhao |last3=Guo |first3=Xianguang |last4=Nieto Montes De Oca |first4=Adrián |last5=Fería Ortíz |first5=Manuel |last6=Hikida |first6=Tsutomu |last7=Ota |first7=Hidetoshi |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=e11375 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Once on the island, organisms had to adapt to local conditions, such as the humid [[climate]], lack of fresh water, frequent storms, and salt spray. The area of the islands shrank as water levels rose at the end of the [[Pleistocene]] [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]], and fewer species were able to survive in the reduced land-area. Nearly 8,000 different species of flora and fauna are known from the islands of Bermuda. The number is likely to be considerably higher if [[microorganism]]s, cave-dwellers and deep-sea species were counted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bamz.org/bda_biodiversity_project.aspx |title=Bermuda Biodiversity Project |author=Bermuda Aquarium, Museum & Zoo |access-date=2 October 2010 |archive-date=12 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812023940/http://www.bamz.org/bda_biodiversity_project.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Today the variety of species on Bermuda has been greatly increased by [[Introduced species|introductions]], both deliberate and accidental. Many of these introduced species have posed a threat to the native flora and fauna because of [[Competition (biology)|competition]] and [[Habitat destruction|interference with habitat]].

==Plants==
[[File:Sabal-bermudana.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Sabal bermudana|Bermuda palmetto]]]]
[[File:1904 view of eastern Hamilton Harbour and Paget Parish from Fort Hamilton, Prospect Camp, Bermuda.jpg|thumb|1904 view across Hamilton Harbour from Fort Hamilton of cedar-cloaked hills in Paget Parish]]
[[File:079 Kalpalmer (Oreodoxa oleracea Mart.).jpg|thumb|[[Roystonea oleracea|Caribbean royal palm]] in an 1895 photo]]
Over 1000 species of [[vascular plant]]s are found on the islands, the majority of which were introduced. Of the 165 native species, 17 are endemic. [[Forest cover]] is around 20% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,000 hectares of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Bermuda |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/BMU/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

At the time of the first human settlement by shipwrecked English sailors in 1593, Bermuda was dominated by forests of Bermuda cedar (''[[Juniperus bermudiana]]'')<ref>https://archive.org/stream/floraofbermuda00brit#page/n7/mode/2up.htm /</ref> with [[mangrove swamp]]s on the coast. More deliberate settlement began after 1609, and colonists began clearing forests to use for building and shipmaking, and to develop agricultural cultivation. By the 1830s, the demands of the [[shipbuilding]] industry had denuded the forests, but these recovered in many areas.

In the 1940s the cedar forests were devastated by introduced [[scale insect]]s, which killed roughly eight million trees. Replanting using resistant trees has taken place since then, but the area covered by cedar is only 10% of what it used to be. Another important component of the original forest was Bermuda palmetto (''[[Sabal bermudana]]''), a small [[Arecaceae|palm tree]]. It now grows in a few small patches, notably at [[Paget Marsh]]. Other trees and shrubs include Bermuda olivewood (''[[Cassine laneana]]'') and Bermuda snowberry (''[[Chiococca alba]]''). The climate allows for the growth of other [[introduced species|introduced]] palms such as royal palm (''[[Roystonea]]'' spp.) and coconut palm (''[[Coconut|Cocos nucifera]]''), although the coconuts seldom fruit properly, due to the relatively moderate temperatures on the island. Bermuda is the farthest north location where coconut palms grow naturally.<ref>International Palm Society</ref>

Remnant patches of mangrove swamp can be found around the coast and at some inland sites, including [[Hungry Bay Nature Reserve]] and [[Mangrove Lake, Bermuda|Mangrove Lake]]. These are important for moderating the effects of storms and providing transitional habitats. Here black mangrove (''[[Avicennia germinans]]'') and red mangrove (''[[Rhizophora mangle]]'') are the northernmost mangroves in the Atlantic. The inland swamps are particularly interesting as mangroves thrive in salty water; in this case, the saltwater arrives through underground channels rather than the usual tidal wash of coastal mangrove swamps. Areas of [[peat]] marsh include Devonshire, Pembroke, and Paget marshes.

Bermuda has four endemic [[fern]]s:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.conservation.bm/endemic-ferns/ |title=Bermuda Conservation - Endemic Ferns |access-date=2010-10-05 |archive-date=2010-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305133424/http://www.conservation.bm/endemic-ferns/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bermuda maidenhair fern (''[[Adiantum bellum]]''), Bermuda shield fern (''[[Thelypteris bermudiana]]''),<ref>[https://environment.bm/bermuda-shield-fern "Bermuda Shield Fern (''Thelypteris bermudiana'')"]</ref> Bermuda cave fern (''[[Ctenitis sloanei]]'') and Governor Laffan's fern (''[[Diplazium laffanianum]]'').<ref>[https://environment.bm/governor-laffans-fern "Governor Laffan's Fern (''Diplazium laffanianum'')"]</ref> The latter is extinct in the wild but is grown at [[Bermuda Botanical Gardens]]. The endemic flora of the island also include two [[moss]]es, ten [[lichen]]s and forty [[fungus|fungi]].

Among the many introduced species are the casuarina (''[[Casuarina equisetifolia]]'') and Suriname cherry (''[[Eugenia uniflora]]'').

===Endemic===
<!-- (Turini-currently doing research on plants; creating list for more direct internet findings as no good up-to-date images of Bermuda plants easy to find even local books have few if any images) -->
<gallery caption="Trees and palms">
File:Bermuda cedars (Juniperus bermudiana) in the cemetery of St. John's Church (Church of England), Pemboke, Bermuda 2016.jpg|Bermuda cedars (''[[Juniperus bermudiana]]'') in the cemetery of St. John's Church (Church of England), Pembroke, Bermuda 2016
File:Bermuda Cedar-01.jpg|Bermuda cedar (''[[Juniperus bermudiana]]'')<!-- (DONE) -->
Image:Bermuda Olivewood-00.JPG|Bermuda olivewood (''[[Cassine laneana]]'')
Image:Sabal-bermudana.jpg|Bermuda palmetto (''[[Sabal bermudana]]'')
</gallery>

<gallery caption="Shrubs">
Image:Bermuda Snowberry-00.JPG|Bermuda snowberry (''[[Chiococca alba]]'')
Image:Hypericum macrosepalum-00.JPG|St. Andrew's cross (''[[Hypericum macrosepalum]]'')
Image:Hypericum macrosepalum-01.JPG|St. Andrew's cross leaf
</gallery>

<gallery caption="Flowers, grasses, ferns and others">
Image:Peperomia septentrionalis-00.JPG|Wild Bermuda pepper (''[[Peperomia septentrionalis]]'')
Image:Carex bermudiana-00.JPG|Bermuda sedge (''[[Carex bermudiana]]'')
Image:Carex bermudiana-01.JPG|Bermuda sedge (''[[Carex bermudiana]]'') flower
Image:Bermuda Maidenhair Fern-00.JPG|Bermuda maidenhair fern (''[[Adiantum bellum]]'')
</gallery>

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* Bermudiana (''[[Sisyrinchium bermudiana]]'')
* Darrell's fleabane (''[[Erigeron darrellianus]]'')
* Bermuda campylopus (moss) (''[[Campylopus bermudianus]]'')
* Bermuda bean (''[[Phaseolus lignosus]]'')
* Bermuda spike rush (''[[Eleocharis bermudiana]]'')
* Bermuda trichostomum (moss) (''[[Trichostomum bermudanum]]'')
* Governor Laffan's fern (''[[Diplazium laffanianum]]'')
{{div col end}}

===Native===
<gallery heights="100px" mode=packed>
Image:Uva de playa (Coccoloba uvifera).jpg|Bay grape (''[[Coccoloba uvifera]]'')
Image:Randia aculeata2924971286.gif|Box briar (''[[Randia aculeata]]'')
Image:Starr 010330-0598 Conocarpus erectus.jpg|Buttonwood (''[[Conocarpus erectus]]'')
Image:Dodonea viscosa flowers1.JPG|Jamaica dogwood (''[[Dodonaea viscosa]]'')
Image:Plody mangrovnika (Rhizophora mangle).jpg|Red mangrove (''[[Rhizophora mangle]]'')
Image:Cayos pict101.jpg|Seven year apple (''[[Casasia clusiifolia]]'')
Image:Plucheaodorata.jpg|Shrubby fleabane (''[[Pluchea odorata]]'')
Image:Sugarberry Celtis laevigata 2009-04-05.jpg|Southern hackberry (''[[Celtis laevigata]]'')
Image:Suriana maritima flowers.JPG|Tassel plant (''[[Suriana maritima]]'')
</gallery>
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* Forestiera (''[[Forestiera segregata]]'')
* Lamarcks trema (''[[Trema lamarckiana]]'')
* Black mangrove (''[[Avicennia nitida]]'')
* White stopper (''[[Eugenia axillaris]]'')
* Wild coffee shrub (''[[Psychotria undata]]'')
* Yellow wood (''[[Zanthoxylum flavum]]'')
{{div col end}}

==Land animals==
===Amphibians===
Bermuda has no native [[amphibian]]s. A species of toad, [[cane toad]] (''Rhinella marina''), and two species of frog, [[Antilles coqui]] (''Eleutherodactylus johnstonei''), and ''[[Eleutherodactylus gossei]]'' were introduced by humans through the transportation of orchids to the island prior to the 1900s, and subsequently became naturalized. ''R. marina'' and ''E. johnstonei'' are common, but ''E. gossei'' is thought to have been recently [[Local extinction|extirpated]]. They are nocturnal and can often be heard at night in Bermuda. Their songs are most prevalent from April until November.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Bermuda's Fauna |url=https://www.bermuda-online.org/fauna.htm |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=Bermuda and her North Atlantic Islands}}</ref>

===Reptiles===
Four species of [[lizard]] and two species of [[turtle]] comprise Bermuda's non-marine reptilian fauna. Of the lizards, the [[Bermuda rock lizard]] (''Plestiodon longirostris''), also known as the rock lizard or Bermuda skink, is the only [[Endemism|endemic]] species.<ref name=lizards /> Once very common, the Bermuda skink is [[critically endangered]]. The Jamaican anole (''[[Anolis grahami]]'') was deliberately introduced in 1905 from Jamaica and is now by far the most common lizard in Bermuda. The [[Leach's anole]] (''Anolis leachii'') was accidentally introduced from Antigua about 1940 and is now common. The [[Barbados anole]] (''Anolis extremus'') was accidentally introduced about 1940 and is rarely seen. The [[diamondback terrapin]] (''Malaclemys terrapin'') is native to Bermuda.<ref name=terrapin /> The [[red-eared slider]] turtle (''Trachemys scripta elegans'') was introduced as a pet, but has subsequently become [[invasive species|invasive]].<ref>[http://www.conservation.bm/red-eared-slider/ "Red-eared slider"], Conservation</ref>

===Mammals===
All mammals in Bermuda were introduced by humans, except for four species of migratory North American [[bat]]s of the genus ''[[Lasiurus]]'': the [[hoary bat]], [[eastern red bat]], [[Seminole bat]] and [[silver-haired bat]]. Early accounts refer to wild or feral hogs, descendants of pigs left by the Spanish and Portuguese as feedstock for ships stopping at the islands for supplies. The [[house mouse]], [[brown rat]] and [[black rat]] were accidentally introduced soon after the settlement of Bermuda, and [[feral cat]]s have become common as another introduced species.

===Birds===
[[File:White-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus bermudianus) in Bermuda.jpg|thumb|A white-eyed vireo (''Vireo griseus bermudianus'')]]
[[File:Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis bermudensis) in Bermuda, from below.jpg|thumb|Juvenile eastern bluebird (''Sialia sialis bermudensis''), from below]]
Over 360 species of [[bird]] have been recorded on Bermuda. The majority of these are [[bird migration|migrants]] or [[vagrancy in birds|vagrants]] from North America or elsewhere. Only 24 species breed on the island; 13 of these are thought to be native.

One endemic species is the [[Bermuda petrel]] or cahow (''Pterodroma cahow''), which was thought to have been extinct since the 1620s. Its ground-nesting habitats had been severely disrupted by introduced species and colonists had killed the birds for food. In 1951, researchers discovered 18 breeding pairs, and started a recovery program to preserve and protect the species.

Another endemic subspecies is the [[White-eyed vireo|Bermuda white-eyed vireo]] or chick-of-the-village (''Vireo griseus bermudianus''). The national bird of Bermuda is the [[white-tailed tropicbird]] or longtail, which is a summer migrant to Bermuda, its most northerly breeding site. Other native birds include the [[eastern bluebird]], [[grey catbird]] and perhaps the [[common ground dove]]. The [[common gallinule]] is the most common native waterbird; very small numbers of [[American coot]] and [[pied-billed grebe]] are breeding. Small numbers of [[common tern]] nest around the coast. The [[American barn owl|barn owl]] and [[mourning dove]] colonized the island during the 20th century, and the [[green heron]] has recently begun to breed.

[[File:Phaethon lepturus.jpg|200px|left|thumb|A [[white-tailed tropicbird]] or longtail]]
Of the introduced birds, the [[European starling]], [[house sparrow]], [[great kiskadee]], [[rock dove]], [[American crow]] and [[chicken]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.conservation.bm/feral-chickens/ |title=Bermuda Conservation - Feral Chickens |access-date=2015-03-12 |archive-date=2014-12-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209214141/http://www.conservation.bm/feral-chickens/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> are all very numerous and considered to be pests. Other introduced species include the [[mallard]], [[northern cardinal]], [[European goldfinch]] and small numbers of [[orange-cheeked waxbill|orange-cheeked]] and [[common waxbill]]s. The [[yellow-crowned night heron]] was introduced in the 1970s to replace the [[Bermuda night heron|extinct native heron]].

Fossil remains of a variety of species have been found on the island, including a [[crane (bird)|crane]], an [[owl]] and the [[short-tailed albatross]]. Some of these became extinct as the islands' land-mass shrank by nine tenths after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], while others were exterminated by early settlers. The Bermuda petrel was thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1951.

Among the many non-breeding migrants are a variety of [[shorebird]]s, [[heron]]s and [[duck]]s. In spring many [[shearwater]]s can be seen of the South Shore. Over 30 species of [[New World warbler]] are seen each year, with the [[yellow-rumped warbler]] being the most abundant. The arrival of many species is dependent on weather conditions; low-pressure systems moving across from North America often bring many birds to the islands. Among the rare visitors recorded are the [[Siberian flycatcher]] from Asia and the [[fork-tailed flycatcher]] and [[tropical kingbird]] from South America.

===Insects===
[[Lawrence Ogilvie]], Bermuda's agricultural scientist 1923 to 1928 identified 395 local insects and wrote the Department of Agriculture's 52-page book ''The Insects of Bermuda'', including ''[[Aphis ogilviei]]'', which he discovered.

==== Ants ====
There are four ant species found in Bermuda. The African big-headed ant (''[[Pheidole megacephala]]'') and Argentine ant (''[[Linepithema humile]]'') are both [[Invasive species|invasive]] to Bermuda. The African ant was first recorded on the island in 1889, and the Argentine ant arrived in Bermuda in the 1940s. These two ants battle for territory and control over the island. Furthermore, there is the Bermuda ant (''[[Odontomachus insularis]]''), which is indigenous to the island. This ant was initially presumed to be extinct, however, they were re-discovered alive in July 2002. Carpenter ants (''[[Camponotus]]'' spp.) are also found in Bermuda.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Bermuda's Fauna |url=https://www.bermuda-online.org/fauna.htm |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=Bermuda and her North Atlantic Islands}}</ref>

===Terrestrial invertebrates===
[[File:Monarch Butterfly Showy Male 3000px.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Monarch butterfly]]]]

More than 1100 kinds of [[insects]] and [[spiders]] are found on Bermuda, including 41 endemic insects and a possibly endemic spider. Eighteen species of [[butterfly]] have been seen; about six of these breed on the islands, including the large [[Monarch butterfly|monarch]] and the very common [[Junonia coenia|Bermuda buckeye]] (''Junonia coenia bergi''). More than 200 [[moth]]s have been recorded; one of the most conspicuous is ''[[Pseudosphinx tetrio]]'', which can reach {{convert|14|cm|in|abbr=on}} in wingspan.

Bermuda has lost a number of its endemic invertebrates, including the [[Neotibicen bermudianus|Bermuda cicada]] (''[[Neotibicen bermudianus]]''), which became extinct when the cedar forests disappeared. Some species feared extinct have been rediscovered, including a [[Bermuda land snail]] (''[[Poecilozonties circumfirmatus]]'') and the Bermuda ant (''[[Odontomachus]] [[Odontomachus insularis|insularis]]'').

==Marine life==
[[File:Humpback Whale underwater shot.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Humpback whale]]]]
Bermuda lies on the western edge of the [[Sargasso Sea]], an area with high salinity, high temperature and few currents. Large quantities of seaweed of the genus ''[[Sargassum]]'' are present and there are high concentrations of [[plankton]], but the area is less attractive to commercial [[fish]] species and [[seabird]]s.

Greater diversity is present in the [[coral reef]]s which surround the island.

=== Marine mammals ===
A variety of [[whale]]s, [[dolphin]]s and [[porpoise]]s have been recorded in the waters around Bermuda. The most common of these is the [[humpback whale]], which passes the islands in April and May during its northward migration.

=== Fish ===
There are many fish species in Bermuda's waters, such as the [[barracuda]], [[Kyphosus sectatrix|Bermuda chub]], [[bluestriped grunt]], [[hogfish]], [[longspine squirrelfish]], various types of [[parrotfish]], [[smooth trunkfish]], and [[slippery dick]], to name a few.<ref name=":1" />

=== Marine invertebrates ===
==== Sea squirts ====
There are various types of sea squirts, such as the black sea squirt (''[[Phallusia nigra]]''), the purple sea squirt (''[[Clavelina picta]]''), the orange sea squirt (''[[Ecteinascidia turbinata]]''), and the lacy sea squirt (''[[Botrylloides nigrum]]'').<ref name=":1" />

==== Crustaceans ====
There are various types of crabs in Bermuda. There are, Sally Lightfoot crabs (''[[Grapsus grapsus]]''), [[decorator crab]]s, swimming crabs ([[Portunidae]]), spider crabs ([[Majoidea]]), and Verrill's hermit crab (''[[Calcinus verrillii]]''). Great land crabs (''[[Cardisoma guanhumi]]'') are hard to find, but present in Bermuda. Finally, there is the Bermuda land crab (''[[Gecarcinus lateralis]]''), which is native, but not exclusive to, Bermuda.<ref name=":1" />

==Threats and preservation==
Bermuda was the first place in the Americas to pass conservation laws, protecting the [[Bermuda petrel]] in 1616 and the [[Bermuda cedar]] in 1622. It has a well-organised network of protected areas including [[Spittal Pond, Bermuda|Spittal Pond]], marshes in [[Paget Parish, Bermuda|Paget]] and [[Devonshire Parish, Bermuda|Devonshire]] and [[Pembroke Parish, Bermuda|Pembroke Parish]]es, [[Warwick Parish, Bermuda|Warwick Pond]] and the hills above [[Warwick Parish, Bermuda|Castle Harbour]].

Only small areas of natural forest remain today; much was cleared since colonisation began in the 17th century, and recovered forest was lost in the 1940s due to insect infestation. The Bermuda petrel and Bermuda skink are highly endangered, and Bermuda cedar, Bermuda palmetto and Bermuda olivewood are all listed as threatened species. Some wild plants, including a [[Eleocharis|spike rush]], have disappeared. Introduced plants and animals have had adverse effects on the wildlife of the islands. The thriving tourist industry creates its own challenges to preserve the wildlife and habitat that attract visitors.

Parrotfish are crucial to the coral reefs of Bermuda. Overfishing has caused issues for parrotfish that live in the coastal waters of other islands, such as the U.S. Virgin Islands. Looking at these instances in other habitats can help conservationists prevent the parrotfish population in Bermuda from experiencing decline as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bell |first=Jonathan |date=2016-09-15 |title=New study of parrotfish |url=https://www.royalgazette.com/environment/news/article/20160915/new-study-of-parrotfish/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=www.royalgazette.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Birds such as the [[white-tailed tropicbird]] (Bermuda longtail) are strongly affected by hurricanes, as the hurricanes harm individuals and destroy their nests, which makes reproduction nearly impossible. Invasive species have been known to use similar nesting sites. Specifically, the [[Rock dove|rock pigeon]] often builds its nests within crevices around the island, including on rocky shorelines and cracks in Bermuda's tall cliffs. This is also where the Bermuda longtail nests, so the competition makes reproduction harder for the local species.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{reflist}}
* Amos, Eric J. R. (1991) ''A Guide to the Birds of Bermuda'', privately published.
* Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo ''[http://www.bamz.org/bda_biodiversity_project.aspx Bermuda Biodiversity Project]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812023940/http://www.bamz.org/bda_biodiversity_project.aspx |date=2010-08-12 }}, downloaded 21 February 2007.
* Dobson, A. (2002) ''A Birdwatching Guide to Bermuda'', Arlequin Press, Chelmsford, UK.
* Flora of Bermuda (Illustrated) by Nathaniel Lord Britton, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D. [https://archive.org/stream/floraofbermuda00brit#page/n7/mode/2up.htm (Published 1918)]
* Forbes, Keith Archibald (2007) ''[http://bermuda-online.org/fauna.htm Bermuda's Fauna]'', downloaded downloaded 21 February 2007.
* Gehrman, Elizabeth (2102) ''Rare Birds: The Extraordinary Tale of the Bermuda Petrel and the Man Who Brought It Back from Extinction'' (Beacon Press).
* Ogden, George (2002) ''Bermuda A Gardener's Guide'', The Garden Club of Bermuda
* [[Lawrence Ogilvie|Ogilvie]], Lawrence (1928) ''The Insects of Bermuda''
* Raine, André (2003) ''A Field Guide to the Birds of Bermuda'', Macmillan, Oxford.
* {{WWF ecoregion|id=na0301|name=Bermuda subtropical conifer forests|access-date=2021-02-07}}

==External links==
*[http://www.audubon.bm/ Bermuda Audubon Society]
*[https://www.flickr.com/groups/bermudabiodiversity Bermuda biodiversity, Flickr]
*[http://www.bnt.bm/ Bermuda National Trust]
*[http://www.environment.bm/ Bermuda Government, Department of Environment and Natural Resources]

{{Bermuda topics}}
{{North America in topic|Ecology of}}

[[Category:Biota of Bermuda|*]]
[[Category:Environment of Bermuda]]
[[Category:Flora of Bermuda|*]]
[[Category:Nearctic ecoregions]]
[[Category:Natural history of Bermuda|*]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]
[[Category:Wildlife by country|Bermuda]]