View source for Ebla

{{Short description|Ancient Syrian city}}
{{about||the star also named Ebla|HD 218566|eBLA|Biologics license application|and|Electronic common technical document}}
{{distinguish|Elbe|Elba|Ebola|Ablah}}

{{good article}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name           = Ebla
|alternate_name = Tell Mardikh<br />{{lang|ar|تل مرديخ}}
|image          = HPIM3078 1.JPG
|alt =
|caption        = Ruins of the outer wall and the "Damascus Gate" 
|map_type       = Syria
|map_alt =
|relief=yes
|coordinates    = {{coord|35.798|36.798|display=inline,title}}
|map_size       = 200
|location       = [[Idlib Governorate]], Syria
|type           = settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder =
|material =
|built          = {{circa|3500}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} 
|abandoned      = 7th century &nbsp;{{sc|AD}}
|epochs         = [[Bronze Age]]
|cultures       = [[Kish civilization]], [[Amorites|Amorite]]
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations    = 1964–2011
|archaeologists = [[Paolo Matthiae]]
|condition      = Ruined
|ownership      = Public
|public_access  = Yes
|website =
|notes =
|native_name=𒌈𒆷|native_name_lang=sux}}

'''Ebla''' ([[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]: {{cuneiform|𒌈𒆷}} ''eb₂-la'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ebla |dictionary=Sumerian Dictionary |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] |url=http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0043978 |via=oracc.iaas.upenn.edu}}</ref> {{langx|ar| إبلا}}, modern: {{lang|ar|تل مرديخ}}, '''Tell Mardikh''') was one of the earliest kingdoms in [[Syria]]. Its remains constitute a [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]] located about {{convert|55|km|mi|abbr=on}} southwest of [[Aleppo]] near the village of [[Mardikh]]. Ebla was an important center throughout the {{nowrap|[[3rd millennium BC|3rd millennium {{sc|BC}}]]}} and in the first half of the {{nowrap|[[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium {{sc|BC}}]].}} Its discovery proved the [[Levant]] was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]] during the Early [[Bronze Age]]. The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power.

Starting as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age ({{circa|3500}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jr |first=William H. Stiebing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-51116-0 |pages=63 |language=en}}</ref> Ebla was destroyed during the {{nowrap|23rd century {{sc|BC}}.}} It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]]. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the {{nowrap|3rd millennium {{sc|BC}},}} which paved the way for the [[Amorite]] tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of [[Yamhad]] (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the [[Hittites|Hittite]] king {{nowrap|[[Mursili I]]}} in {{circa|1600}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.

Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from [[Sumer]], [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]] and as far as [[Afghanistan]] were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language, [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]], and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the [[Ebla tablets]], an archive of about 20,000&nbsp;[[cuneiform]] tablets found there, dated to 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}–2350&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{#tag:ref|All dates in this article are estimated by the [[Middle Chronology]], unless stated otherwise.|group=note}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Crawford |first1=Sidnie White |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6y8CgAAQBAJ&dq=ebla+library+older&pg=PA58 |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran and the Concept of a Library |last2=Wassen |first2=Cecilia |date=2015-10-14 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30506-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chrisomalis |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ux--OWgWvBQC&dq=ebla+library+2500+bc&pg=PA245 |title=Numerical Notation: A Comparative History |date=2010-01-18 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87818-0 |language=en}}</ref> Written in both [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] and Eblaite and using the [[cuneiform]], the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}'s Levant.

==Etymology==
The word "Ebla" means "white rock" and may refer to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA248 248]}}{{sfn|Mantellini|Micale|Peyronel|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA182 182]}}

==History==
===Chalcolithic===
In the central mound, finds from the Late Ubaid and Late Chalcolithic has been found.<ref>Vacca, Agnese. “Vacca, A. 2018. Centralization Before the Palace. The EB III–IVA1 Sequence on the Acropolis of Tell Mardikh/Ebla.” In P. Matthiae, F. Pinnock and M. D'Andrea (Eds), Ebla and Beyond Ancient Near Eastern Studies after Fifty Years of Discoveries at Tell Mardikh Proceedings of the International Congress Held in Rome, 15th‒17th December 2014, Wiesbaden, Pp 35-73, 2018, 35–73 .</ref>

===Early Bronze===
Ebla was first settled around 3500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}};{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239 241]}}{{sfn|Shaw|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA211 211]}} its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239 241]}} The city benefited from its role as an [[entrepôt]] of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in [[Sumer]].{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239 241]}} Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh&nbsp;I"; it ended around 3000&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Leick|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=jhbSbuplQ28C&pg=PA54 54]}}

Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, designated "Mardikh II".{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}} [[I. J. Gelb]] considered Ebla as part of the [[Kish civilization]], which was a cultural entity of [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]-speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=6lDgYxV0DN8C&pg=PA133 133]}}

====First kingdom====
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = Ebla
| conventional_long_name = First Eblaite Kingdom
| common_name            = Ebla
| national_motto         = 
| era                    = Early Bronze Age
| status                 = 
| government_type        = Monarchy
| year_start             = {{circa|3000}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}
| year_end               = {{circa|2300}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}
| event_start            = 
| event_end              = 
| p1                     = 
| flag_p1                = 
| p2                     = 
| p3                     = 
| s1                     = The second kingdom of Mari
| image_s1               = [[File:Second Mariote kingdom.png|50px|alt=Second Mariote kingdom|link=Mari, Syria#The second kingdom]]
| image_flag             = 
| flag_type              = 
| coa_size               = 
| image                  = 
| alt                    = 
| caption                = 
| image_map              = First Eblaite Empire.png
| image_map_caption      = The first kingdom at its greatest extent, including vassals
| capital                = Ebla
| common_languages       = [[Eblaite language|Palaeo-Syrian]]
| religion               = [[Ancient Canaanite religion|Ancient Levantine religion]].{{sfn|Wright|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA173 173]}}
| currency               = 
| Currency               = 
| title_leader           = 
| leader1                = 
| year_leader1           = 
| legislature            = 
| today                  = [[Syria]]<br/>[[Lebanon]]<br/>[[Turkey]]
}}

During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, which is known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}}

'''Mardiikh IIA''': The early period between 3000 and 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} is designated "Mardikh IIA".{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}}{{sfn|Ökse|2011|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=TY3t4y_L5SQC&pg=PA268 268]}} General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA250 250]}} The first stages of Mardikh&nbsp;IIA is identified with building&nbsp;"CC",{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA247 247]}} and structures that form a part of building "G2",{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA246 246]}} which was apparently a royal palace built {{circa|2700}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239 241]}}{{sfn|Dolce|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA66 66]}} Toward the end of this period, a [[Mari, Syria#Mari–Ebla war|hundred years' war]] with [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] started.{{sfn|Nadali|2007|p= [https://www.academia.edu/619545/Davide_Nadali_2007_Monuments_of_war_war_of_monuments_Some_considerations_on_commemorating_war_in_the_Third_Millennium_BC 349]}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA79 79]}} Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king [[Saʿumu]], who conquered many of Ebla's cities.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}} In the mid-25th century&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, king [[Kun-Damu]] defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign.{{#tag:ref|The political weakness started during the short reign of [[Adub-Damu]].{{sfn|Dolce|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA68 68]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Dolce|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA68 68]}}

[[File:Ebla - DecArch - 2-126.jpg|thumb|left|Royal palace "G"]]
'''Mardikh IIB1''': The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from {{circa|2400}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} until {{circa|2300}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}} The end of the period is known as the "first destruction",{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA38 38]}} mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace&nbsp;"G" and built over the earlier "G2"),{{sfn|Astour|1992|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=rXcvrnUF36EC 19]}} and much of the acropolis.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA74 74]}} During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives.{{sfn|Pettinato|1981|p= [https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett 105]}} Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}}

The written archives do not date from before [[Igrish-Halam]]'s reign,{{sfn|Tonietti|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=-H3iYPUc97YC&pg=PA69 69]}} which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,{{sfn|Nadali|2007|p= [https://www.academia.edu/619545/Davide_Nadali_2007_Monuments_of_war_war_of_monuments_Some_considerations_on_commemorating_war_in_the_Third_Millennium_BC 350]}} and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king [[Iblul-Il]].{{sfn|Roux|1992|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT200 200]}}{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA40 40]}} Ebla recovered under King [[Irkab-Damu]] in about 2340&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari.{{sfn|Podany|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Cooper|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ySjxzVWf120C&pg=PA64 64]}} Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with [[Abarsal]].{{#tag:ref|Probably located along the Euphrates river east of Ebla.{{sfn|Archi|2011|p= [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.5615/jcunestud.63.0005 5]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Archi|2011|p= [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.5615/jcunestud.63.0005 5]}} This [[Treaty between Ebla and Abarsal]] is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history.{{sfn|Neff|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=u5DzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14]}}

===== Geography =====
At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria,{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT240 242]}} from [[Urshu|Ursa'um]] in the north,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA101 101]}} to the area around [[Damascus]] in the south,{{sfn|Tubb|1998|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=GH-n4ctvlDYC&pg=PA39 39]}} and from [[Phoenicia#Origins|Phoenicia]] and the [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range|coastal mountains]] in the west,{{sfn|Aubet|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=B7SLWT2vpNcC&pg=PA18 18]}}{{sfn|Astour|1981|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA4 4]}} to [[Haddu]] in the east.{{sfn|Archi|2011|p= [https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.5615/jcunestud.63.0005 5]}}{{sfn|Cooper|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=46SmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 89]}} Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and were administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT240 242]}} One of the most important of these vassals was [[Armi (Syria)|Armi]],{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 135]}} which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets.{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA486 486]}} Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA66 66]}} including [[Khashshum|Hazuwan]], [[Sweyhat|Burman]], [[Emar]], [[Halabiye|Halabitu]] and [[Zalabiye|Salbatu]].{{sfn|Cooper|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ySjxzVWf120C&pg=PA64 64]}}{{sfn|Cooper|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=46SmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT133 89]}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA83 83]}}

According to Archi, these are "the twelve Syrian cities long allied with Ebla that (presumably) assisted in some way during the expedition against Mari: NIrar, Ra’ak, Burman, Dub, Emar, Garmu, Lumnan, Ibubu, [[Urshu|Ursaum]], Utik, Kakmium, and Iritum ([[Irridu]])." Furthermore, the following cities were under Ebla’s hegemony at that time, and annually delivered tribute: Dub, Dulu, [[Harran]], Ibubu, Iritum, Kablul, Sanapzugum, Ursaum, and Utik.{{sfn|Archi|2011|p=17}}

The vizier was the king's chief official.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA59 59]}} The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was [[Ibrium]], who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} Ibrium held office for 18 years with warfare occurring in all but one year.<ref>Archi, Alfonso. "The Wars of Ebla at the Time of Minister Ibrium" Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 48, no. 2, 2021, pp. 189-220</ref> During the reign of [[Isar-Damu]], Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally [[Tell Brak#Kingdom of Nagar|Nagar]], blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Nadali|2007|p= [https://www.academia.edu/619545/Davide_Nadali_2007_Monuments_of_war_war_of_monuments_Some_considerations_on_commemorating_war_in_the_Third_Millennium_BC 350]}} Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} including several attacks on Armi,{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA484 484]}}{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA485 485]}}{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA486 486]}} and a campaign against the southern region of [[Ib'al]] – close to [[Qatna]].{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 121]}} In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]. Some scholars have suggested that the Kish in question was not the Mesopotamian city but rather a town near Nagar in the Khabur area.<ref>POMPONIO, Francesco. "FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ON KIŠ<sup>KI</sup> IN THE EBLA TEXTS." Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 107, pp. 71–83, 2013</ref>{{sfn|Podany|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA57 57]}} The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier [[Ibbi-Sipish]], who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near [[Terqa]].{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor.{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA486 486]}} Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign,{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} probably following Isar-Damu's death.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA219 219]}}

====First destruction of Ebla====
The first destruction occurred {{circa|2300}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them.{{sfn|Ristvet|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=VqERBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 54]}} Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited:{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}}

[[File:Akkadian soldier of Naram-Sin.jpg|thumb|[[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] soldier of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]], with helmet and long sword, on the Nasiriyah stele. He carries a metal vessel of Anatolian type. From [[Mesopotamia]], Iraq, c. 2300 {{sc|BC}}. [[Iraq Museum]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKeon |first1=John F.X. |title=An Akkadian Victory Stele |journal=Boston Museum Bulletin |date=1970 |volume=68 |issue=354 |page=239 |jstor=4171539 |issn=0006-7997}}</ref>]]
* '''High (early) dating hypothesis''': [[Giovanni Pettinato]] supports an early dating for Ebla that would put the destruction at around 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{#tag:ref|At first Pettinato supported the Naram-Sin theory before proposing the High dating.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA63 63]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA61 61]}} Pettinato, while preferring the date of 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, later accepted the event could have happened in 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{#tag:ref|[[Michael Astour]] argues that using the chronology accepted by Pettinato, one obtains the date of 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} for the reign of [[Ur-Nanshe]] of [[Lagash]], who ruled approximately 150&nbsp;years prior to Lagash's destruction at the hands of king [[Lugalzagesi]]. Since Ur-Nanshe ruled in 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, and his reign is separated by at least 150&nbsp;years from Hidar of Mari's reign which saw Ebla's destruction, then the date for that event is pulled beyond 2500&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} and even 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA63 63]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA62 62]}} The scholar suggests the city was destroyed in 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} by a Mesopotamian such as [[Eannatum]] of Lagash – who boasted of taking tribute from Mari – or [[Lugalzagesi]] of [[Umma]], who claimed to have reached the Mediterranean.{{#tag:ref|Astour argue that according to the middle chronology used for the 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} date, Eannatum's reign ended in 2425&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} and Ebla was not destroyed until 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}; according to the same chronology Lugalzagesi's reign would have started fifty years after 2400&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA62 62]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA62 62]}}
* '''Akkadian hypothesis''': Both kings [[Sargon of Akkad]] and his grandson [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] claimed to have destroyed a town called Ibla,{{sfn|Gurney|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=RtMSrGe8MY0C&pg=PA119 119]}} The discoverer of Ebla, [[Paolo Matthiae]], considers Sargon a more likely culprit;{{#tag:ref|At first Matthiae supported the Naram-Sin theory then switched to Sargon.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA64 64]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA68 68]}} his view is supported by [[Trevor R. Bryce|Trevor Bryce]],{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}} but rejected by [[Michael Astour]].{{#tag:ref|Astour believes that Sargon and his grandson were referring to a city with a similar name in Iraq named "[[Armani (kingdom)|Ib-la]]".{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA65 65]}}{{sfn|Horowitz|1998|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=P8fl8BXpR0MC&pg=PA82 82]}} Astour says the archives of Ebla at the time of their destruction correspond to the political situation predating the establishment of the Akkadian empire, not just the reign of Naram-Sin.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA64 64]}} It is also unlikely Sargon was responsible because at the time of their destruction, the Ebla tablets describe [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] as independent. Lugalzagesi sacked Kish and was killed by Sargon before Sargon destroyed Ibla or Ebla.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA72 72]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA70 70]}} The conquest of [[Armanum]] and Ebla on the Mediterranean coast by Naram-Sin is mentioned in several of his inscriptions:<ref name="DF132">{{cite book |last1=Frayne |first1=Douglas |title=Sargonic and Gutian Periods |pages=132–133 |url=https://www.academia.edu/29704423 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|"Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla, the god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla."|Inscription of Naram-Sin. E&nbsp;2.1.4.26<ref name="DF132"/>}}

* '''Mari's revenge''': According to [[Alfonso Archi]] and [[Maria Biga]], the destruction happened approximately three or four years after the battle of Terqa.{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} Archi and Biga say the destruction was caused by Mari{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103]}} in retaliation for its humiliating defeat at Terqa.<ref>Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. “A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 55, pp. 1–44, 2003</ref>{{sfn|Podany|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA59 59]}} This view is supported by [[Mario Liverani]].{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} Archi says the Mariote king [[Isqi-Mari]] destroyed Ebla before ascending the throne of his city.{{sfn|Bretschneider|Van Vyve|Leuven|2009|p= [https://www.academia.edu/645365/War_of_the_lords_The_battle_of_chronology 7]}}
* '''Natural catastrophe''': Astour says a natural catastrophe caused the blaze which ended the archive period.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA74 74]}} He says the destruction was limited to the area of the royal palace and there is no convincing evidence of looting.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA74 74]}} He dates the fire to {{circa|2290}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} ([[Middle Chronology]]).{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA75 75]}}

====Second kingdom====
{{Infobox country
|native_name = Ebla
|conventional_long_name = Second Eblaite Kingdom 
|common_name = Ebla
|national_motto =
|era = Bronze Age
|status =
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = {{circa|2300}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}
|year_end = {{circa|2000}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}
|event_start =
|event_end =
|p1 =
|flag_p1 =
|p2 =
|p3 =
|s1 =
|image_s1 =
|image_flag =
|flag_type =
|coa_size =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|image_map =Second Eblaite Empire.png 
|image_map_caption =Approximate borders of the second kingdom
|capital = Ebla
|common_languages = [[Eblaite language|Palaeo-Syrian]]
|religion =
|currency =
|Currency =
|title_leader=
| leader1=
| year_leader1=
|legislature =
|today =
}}

The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA38 38]}} The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, with the 2000&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} dating being a mere formal date.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA78 78]}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 324]}} The [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]] under [[Sargon of Akkad]] and his descendant [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the [[Nur Mountains|Amanus Mountain]]; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90&nbsp;years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA79 79]}} Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period.{{sfn|Archi|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=WHplCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}} By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king.{{sfn|Archi|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=WHplCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA471 471]}}
[[File:Ebla9.JPG|thumb|left|Palace "P5"]]
A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}} but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA245 245]}} Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA252 252]}} A new royal palace was built in the lower town,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA76 76]}} and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace&nbsp;"G".{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA74 74]}} Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA76 76]}}

The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, [[Gudea]] of [[Lagash]] asked for cedars to be brought from [[Urshu]] in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of [[Carchemish]] in modern-day Turkey.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA81 81]}} Texts that dates to the seventh year of [[Amar-Sin]] ({{circa|2040}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}),{{#tag:ref|Amar-Sin's reign lasted from 2045 to 2037&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} (middle chronology).{{sfn|Crawford|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0nIpBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 83]}}|group=note}} a ruler of the [[Ur III]] empire, mention a messenger of the [[Ensí]] ("Megum") of Ebla.{{#tag:ref|"Megum" is thought to have been a title of the ruler of Ebla rather than a personal name.{{sfn|Pinnock|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gKTpAAAAMAAJ 1405]}} King Ibbit-Lim of the latter third kingdom of Ebla also used this title.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA26 26]}} An Eblaite seal that reads the sentence [[Ib-Damu]] Mekim Ebla, was used in the {{nowrap|19th century {{sc|BC}}}} by an Assyrian merchant named Assur-Nada from [[Kültepe]].{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA25 25]}} Ib Damu was the name of an Eblaite king from the early period of the first kingdom.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA25 25]}}|group=note}}{{#tag:ref|In a tablet, the name of Ili-Dagan "the man of Ebla" is mentioned, and he was thought to be a ruler.{{sfn|Goetze|1953|p= [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1359547 103]}} However, other texts mentions him as the envoy of Ebla's ruler.{{sfn|Michalowski|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=thIxCmwfNoMC&pg=PA185 185]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Klengel|1992|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5GptAAAAMAAJ 36]}} The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA87 87]}} but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA132 132]}} A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA101 101]}}

The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the {{nowrap|21st century {{sc|BC}},}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA101 101]}} and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA252 252]}} The reason for the destruction is not known;{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA252 252]}} according to Astour, it could have been the result of a [[Hurrian]] invasion {{circa|2030}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}},{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT247 250]}} led by the former Eblaite vassal city of [[Ikinkalis]].{{#tag:ref|Unidentified location to the north of Ebla in the proximity of [[Alalakh]].{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA24 24]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA124 124]}} The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983,{{sfn|Bachvarova|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AnXbhhN_kpIC&pg=PA66 66]}} which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA153 153]}} In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king [[Meki of Ebla|Meki]] from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA24 24]}} provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god [[Teshub]] and causing him to destroy the city.{{sfn|Bachvarova|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AnXbhhN_kpIC&pg=PA67 67]}}

===Middle Bronze===
====Third kingdom====
{{Infobox country
|native_name = Ebla
|conventional_long_name = Third Eblaite Kingdom 
|common_name = Ebla
|national_motto =
|era = Bronze Age
|status =
|government_type = Monarchy
|year_start = {{circa|2000}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}
|year_end = {{circa|1600}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} 
|event_start =
|event_end =
|p1 =
|flag_p1 =
|p2 =
|p3 =
|s1 = Hittites
|image_s1 = [[File:AlterOrient2.png|50px|alt=AlterOrient2|link=Hittites]]
|image_flag =
|flag_type =
|coa_size =
|image =
|alt =
|caption =
|image_map =
|image_map_caption =
|capital = Ebla
|common_languages = [[Amorite language]].{{sfn|Weiss|1985|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kMbpAAAAMAAJ 213]}}
|religion = [[Canaanite religion|Ancient Levantine religion]] 
|currency =
|Currency =
|title_leader=
| leader1=
| year_leader1=
|legislature =
|today =
}}
[[File:Ibbit-Lim.png|thumb|Statue fragment of [[Ibbit-Lim]].]]
The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh&nbsp;III"; it is divided into periods&nbsp;"A" ({{circa|2000–1800}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) and "B" ({{circa|1800–1600}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}).{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA38 38]}} In period&nbsp;"A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.{{sfn|Harmanşah|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=X2eomg9Y14EC&pg=PA75 75]}} The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh&nbsp;II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis.{{sfn|Harmanşah|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=X2eomg9Y14EC&pg=PA75 75]}} The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}}{{sfn|Hooks|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA226 226]}} Further construction took place in period&nbsp;"B".{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}}
[[File:HPIM3077.JPG|thumb|left|The vizier palace]]
The first known king of the third kingdom is [[Ibbit-Lim]],{{sfn|Matthiae|2013b|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA103 103]}} who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.{{#tag:ref|This led Astour, David I. Owen and Ron Veenker to identify Ibbit-Lim with the pre-Amorite Megum of the Third Ur era.{{sfn|Klengel|1992|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5GptAAAAMAAJ 41]}} However, this identification is now refuted.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA26 26]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA25 25]}} A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA25 25]}}{{sfn|Matthiae|2013b|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA103 103]}} The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time.{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 22]}}

By the beginning of the {{nowrap|18th century {{sc|BC}},}} Ebla had become a vassal of [[Yamhad]], an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.{{sfn|Thuesen|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA61 61]}}{{sfn|Feldman|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_7kP_hNKHxIC&pg=PA55 55]}} Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during [[Yarim-Lim III]] of Yamhad's reign.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was [[Immeya]], who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh [[Hotepibre]], indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla.{{sfn|Matthiae|2008|p= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n61 35]}} The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of [[Alalakh]] in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King [[Ammitaqum]] of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal [[Yamhad dynasty|Yamhadite dynasty]].{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA807 807]}}{{sfn|Teissier|1984|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=qu7WeaZA3VUC&pg=PA72 72]}}

Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King {{nowrap|[[Mursili I]]}} in about 1600&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA211 211]}} [[Indilimma]] was probably the last king of Ebla;{{sfn|Matthiae|2013b|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA106 106]}} a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q".{{sfn|Matthiae|2013b|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA106 106]}}{{sfn|Matthiae|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oYearm8YobQC&pg=PA86 86]}} Alternatively, Maratewari  could well be the last king according to Archi,{{sfn|Archi|2015b|p= 24}} who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA24 24]}}

===Later periods===
Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh&nbsp;IV" (1600–1200&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}),{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA211 211]}} and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as a vassal to the [[Yamhad dynasty#In Alalakh|Idrimi dynasty]].{{sfn|Astour|1969|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMR5C12GOF8C&pg=PA388 388]}} "Mardikh&nbsp;V" (1200–535&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) was a rural, Early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA211 211]}} Further development occurred during "Mardikh&nbsp;VI", which lasted until {{circa|60}}&nbsp;{{sc|AD}}.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA211 211]}} "Mardikh&nbsp;VII" began in the {{nowrap|3rd century {{sc|AD}}}} and lasted until the 7th&nbsp;century,{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 16]}} after which the site was abandoned.{{sfn|Hooks|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA225 225]}}

==Site==

===City layout===
[[File:Ebla main sites.jpg|thumb|Ebla's landmarks]]
Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the center.{{sfn|Cooper|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=46SmAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT130 86]}} During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications.{{sfn|Pinnock|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C&pg=PA110 110]}} Ebla was divided into four districts – each with its own gate in the outer wall.{{sfn|Pinnock|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C&pg=PA112 112]}} The acropolis included the king's palace&nbsp;"G",{{sfn|Gilchrist|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA537 537]}} and one of two temples in city dedicated to [[Kura (deity)|Kura]] (called the "Red Temple").{{sfn|Pinnock|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA543 543]}} The lower city included the second temple of Kura in the southeast called "Temple of the Rock".{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA251 251]}} During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic palace&nbsp;"P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis,{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA26 26]}} in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple".{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA40 40]}}

[[File:Ebla ziggurat.jpg|thumb|Part of a [[ziggurat]] in Ebla]]

During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60&nbsp;hectares in size,{{sfn|Matthiae|2008|p= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n60 34]}} and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates.{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT445 421]}} The acropolis was fortified and separated from the lower town.{{sfn|Baffi|Peyronel|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA200 200]}} New royal palace&nbsp;"E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB),{{sfn|Hooks|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA226 226]}} and a temple of [[Ishtar]] was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area&nbsp;"D").{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA295 295]}}{{sfn|Pinnock|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA543 543]}} The lower town was also divided into four districts;{{sfn|Pinnock|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C&pg=PA112 112]}} palace&nbsp;"P5" was used during Mardikh&nbsp;IIIA,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA164 164]}} and replaced during Mardikh&nbsp;IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace".{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT445 421]}}

Other third kingdom buildings included the vizier palace,{{#tag:ref|Called the southern palace (in area&nbsp;"FF"), it was located at the foot of the southern side of the acropolis.{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT446 422]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT446 422]}} the western palace (in area&nbsp;"Q"),{{sfn|Matthiae|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oYearm8YobQC&pg=PA86 86]}} the temple of [[Shamash]] (temple&nbsp;"N"), the temple of [[Resheph|Rasap]] (temple&nbsp;"B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace").{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT445 421]}}{{sfn|Peyronel|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FgML1EdUiWUC&pg=PA177 177]}} In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built,{{sfn|Nigro|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C&pg=PA130 130]}} while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of [[Hadad]].{{#tag:ref|Area HH.{{sfn|Bonacossi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5H4fAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT446 422]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Nigro|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C&pg=PA130 130]}}

===Royal burials===
[[File:Ebla.jpg|thumb|left|The western palace&nbsp;"Q" situated above the royal necropolis]]
The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside the city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in [[Atarib|Darib]],{{sfn|Michalowski|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA465 465]}} while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in [[Binnish|Binas]] and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum&nbsp;"G4").{{sfn|Matthiae|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=O81mDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP57 50]}} This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury the kings beneath their royal palaces.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=O81mDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP57 50]}}

The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace&nbsp;"Q" (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated.{{sfn|Matthiae|2008|p= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n63 37]}} Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and {{nowrap|18th centuries {{sc|BC}}}} and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting the shaft to the chamber.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA252 252]}}{{sfn|Mogliazza|Polcaro|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzs8bFFnVeoC&pg=PA431 431]}}{{sfn|Suriano|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MfSfzOqEK4sC&pg=PA60 60]}}

====Hypogeum G4====
The royal tomb found in the royal palace&nbsp;"G" is designated hypogeum&nbsp;"G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of [[Isar-Damu]].{{sfn|Matthiae|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA53 53]}} The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains.{{sfn|Laneri|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZehDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.{{sfn|Laneri|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZehDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}

Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6&nbsp;meters.{{sfn|Laneri|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZehDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors.{{sfn|Laneri|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZehDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4&nbsp;meters wide, more than 3,5&nbsp;meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented.{{sfn|Matthiae|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=u4F1AAAAMAAJ 270]}} The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented.{{sfn|Matthiae|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=u4F1AAAAMAAJ 269]}} Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a [[Corbel arch|corbelled vault]].{{sfn|Laneri|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZehDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Matthiae|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=u4F1AAAAMAAJ 270]}}

====Western palace tombs====
[[File:Eblaite tombs.png|thumb|Plan of the western palace tombs]]
The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period.<ref>MATTHIAE, PAOLO.,"Two Princely Tombs at Tell Mardikh-Ebla.", Archaeology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 8–17, 1980</ref>
* '''The tomb of the princess''': dating to {{circa|1800}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}, it is the oldest and smallest of the third kingdom tombs found.{{sfn|Suriano|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MfSfzOqEK4sC&pg=PA60 60]}}{{sfn|Matthiae|1989|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iWZtAAAAMAAJ 303]}} Excavated in 1978,{{sfn|Matthiae|1989|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iWZtAAAAMAAJ 303]}} it contained the remains of a young woman, hence the naming.{{sfn|Matthiae|1984|p= 24}} The dromos has steps, partially cut in the bedrock and partially paved with stones, leading to the chamber, which was achieved through the enlargement of a natural cave.{{sfn|Nigro|2009|p= [https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age 161]}} The tomb is the only one not pillaged;{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 28]}} it contained precious jewels and funerary objects.{{sfn|Grajetzki|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=m0MoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 173]}}
* '''The tomb of the cisterns''': this tomb is the most damaged in the necropolis.{{sfn|Suriano|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=MfSfzOqEK4sC&pg=PA60 60]}} It consists of a double room burial; the earliest, (Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in the place of Q79A toward the end of the {{nowrap|17th century {{sc|BC}}}} (leading to the founding of burial Q79B).{{sfn|Nigro|2009|p= [https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age 161]}} This was probably the resting place of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in Q79A.{{sfn|Nigro|2009|p= [https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age 161]}}
* '''The tomb of the lord of the goats''': it is the largest in the necropolis; it includes two depositional chambers and is reached through a vertical shaft.{{sfn|Nigro|2009|p= [https://www.academia.edu/1096021/The_Eighteenth_Century_BC_Princes_of_Byblos_and_Ebla_and_the_Chronology_of_the_Middle_Bronze_Age 161]}} The occupier of the tomb is not known with certainty, he is called the lord of the goats by archaeologists due to the existence of a throne decorated with bronze goat heads in the tomb.{{sfn|Fortin|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iFttAAAAMAAJ 173]}} A silver cup that has the name of king [[Immeya]] inscribed was found in the tomb making that king the most likely owner of the burial.{{sfn|Matthiae|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=noPMQgAACAAJ 217]}}

==Government==
{{further|List of kings of Ebla}}
The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled ''Malikum'') and the grand vizier, who headed a council of elders (''Abbu'') and the administration.{{sfn|Finer|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aEziNfjinnMC&pg=PA172 172]}} The second kingdom was also a monarchy,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA132 132]}} but little is known about it because of a lack of written records.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA76 76]}} The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT261 267]}}

===Administration of the first kingdom===
{{Further|Vizier (Ebla)}}
The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king.{{sfn|Gilchrist|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA537 537]}} The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince was involved in foreign affairs.{{sfn|Gilchrist|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA537 537]}} Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13&nbsp;court dignitaries – each of whom controlled between 400 and 800&nbsp;men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700&nbsp;people.{{sfn|Finer|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aEziNfjinnMC&pg=PA172 172]}} Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies.{{sfn|Gilchrist|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA537 537]}} To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors (''ur'') and messengers (''kas'').{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT240 242]}}

====Administrative divisions====
Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT240 242]}} The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}} Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city).{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}} The villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled directly from the capital,{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}} or had appointed officials.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}} The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions.{{sfn|Cooper|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FQ-AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT91 91]}}

*Lugal: while in Mesopotamia a {{lang|mis|italic=no|lugal}} designated a king, in Ebla it designated a governor who was directly under the authority of the capital.{{sfn|Pongratz-Leisten|2015|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LJqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA199 199]}} The nature of this title as part of Eblaite bureaucracy is ambiguous; each {{lang|mis|italic=no|lugal}} was under the authority of the grand vizier,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122]}} and the bearers ruled cities directly under the authority of the capital and they all brought goods to be kept in Ebla's storehouses.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}} Pettinato counted 14 different {{transliteration|mis|italic=no|lugals}} in the Eblaite administrative texts and deduced that the kingdom was divided into fourteen departments; two of them in the capital itself and the remaining twelve spanned the rest of the kingdom.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA215 215]}}
*Ugula: the title is translated as superintendent; some {{transliteration|mis|italic=no|ugulas}} were independent rulers and some represented the highest authority of a tribal group.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA260 260]}} Many cities had an appointed {{transliteration|mis|italic=no|ugula}} as their head of administration such as the city of Darum.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA265 265]}}

====The chora====
The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the "[[Khôra|chora]]" by archaeologists.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}}{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA266 266]}} Regions under direct control of the king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals.{{sfn|Biga|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA266 266]}}

Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA37 37]}} It includes the cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual),{{#tag:ref|The ritual had the king and the queen visiting [[Binnish|Ninas]], and making offerings to royal ancestors.{{sfn|Biga|2007|p= [https://www.academia.edu/12271170/Buried_among_the_Living_at_Ebla 256]}}|group=note}} and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered.{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94]}} The chora spans around 3000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>; from west to east it includes the plains east of [[Jabal Zawiya]], the Maṭkh swamp, [[Mount al-Hass|al-Hass mountain]] and mount Shabīth.{{sfn|D'Andrea|Ascalone|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA215 215]}} Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as [[Al-Ghab Plain|al-Ghab]], [[Harim Mountains|al-Rouge plain]] and [[Sabkhat al-Jabbul|al-Jabbul]] have close cultural affinity with the chora.{{sfn|D'Andrea|Ascalone|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA215 215]}}

==People, language, and culture==
===The first and second kingdoms===
[[File:Ebla6.JPG|thumb|Royal palace&nbsp;"G" courtyard]]
Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA164 164]}} the population of Ebla during Mardikh&nbsp;IIB1 (2400–2300 BC) is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000&nbsp;people in the entire kingdom.{{sfn|Kohl|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uc3ZokKnaQYC&pg=PA230 230]}} The Eblaites of Mardikh II were [[Semitic languages|Semite-speakers]] close to their Northwestern Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites.{{sfn|Rendsburg|1997|p= [http://oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/opr/t256/e315?_hi=4&_pos=56 183]}} Giovanni Pettinato said the [[Eblaite language]], one of the oldest attested Semitic languages,{{sfn|Bernal|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=G8Ltdr2rg04C&pg=PA591 591]}} was a [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic language]]; Gelb and others said it was an [[East Semitic]] dialect closer to the [[Akkadian language]].{{sfn|Faber|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aWhHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7]}} Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East Semitic language which exhibits both West and East Semitic features.{{#tag:ref|Grammatically, Eblaite is closer to Akkadian, but lexically and in some grammatical forms, Eblaite is closer to West Semitic languages.{{sfn|Hooks|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA226 226]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Stiebing|2016|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63]}}{{sfn|Gordon|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aWhHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101]}}

Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for the succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks.{{sfn|Dolansky|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=7anCAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 66]}} The Eblaite calendars were based on a [[Tropical year|solar year]] divided into twelve months.{{sfn|Pettinato|1981|p= [https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett 147]}} Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish.{{sfn|Pettinato|1981|p= [https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett 147]}} Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of the lord".{{sfn|Shea|1981|p= [http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/auss/vol19/iss1/14/ 60]}} Each year was given a name instead of a number.{{sfn|Podany|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA34 34]}}

Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies.{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 75]}} The Eblaites imported [[Kunga (equid)|Kunga]]s from [[Tell Brak#Kingdom of Nagar|Nagar]],{{#tag:ref|The Kunga is a hybrid of a [[donkey]] and a female [[onager]], which Nagar was famous for breeding.{{sfn|Kuz'mina|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA134 134]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Peyronel|Vacca|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA436 436]}} and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities.{{sfn|Peyronel|Vacca|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA436 436]}} Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals,{{sfn|Tonietti|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=-H3iYPUc97YC&pg=PA73 73]}} or hired from other cities such as Mari.{{sfn|Tonietti|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=-H3iYPUc97YC&pg=PA76 76]}} Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats.{{sfn|Eidem|Finkel|Bonechi|2001|p= [https://www.academia.edu/5261148/The_Third-millennium_Inscriptions 101]}}

===The third kingdom===
The Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite.{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 22]}} The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects,{{sfn|Lönnqvist|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA205 205]}} and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom.{{sfn|Armstrong|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA191 191]}} The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built.{{sfn|Kuhrt|1995|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=V_sfMzRPTgoC&pg=PA75 75]}} The Amorite-speaking Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Paleo-Syrian-speaking Eblaites of earlier periods,{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA31 31]}} and maintained the sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city.{{sfn|Dolce|2010|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA252 252]}} The third kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma's period.{{sfn|Matthiae|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=kiWD_5PRQBUC&pg=PA393 393]}}

==Economy==
During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122]}} but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention.{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 168]}} The economic system was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}}

Ebla derived its prosperity from trade;{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 124]}} its wealth was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129]}} and its main commercial rival was Mari.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}} Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles.{{sfn|Marchesi|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA274 274]}} Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city.{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA271 271]}} Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 126]}} It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the port of [[Ugarit]],{{sfn|Dahood|1978|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNDUDGTOz4C&pg=PA83 83]}} but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish.{{sfn|Pettinato|1991|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=K4JtAAAAMAAJ 155]}} The main palace ''G'' was found to contain artifacts dating from [[Ancient Egypt]] bearing the names of the pharaohs [[Khafre]] and [[Pepi I]].{{sfn|Aruz|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA241 241]}}

Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with the city.{{#tag:ref|Archaeologist Alessandro de Maigret deduced that Ebla retained its trading position.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA78 78]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA78 78]}} Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as [[Byblos]].{{sfn|Matthiae|2008|p= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n60 34]}}

==Religion==
Ebla was a [[polytheism|polytheistic]] state.{{sfn|McNulty|Brice|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=oHMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA246 246]}} During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA209 209]}} The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in the first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA209 209]}} The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA209 209]}} The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA209 209]}} Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla.{{sfn|Rendsburg|1997|p= [http://oxfordbiblicalstudies.com/article/opr/t256/e315?_hi=4&_pos=56 183]}} The first genre of pairs included [[Hadabal]] (<sup>d</sup>NI-''da''-KUL<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/431684|jstor = 10.1086/431684|doi = 10.1086/431684|title = The Head of Kura—The Head of ʾAdabal|year = 2005|last1 = Archi|first1 = Alfonso|journal = Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume = 64|issue = 2|pages = 81–100|s2cid = 161744545|url-access = subscription}}</ref>), who was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife");{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA210 210]}} [[Resheph|Rasap]] and his consort [[Adamma (goddess)|Adamma]];{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA210 210]}} the patron gods of the city [[Kura (deity)|Kura]], who was unique to Ebla, and his consort [[Barama (goddess)|Barama]].{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA212 212]}}{{sfn|Frayne|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8PNAnIome3AC&pg=PT206 41-44]}} The third genre included the artisan god [[Chemosh|Kamish/Tit]], [[Kothar-wa-Khasis]] and the planet [[Venus]] represented by twin mountain gods; [[Shahar (god)|Shahar]] as the morning star and [[Shalim]] as the evening star.{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002a|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA209 209]}}

The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as the Syrian goddess [[Išḫara|Ishara]],{{#tag:ref|At the beginning of Ebla's studies, it was believed that the existence of Ishara and another god ''[[Aštabi|Ashtapi]]'' in Ebla's pantheon, is a proof for a Hurrian existence in the Eblaite first kingdom.{{sfn|Biga|2014|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=AcnmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100]}} However it is now known that those deities were pre-Hurrian and perhaps pre-Semitic deities, later incorporated into the Hurrian pantheon.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA31 31]}}{{sfn|Westenholz|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=JgA-ez-BLbEC&pg=PA155 155]}}{{sfn|Fleming|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6pOFeouXIC&pg=PA208 208]}}|group=note}} who was the goddess of the royal family.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA28 28]}} [[Ishtar]] was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA27 27]}} Other deities included [[Damu#The Eblaite Damu|Damu]];{{#tag:ref|Probably an old Semitic deity and not identical to the Sumerian [[Damu]].{{sfn|Stieglitz|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_MVtAAAAMAAJ 81]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Stieglitz|1990|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_MVtAAAAMAAJ 81]}} the Mesopotamian god [[Utu]];{{sfn|Wright|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA173 173]}} [[Aštabi|Ashtapi]];{{sfn|Astour|1992|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=rXcvrnUF36EC 10]}} [[Dagon|Dagan]];{{sfn|Singer|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=gqn7OaEzxIMC&pg=PA223 223]}} [[Hadad]] (''Hadda'') and his consort [[Halabatu]] ("she of Halab");{{sfn|Archi|2010|p= 4}}{{sfn|Archi|1994|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=hFRwonqqNCUC&pg=PA250 250]}} and [[Shapash (Canaanite goddess)|Shipish]], the goddess of the sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013b|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0H0EpSm8aioC&pg=PA102 102]}} The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA8 8]}} Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices.{{sfn|Wright|2004|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtebmqZZDYC&pg=PA173 173]}}

During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA30 30]}} Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Ishara's place and became the city's most important deity apart from Hadad.{{sfn|Archi|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5a8-NudlBx8C&pg=PA31 31]}}

===Biblical connection theories===
{{Further|Ebla-Biblical controversy}}

At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, [[Giovanni Pettinato]] made claims about possible connections between Ebla and the Bible,{{sfn|Chavalas|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=60fmNZQzwjYC&pg=PA41 41]}} citing alleged references in the tablets to the existence of [[Yahweh]], [[Patriarchs (Bible)|the Patriarchs]], [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] and other Biblical references.{{sfn|Chavalas|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=60fmNZQzwjYC&pg=PA41 41]}} However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah".{{sfn|Chavalas|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=60fmNZQzwjYC&pg=PA41 41]}} In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right.{{sfn|Chavalas|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=60fmNZQzwjYC&pg=PA41 41]}} The claims led to a bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved, as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities.{{sfn|McBee Roberts|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5IXecSZOcS8C&pg=PA13 13]}}

== Genetics ==
Ancient DNA analysis on 10 human remains dating to the Early and Middle [[Bronze Age]] from Ebla found that Eblaites were a mixture of [[Chalcolithic|Copper age]] Levantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines.<ref name="Yilmaz S 1175">{{Cite journal|last1=Skourtanioti|first1=Eirini|last2=Erdal|first2=Yilmaz S.|last3=Frangipane|first3=Marcella|last4=Balossi Restelli|first4=Francesca|last5=Yener|first5=K. Aslıhan|last6=Pinnock|first6=Frances|last7=Matthiae|first7=Paolo|last8=Özbal|first8=Rana|last9=Schoop|first9=Ulf-Dietrich|last10=Guliyev|first10=Farhad|last11=Akhundov|first11=Tufan|date=2020-05-28|title=Genomic History of Neolithic to Bronze Age Anatolia, Northern Levant, and Southern Caucasus|journal=Cell|language=en|volume=181|issue=5|pages=1158–1175.e28|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.044|pmid=32470401|s2cid=219105572|issn=0092-8674|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.12154/1254|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Haplogroup-wise, one Early Bronze Age (2700-2500 BC) individual carried [[haplogroup]] [[haplogroup E1b1b|E1b1b1b2a-M123]], a lineage likely linked to the diffusion of [[Afroasiatic languages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VR_5DwAAQBAJ&dq=E1b1b,+Afroasiatic+languages,&pg=PA184|title=Languages of the World: An Introduction|date=2020-09-03|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-78851-9|pages=184|language=en}}</ref> Another Early Bronze Age (2572-2470 cal BCE) individual belonged to [[Haplogroup J-M267|J1a2a1a2-P58]], while four Middle Bronze Age (2000-1800 BC) individuals carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2-P58 (x2), [[Haplogroup G-M201|G2a]] and the [[West Asian]]  [[Haplogroup T (Y-DNA)|T1a1-L162]] which was present since the middle [[PPNB]] [[Levant]].<ref name="Yilmaz S 1175"/>

==Excavations==
{{Further|Ebla tablets}}
{{Multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|image1=Ebla Porta sud-Ovest - GAR - 9-01.JPG|image2=Calco di tavoletta in terracotta da Ebla - Museo d'Arte Orientale Roma.jpg|caption1=Parts of the excavations (Damascus gate)|caption2= A tablet from the archive}}
In 1964, Italian archaeologists from the [[University of Rome La Sapienza]] under the direction of [[Paolo Matthiae]] began excavating at Tell Mardikh.{{sfn|Fortin|1999|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=iFttAAAAMAAJ 54]}} In 1968, they recovered a statue dedicated to the goddess Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit-Lim, mentioning him as king of Ebla.{{sfn|DeVries|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aOJJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 67]}} That identified the city, long known from Lagashite and [[Akkadian empire|Akkadian]] inscriptions.{{sfn|Kipfer|2000|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA334 334][https://books.google.com/books?id=XneTstDbcC0C&pg=PA683 683]}} In the next decade, the team discovered a palace (palace G) dating from {{circa|2500–2000}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129]}} Finds in the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials, [[Lapis lazuli]], black stones and [[gold]].{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129]}}

Thirteen full and fragmentary lenticular cuneiform tablets were found in the palace throne room, thought to have been there versus the archive because of the city's fall.<ref>Archi, Alfonso. “The Tablets of the Throne Room of the Royal Palace G of Ebla.” Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 53, pp. 9–18, 2015</ref> In a storeroom off the throne room, the nearly complete standard of the queen and fragments believed to come from the standard of the king were found.<ref>Frances Pinnock. “THE KING’S STANDARD FROM EBLA PALACE G.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 67, pp. 3–22, 2015</ref> Other artifacts included wood furniture inlaid with [[mother-of-pearl]] and composite statues created from colored stones.{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA271 271]}} A [[silver]] bowl bearing king Immeya's name was recovered from the "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats", together with Egyptian jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh Hotepibre.{{sfn|Matthiae|2008|p= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n61 35]}}

About 17,000&nbsp;[[Cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]] tablet fragments were discovered; when put together, they constitute 2,500&nbsp;complete tablets, making the archive of Ebla one of the biggest from the {{nowrap|3rd millennium {{sc|BC}}.}}{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA32 32]}} About 80% of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of [[logogram]]s and phonetic signs,{{sfn|Naveh|1982|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=NfFrAAAAIAAJ 28]}} while the others exhibited an innovative, purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of a previously unknown Semitic language, which was called "Eblaite".{{sfn|Pettinato|1981|p= [https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett 59]}} Bilingual Sumerian/Eblaite vocabulary lists were found among the tablets, allowing them to be translated.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA8 8]}} The tablets provide many important insights into the cultural, economic and political life in northern Mesopotamia around the middle of the {{nowrap|3rd millennium {{sc|BC}}.}}{{sfn|Zettler|2006|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=cOG-fAFvbXcC&pg=PA134 134]}} They also provide insight into the everyday lives of the inhabitants,{{sfn|Franks|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CNGcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} and contain information about state revenues, Sumerian-Eblaite dictionaries,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA8 8]}} diplomatic exchanges with foreign rulers,{{sfn|Biga|2009|p= 30}} school texts, hymns and myths.{{sfn|Michalowski|2003|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA453 453]}}

===Library===
The over 4000-year-old tablets constitute the oldest library ever found.<ref>{{Citation |last=Martone |first=Corrado |title=The Qumran "Library" and Other Ancient Libraries: Elements for a Comparison |date=2016-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004305069/B9789004305069_006.xml |work=The Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran and the Concept of a Library |pages=55–77 |access-date=2023-12-14 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-30506-9}}</ref>{{sfn|Wellisch|1981}} At Ebla, "the archives or library constituted an orderly collection of records at least 500 years older than any other that had been found anywhere before."<ref>Wellisch, H. H. (1981). Ebla: The World's Oldest Library. The Journal of Library History (1974-1987), 16(3), 488–500. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541212.</ref> There is evidence of their arrangement and classification.{{sfn|Wellisch|1981|p=488–500}} The larger tablets had originally been stored on shelves, but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was destroyed.{{sfn|Stanley|2007|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA141 141]}} The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves.<ref>Archi, Alfonso., "Position of the Tablets of Ebla.", Orientalia, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 67–69, 1988</ref> They found the tablets had originally been shelved according to subject.{{sfn|Franks|2013|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=CNGcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}}

These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations. Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts, coupled with their composition, evidence the great antiquity of archival and library practices, which may be far older than was assumed to be the case before the discovery of the Ebla library.{{sfn|Wellisch|1981|p= 488–500}} A sizable portion of the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts; evidence seems to suggest the collection also served – at least partially – as a true library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use by the kings, their ministers, and their bureaucracy.{{sfn|Wellisch|1981|p= 488–500}} The tablets show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign languages and scripts, classification and cataloging for easier retrieval, and arrangement by size, form and content.{{sfn|Wellisch|1981|p= 488–500}} The Ebla tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin of library practices that were in use 4,500&nbsp;years ago.{{sfn|Wellisch|1981|p= 488–500}}

While the absolute chronology of the archive is not yet certain a relative chronology for the 50-year period has been established. Because Ebla did not use Mesopotamian style year names or year numbers and the name of rulers was rarely mentioned in the texts scholars used script changes, grammar changes, and most importantly a [[prosopography]] of the members of the court, especially the wives and daughters of the king. The most relevant tablets for this effort were a series of yearly metal accounts and monthly linen accounts.<ref>Biga, Maria Giovanna, and Francesco Pomponio., "Elements for a Chronological Division of the Administrative Documentation of Ebla.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 179–201, 1990</ref><ref>Biga, Maria Giovanna., "The Reconstruction of a Relative Chronology for the Ebla Texts.", Orientalia, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 345–67, 2003</ref>

Most of the recovered tablets and tablet fragments were stored at the Idlib Regional Museum in Syria. Their current condition is unknown.

===Legacy===
Ebla's first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized states,{{sfn|Porter|2012|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LKQ0fZFTeHkC&pg=PA199 199]}} and is considered one of the earliest empires by scholars,{{sfn|Astour|1981|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA4 4]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=bRUMQb_1uKcC&pg=PA228 228]}} such as [[Samuel Finer]],{{sfn|Finer|1997|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aEziNfjinnMC&pg=PA172 172]}} and [[Karl Moore (academic)|Karl Moore]], who consider it the first-recorded world power.{{sfn|Moore|Lewis|2009|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=LXWTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}} Ebla's discovery changed the former view of Syria's history as a bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt; it proved the region was a center of civilization in its own right.{{sfn|McBee Roberts|2002|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=5IXecSZOcS8C&pg=PA12 12]}}

==Syrian Civil War==
As a result of the [[Syrian Civil War]], excavations of Ebla stopped in March 2011.{{sfn|Matthiae|2013c|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jaXngEACAAJ ix]}} By 2013, it was under control of an [[Syrian opposition|opposition]] armed group called Arrows of the Right, who took advantage of its elevated location to use it as an observation point to watch for incoming government air attacks, as well as attempting to protect the site from looting.{{sfn|Chivers|2013|p= [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/07/world/middleeast/syrian-war-devastates-ancient-sites.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 1]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-fs13/2013/09/17/new-york-times-grave-robbers-and-war-steal-syrias-history/|title=Anthropology.msu.edu|access-date=2020-03-03|archive-date=2020-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026231817/http://anthropology.msu.edu/anp203h-fs13/2013/09/17/new-york-times-grave-robbers-and-war-steal-syrias-history/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Many tunnels were dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered; the remains were scattered and discarded by the robbers, who hoped to find jewelry and other precious artifacts.{{sfn|Chivers|2013|p= [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/07/world/middleeast/syrian-war-devastates-ancient-sites.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 1]}} Besides excavations by rebels, nearby villagers also began digging at the site with the aim of finding and looting artifacts; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable for making [[ceramic]] liners for [[masonry oven|bread-baking ovens]] from the tunnels.{{sfn|Chivers|2013|p= [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/07/world/middleeast/syrian-war-devastates-ancient-sites.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 1]}}<ref>Casana J, Laugier EJ (2017) Satellite imagery-based monitoring of archaeological site damage in the Syrian civil war. PLoS ONE 12(11): e0188589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188589</ref>

The site was captured by the [[Syrian Armed Forces]] on 30 January 2020 during the [[Northwestern Syria offensive (December 2019–March 2020)|5th Northwestern Syria offensive]], along with surrounding villages.<ref name="Los Angeles Times 2019 mass exodus">{{cite web | title=As Syria's army advances into Idlib, a mass exodus is underway | website=Los Angeles Times | date=2019-12-26 | url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-12-26/as-syrias-army-advances-into-idlib-a-mass-exodus-is-underway | access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking-syrian-army-captures-several-areas-in-eastern-idlib |title=Al-Masdar News |access-date=2020-01-30 |archive-date=2020-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301204238/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking-syrian-army-captures-several-areas-in-eastern-idlib/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-captures-2-towns-in-idlib-to-advance-within-sight-of-saraqib/ |title=Al-Masdar News (2) |access-date=2020-01-30 |archive-date=2023-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412054200/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-captures-2-towns-in-idlib-to-advance-within-sight-of-saraqib/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cities|Middle East|Asia}}
*[[Azi (scribe)]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]]
*[[Cities of the Ancient Near East]]
*[[Mari, Syria]]
*[[Short chronology timeline]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note|colwidth=40em}}

==References==
{{reflist|15em}}

===Bibliography===
{{div col |colwidth=25em}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |title= The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies ({{circa|16,000-300}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) |first1=Peter M.M.G. |last1=Akkermans |first2=Glenn M. |last2=Schwartz |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year= 2003 |isbn=978-0-521-79666-8}}
*{{cite journal |last=Archi |first=Alfonso |year=1994 |title=Studies in the Pantheon of Ebla |journal=Orientalia |publisher=Pontificium Institutum Biblicum |volume=63 |issue=3 |oclc=557711946}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Archi |first1=Alfonso |year=2010 |title=Hadda of Ḫalab and his Temple in the Ebla Period |journal=IRAQ|publisher= Cambridge University Press - On Behalf of The British Institute for the Study of Iraq ([[Gertrude Bell]] Memorial) |volume=72: In Honour of the Seventieth Birthday of Professor David Hawkins |pages=3–17 |jstor=20779017 |issn=0021-0889 |doi=10.1017/S0021088900000565|s2cid=191962310 }}
*{{cite book |title=Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History |chapter=Formation of the West Hurrian Pantheon: The Case Of Ishara |last=Archi |first=Alfonso |editor1-first=K. Aslihan |editor1-last=Yener |editor2-first=Harry A. |editor2-last=Hoffner |editor3-first=Simrit |editor3-last=Dhesi |year=2002 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-053-8}}
*{{cite journal |last=Archi |first= Alfonso |year=2011 |title=In Search of Armi|journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=63 |pages=5–34 |url=https://www.academia.edu/25821520/ |issn=2325-6737 |doi=10.5615/jcunestud.63.0005|s2cid= 163552750}}
*{{cite book |title=Ebla and Its Archives: Texts, History, and Society|first=Alfonso|last= Archi |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-788-7 |year =2015}}
*{{cite journal|last= Archi|first= Alfonso|year= 2015b|title=A Royal Seal from Ebla (17th cent. B.C.) with Hittite Hieroglyphic Symbols|journal=Orientalia|publisher=Gregorian Biblical Press|volume=84|issue=1|pages= 18–28|jstor= 26153279}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Fagan|editor1-first= Brian M.|last=Armstrong|first=James A.|title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology |chapter=Ebla |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507618-9}}
*{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The third millennium {{sc|B.C.}} from the Mediterranean to the Indus |editor1-first=Joan |editor1-last=Aruz |editor2-first=Ronald |editor2-last=Wallenfels |first1=Joan |last1=Aruz |chapter=Art and interconnections in the third millennium {{sc|B.C.}} |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2003|isbn=978-1-58839-043-1|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse}}
*{{cite book |chapter=The Partition of the Confederacy of Mukiš-Nuḫiašše-Nii by Šuppiluliuma: A study in political geography of the Amarna age |title=Orientalia |volume=38 |first=Michael C. |last=Astour |publisher=Pontificium Institutum Biblicum |year=1969 |oclc=557711946}}
*{{cite book |last=Astour |first=Michael C. |editor1-last=Young |editor1-first=Gordon Douglas |title=Ugarit in Retrospect. Fifty years of Ugarit and Ugaritic: Proceedings of the symposium of the same title held at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, February 26, 1979, under the auspices of the Middle West Branch of the American Oriental Society and the Mid-West Region of the Society of Biblical Literature |chapter=Ugarit and the Great Powers |year=1981 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-0-931464-07-2}}
*{{cite book |last= Astour |first=Michael C. |editor1-first=Cyrus Herzl |editor1-last=Gordon |editor2-first=Gary |editor2-last=Rendsburg |title=Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language |volume=3 |chapter=An outline of the history of Ebla (part&nbsp;1) |year=1992 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-0-931464-77-5}}
*{{cite book |last= Astour |first=Michael C. |editor1-first=Cyrus Herzl |editor1-last= Gordon |editor2-first=Gary |editor2-last=Rendsburg |title=Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language |volume=4 |chapter=A Reconstruction of the History of Ebla (Part 2) |year=2002 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-060-6}}
*{{cite book |title=The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade|first= Maria Eugenia |last= Aubet |translator-first= Mary |translator-last=Turton |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2 |isbn=978-0-521-79543-2}}
*{{cite book |last=Bachvarova |first=Mary R. |chapter=Manly Deeds: Hittite Admonitory History and Eastern Mediterranean Didactic Epic |title=Epic and History |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Konstan |editor2-first=Kurt A. |editor2-last=Raaflaub |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4443-1564-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Baffi|first1=Francesca |last2=Peyronel |first2=Luca |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor1-first= Paolo |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East |chapter=Trends in Village Life. The Early Bronze Age Phases at Tell Tuqan |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press |isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*Paolo Matthiae, Richard Bates, Mattia Bilardello, Anita Weston, Ebla: Archaeology and History, 2020 {{ISBN|9781315724607}}
*{{cite book |publisher=Rutgers University Press|title=Black Athena: Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization |first=Martin|last=Bernal|year=2006 |volume=3 (The Linguistic Evidence) |isbn=978-0-8135-6441-8}}
*{{cite journal |first=Maria Giovanna|last=Biga |editor1-first= Gilda |editor1-last=Bartoloni |title=Buried among the Living at Ebla |year= 2007 |journal=Scienze dell'antichità |volume=14 |publisher=Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza" |oclc=605398099}}
*{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/18158695 |last1=Biga |first1=Maria Giovanna |editor1-first=Gaia |editor1-last=Servadio |title=Ancient Syrian Writings: Syrian Preclassical and Classical Texts |chapter=Discovering history through the Ebla tablets |year=2009 |publisher=General Secretariat of Damascus Arab Capital of Culture |oclc=751116608}}
*{{cite book|last1=Biga|first1=Maria Giovanna|editor1-first= Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae|editor2-last=Marchetti|editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early state formation in the ancient Near East |chapter=Defining the Chora of Ebla : A textual perspective |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Biga |first=Maria Giovanna |title=Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The emergence of the mittani state |chapter= Inherited space – third millennium political and cultural landscape |editor1-first=Eva |editor1-last=Cancik-Kirschbaum |editor2-first=Nicole |editor2-last=Brisch |editor3-first=Jesper |editor3-last=Eidem |year=2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-026641-2}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Bretschneider |first1=Joachim |last2=Van Vyve |first2=Anne-Sophie |last3=Leuven |first3=Greta Jans |year=2009 |title=War of the lords, the battle of chronology: Trying to recognize historical iconography in the 3rd millennium glyptic art in seals of Ishqi-Mari and from Beydar |journal=Ugarit-Forschungen |publisher=Ugarit-Verlag |volume=41 |isbn= 978-3-86835-042-5}}
*{{cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia |first=Trevor |last=Bryce |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-134-15908-6}}
*{{cite book |title= Ancient Syria: A three thousand year history |last=Bryce |first=Trevor |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-100292-2}}
*{{cite journal |editor1-last=Chavalas |editor1-first=Mark W. Jr. |editor2-last=Younger |editor2-first=K. Lawson |last=Chavalas |first=Mark W. |title=Mesopotamia and the Bible |department=Assyriology and Biblical studies: A century and a half of tension |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement |volume=341 |year=2003 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-08231-2}}
*{{cite web |last=Chivers |first=Christopher John |newspaper=The New York Times |year=2013|orig-year= April 6, 2013 |title=Grave Robbers and War Steal Syria's History|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/07/world/middleeast/syrian-war-devastates-ancient-sites.html|access-date=December 1, 2016}}
*{{cite book|title= Early Urbanism on the Syrian Euphrates|first= Lisa |last=Cooper|publisher= Routledge|year= 2006|isbn=978-1-134-26107-9}}
*{{cite book|last= Cooper|first=Lisa|editor1-first=Diane |editor1-last= Bolger |editor2-first=Louise C.|editor2-last=Maguire |title=The Development of Pre-State Communities in the Ancient Near East: Studies in Honour of Edgar Peltenburg |chapter=States of hegemony: Early forms of political control in Syria during the third millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |year=2010|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=978-1-84217-837-9}}
*{{cite book|first=Daniele Morandi|last= Bonacossi|title= The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: {{circa|8000-332}}&nbsp;{{sc|BCE}} |chapter=Northern Levant (Syria) During the Middle Bronze Age|editor1-first=Margreet L. |editor1-last=Steiner |editor2-first=Ann E. |editor2-last=Killebrew|year= 2013|isbn=978-0-19-166255-3|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
*{{cite book|title= Ur: The City of the Moon God|first= Harriet |last= Crawford|author-link=Harriet Crawford |publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing|year= 2015|isbn=978-1-4725-3169-8}}
*{{cite book|last1= D'Andrea|first1=Marta|last2= Ascalone|first2= Enrico|editor1-first= Paolo|editor1-last=Matthiae|editor2-last=Marchetti|editor2-first=Nicolò|title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East|chapter= Assembling the Evidence. Excavated Sites Dating from the Early Bronze Age in and around the Chora of Ebla|year=2013|publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book|series= Supplements to Vetus Testamentum|volume= 29|editor1-last=Emerton|editor1-first=John Adney|editor2-last= Holladay|editor2-first=William L.|editor3-last=Lemaire|editor3-first=André|editor4-last= Murphy|editor4-first=Roland Edmund|editor5-last=Nielsen|editor5-first=Eduard|editor6-last=Smend|editor6-first=Rudolf|editor7-last=Soggin|editor7-first=Jan Alberto|last=Dahood|first=Mitchell|title=Congress Volume [International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament]. Göttingen 1977|chapter=Ebla, Ugarit and the Old Testament|year=1978|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-05835-4}}
*{{cite book|title=Cities of the Biblical World: An Introduction to the Archaeology, Geography, and History of Biblical Sites|first=LaMoine F. |last=DeVries|publisher= Wipf and Stock Publishers|year= 2006|isbn=978-1-55635-120-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Shawna|last=Dolansky|chapter=Syria-Canaan|title= The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions|publisher=Cambridge University Press|editor-first= Barbette Stanley|editor-last=Spaeth|editor-link=Barbette Spaeth|isbn= 978-0-521-11396-0|year= 2013}}
*{{cite book|last= Dolce|first=Rita|editor1-first=Hartmut|editor1-last=Kühne|editor2-first=Rainer Maria|editor2-last=Czichon|editor3-first=Florian Janoscha|editor3-last=Kreppner|title=Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March - 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin|chapter=Ebla before the Achievement of Palace G Culture: An Evaluation of the Early Syrian Archaic Period|volume= 2|year=2008|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05757-8}}
*{{cite book|last= Dolce|first=Rita|editor1-first=Paolo|editor1-last=Matthiae|editor2-first=Frances|editor2-last=Pinnock|editor3-first=Lorenzo |editor3-last=Nigro|editor4-first=Nicolò |editor4-last=Marchetti|editor5-first=Licia|editor5-last=Romano|title=Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: Near Eastern archaeology in the past, present and future: heritage and identity, ethnoarchaeological and interdisciplinary approach, results and perspectives; visual expression and craft production in the definition of social relations and status |chapter=Ebla and its origins – a proposal |volume=1 |year=2010 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06175-9}}
*{{cite book |first1=Jesper |last1=Eidem |first2=Irving |last2=Finkel |first3=Marco |last3=Bonechi |chapter=The third-millennium inscriptions |title=Excavations at Tell Brak |volume=2: Nagar in the third millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |publisher=British School of Archaeology in Iraq |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Oates |editor2-first=Joan |editor2-last=Oates |editor3-first=Helen |editor3-last=McDonald |isbn=978-0-9519420-9-3 |year=2001}}
*{{cite book|publisher=Routledge|first=Alice|last=Faber |chapter=Genetic subgrouping of the semitic languages |title=The Semitic Languages |editor-first=Robert |editor-last=Hetzron |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-11580-6}}
*{{cite book |first=Marian H. |last=Feldman |title=Representations of Political Power: Case histories from times of change and dissolving order in the ancient Near East |chapter=Frescoes, exotica, and the reinvention of the northern Levantine kingdoms during the second millennium {{sc|B.C.E.}} |editor1-first=Marlies| editor1-last=Heinz |editor2-first=Marian H. |editor2-last=Feldman |publisher= Eisenbrauns |year= 2007|isbn=978-1-57506-135-1}}
*{{cite book |title=The God Dagan in Bronze Age Syria|first= Lluís |last=Feliu |translator-first=Wilfred G.E. |translator-last=Watson |year= 2003 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-13158-3}}
*{{cite book |series=The History of Government from the Earliest Times |title=Ancient Nonarchies and Empires |volume=1 |first=Samuel Edward |last=Finer |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-820664-4}}
*{{cite book |first=Daniel E. |last=Fleming |title=Time at Emar: The cultic calendar and the rituals from the diviner's archive |series= Mesopotamian Civilizations |volume=11 |year=2000 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-044-6}}
*{{cite book |title=Syria, land of civilizations|first= Michel |last=Fortin|year= 1999|publisher=Musée de la civilisation, Québec |isbn=978-2-7619-1521-2}}
*{{cite book |title=Records and Information Management |first=Patricia C. |last=Franks |publisher=American Library Association |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-55570-910-5}}
*{{cite book |series=The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Early Periods |volume=4 |title=Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) |first= Douglas |last=Frayne |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=1990|isbn= 978-0-8020-5873-7}}
*{{cite book |series=The Royal inscriptions of Mesopotamia Early Periods |volume=1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |title=Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods (2700–2350&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) |first=Douglas|last=Frayne |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4426-9047-9}}
*{{cite book|last= Gilchrist|first=Paul R. |editor1-first=Geoffrey W. |editor1-last=Bromiley |editor2-first=Everett F.|editor2-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Roland K. |editor3-last=Harrison |editor4-first=William Sanford |editor4-last=LaSor |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |chapter=Government |volume=2 |orig-year=1982 |year=1995 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |edition=revised |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Goetze|first1=Albrecht |year=1953 |title=Four Ur dynasty tablets mentioning foreigners |journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=103–107 |publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research|issn=0022-0256|doi=10.2307/1359547 |jstor=1359547 |s2cid=163789459}}
* {{cite book |publisher=Routledge |first=Cyrus H. |last=Gordon |chapter=Amorite and Eblaite |title=The Semitic Languages |editor-first=Robert |editor-last=Hetzron |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-11580-6}}
* {{cite book |title=Tomb Treasures of the Late Middle Kingdom: The archaeology of female burials |first=Wolfram |last=Grajetzki |year=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0919-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner, Jr: On the Occasion of His 65th Birthday |chapter=The Upper Land, matum elitum|first= Oliver Robert |last=Gurney |editor1-first=Gary M. |editor1-last=Beckman |editor2-first=Richard Henry |editor2-last=Beal |editor3-first=John Gregory |editor3-last=McMahon|publisher= Eisenbrauns|isbn= 978-1-57506-079-8|year= 2003}}
* {{cite book |last=Hamblin |first=William J. |title=Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-52062-6}}
* {{cite book |title= Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareaste00feld |url-access=limited |chapter=Upright Stones and Building Narratives: Formation of a Shared Architectural Practice In the Ancient Near East |last=Harmanşah|first= Ömür|editor1-first=Jack |editor1-last=Cheng |editor2-first=Marian H. |editor2-last=Feldman |page= [https://archive.org/details/ancientneareaste00feld/page/n93 75] |year= 2007 |isbn=978-90-04-15702-6 |publisher=Brill}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Stephen M. |last=Hooks |publisher= Mercer University Press |title=Ebla |dictionary=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |editor1-first=Watson E. |editor1-last=Mills |editor2-first=Roger Aubrey |editor2-last=Bullard |editor3-first=Joel F. Jr. |editor3-last=Drinkard |editor4-first=Walter |editor4-last=Harrelson |editor5-first=Edgar V. |editor5-last=McKnight |editor6-first=Rollin Stely |editor6-last=Armour |editor7-first= Edd |editor7-last=Rowell |editor8-first=Richard F. |editor8-last=Wilson |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7}}
*{{cite book |title= Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography |first=Wayne |last=Horowitz|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year= 1998|isbn= 978-0-931464-99-7}}
*{{cite book|title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology|first=Barbara Ann|last=Kipfer|publisher= Springer Science & Business Media|year= 2000|isbn=978-0-306-46158-3}}
*{{cite book|title= Syria, 3000 to 300 B.C.: a handbook of political history|first= Horst |last=Klengel|publisher= Akademie Verlag|year=1992 |isbn=978-3-05-001820-1}}
*{{cite book |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=The use and abuse of world systems theory: The case of the "pristine" west Asian state |title=Archaeological Thought in America |first=Philip L. |last=Kohl |editor-last=Lamberg-Karlovsky |editor-first=Clifford Charles |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-521-40643-7}}
*{{cite book |first=Elena E. |last=Kuz'mina |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |publisher=Brill |editor-first=James Patrick |editor-last=Mallory |translator1-first=Svetlana |translator1-last=Pitina |translator2-first=P. |translator2-last=Prudovsky |isbn=978-90-04-16054-5 |year=2007}}
*{{cite book |series=Routledge History of the Ancient World |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |title=The Ancient Near East, {{circa|3000-330}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |volume=1 |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01353-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh}}
*{{cite book |title=Envisioning the Past Through Memories: How Memory Shaped Ancient Near Eastern Societies |chapter=Embodying the memory of the royal ancestors in western Syria during the third and second millennia&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}: The case of Ebla and Qatna |series=Cultural Memory and History in Antiquity |volume=3 |editor-first=Davide |editor-last=Nadali |first=Nicola |last=Laneri |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4742-2398-0}}
*{{cite book|title= Historical Dictionary of Mesopotamia |last=Leick |first=Gwendolyn |series=Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras |publisher=Scarecrow Press |volume=26 |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-6324-8 |edition=2nd}}
*{{cite book |title=Archaeologies of the Middle East: Critical Perspectives |chapter=Imperialism|editor1-first=Susan |editor1-last=Pollock |editor2-first=Reinhard |editor2-last=Bernbeck |first=Mario |last=Liverani |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-3723-2}}
*{{cite book |title=The Ancient Near East: History, society and economy |first=Mario |last=Liverani |publisher= Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-134-75084-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Lönnqvist |first=Mina A. |editor1-first=Hartmut |editor1-last=Kühne |editor2-first=Rainer Maria |editor2-last=Czichon|editor3-first=Florian Janoscha |editor3-last=Kreppner|title=Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March - 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin |chapter=Were Nomadic Amorites on the Move? Migration, Invasion and Gradual Infiltration as Mechanisms for Cultural Transitions |volume=2 |year=2008 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05757-8}}
*{{cite book |last1=Marchesi |first1=Gianni |editor1-first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early state formation in the ancient Near East |chapter= Of plants and trees: Crops and vegetable resources at Ebla |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press |isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite journal |last1= Matthiae |first1= Paolo |year= 1984|title=New Discoveries at Ebla: The Excavation of the Western Palace and the Royal. Necropolis of the Amorite Period |journal=The Biblical Archaeologist |publisher=American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=47 |issn=2325-534X}}
*{{cite book |first=Paolo |last=Matthiae |editor1-first= Kutlu |editor1-last=Emre |editor2-first= Barthel |editor2-last=Hrouda |editor3-first=Machteld |editor3-last=Mellink |editor4-first=Nimet |editor4-last=Özgüç |title=Anatolia and the ancient Near East: Studies in honor of Tahsin Özgüç |chapter=Jugs of the North-Syrian - Cilician and Levantine painted wares from the Middle Bronze&nbsp;II royal tombs at Ebla |date=1989 |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi |oclc=33983890}}
*{{cite journal |last= Matthiae |first= Paolo |year=1997 |title=Where were the early Syrian kings of Ebla buried? |journal=Altorientalische Forschungen |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |volume=24 |issue= 2|issn= 0232-8461 |doi=10.1524/aofo.1997.24.2.268 |s2cid= 164174341}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Marrassini |editor1-first=Paolo |last=Matthiae |first=Paolo |title=Semitic and Assyriological Studies: Presented to Pelio Fronzaroli by Pupils and Colleagues |chapter=Ishtar of Ebla and Hadad of Aleppo: Notes on terminology, politics, and religion of Old Syrian Ebla |year=2003 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-04749-4}}
*{{cite book|first=Paolo |last=Matthiae |title= Confronting the Past: Archaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever |chapter=The archaic palace at Ebla: A royal building between Early Bronze Age&nbsp;IVB and Middle Bronze Age&nbsp;I |editor1-first=Seymour |editor1-last=Gitin |editor2-first=J. Edward |editor2-last= Wright |editor3-first=J. P. |editor3-last=Dessel |publisher= Eisenbrauns |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-117-7}}
*{{cite book |first=Paolo |last=Matthiae |title=Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium&nbsp;{{sc|B.C.}} |chapter=Ebla |editor1-first=Joan |editor1-last=Aruz |editor2-first=Kim |editor2-last=Benzel |editor3-first=Jean M. |editor3-last=Evans |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-58839-295-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondbabylonart0000unse }}
*{{cite book |title=Ebla: la città del trono: archeologia e storia |language=it |first=Paolo |last=Matthiae |series=Piccola biblioteca Einaudi: Arte, architettura, teatro, cinema, música |volume=492 |publisher=Einaudi |year=2010 |isbn=978-88-06-20258-3}}
*{{cite book |last1= Matthiae |first1=Paolo |editor1-first= Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East |chapter=The Royal Palace. Functions of the Quarters and the Government of the Chora |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book |last= Matthiae |first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor1-first= Paolo |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East |chapter=A Long Journey. Fifty Years of Research on the Bronze Age at Tell Mardikh/Ebla |year=2013a |publisher=Left Coast Press |isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book |first=Paolo |last=Matthiae|title= Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium&nbsp;{{sc|B.C.}} |chapter=Ebla: Recent Excavation Results and the Continuity of Syrian Art|editor1-first= Joan |editor1-last=Aruz |editor2-last=Graff |editor2-first=Sarah B. |editor3-first=Yelena |editor3-last=Rakic|isbn= 978-1-58839-475-0|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|year= 2013b}}
*{{cite book|last=Matthiae|first=Paolo |editor1-last= Pinnock|editor1-first= Francis|year= 2013c|title=Studies on the Archaeology of Ebla 1980–2010|chapter= Introduction|publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-06937-3}}
*{{cite book |last1=Matthiae |first1=Paolo|last2=Marchetti|first2=Nicolò|editor1-first= Paolo|editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-last=Marchetti|editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East| chapter=Representing the Chora of Ebla|year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press|isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book |title=The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Collected Essays |first=Jimmy Jack |last=McBee Roberts |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year= 2002|isbn=978-1-57506-066-8}}
*{{cite book |first1=Mary F. |last1=McNulty |first2= Elizabeth |last2=Brice |chapter=Ebla |title=Middle East and Africa |volume=4: International Dictionary of Historic Places |publisher=Routledge |editor1-first=Kathryn Ann |editor1-last=Berney |editor2-first=Trudy |editor2-last= Ring |editor3-first=Noelle |editor3-last=Watson |editor4-first=Christopher |editor4-last=Hudson |editor5-first=Sharon |editor5-last=La Boda|isbn=978-1-134-25993-9 |year=1996}}
*{{cite book |last1= Mantellini |first1=Simone |last2=Micale |first2=Maria Gabriella|last3=Peyronel |first3=Luca |editor1-last=Matthiae|editor1-first= Paolo |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East |chapter= Exploiting Diversity. The Archaeological Landscape of the Eblaite Chora |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press |isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book |last1=Michalowski |first1=Piotr |year=1995 |chapter=The Men from Mari |title=Immigration and Emigration within the Ancient Near East: Festschrift E. Lipiński |series=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta |editor1-first=Karel |editor1-last=van Lerberghe |editor2-first=Antoon |editor2-last=Schoors |volume=65 |publisher=Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies, Leuven |isbn=978-90-6831-727-5}}
*{{cite book |title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium&nbsp;{{sc|B.C.}} from the Mediterranean to the Indus |editor1-first=Joan |editor1-last=Aruz |editor2-first=Ronald |editor2-last=Wallenfels |first1=Piotr |last1=Michalowski |chapter=The Earliest Scholastic Tradition |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=2003|isbn=978-1-58839-043-1|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse}}
*{{cite book |last1= Mogliazza |first1=Silvia |last2= Polcaro |first2=Andrea |editor1-first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-first=Frances |editor2-last=Pinnock |editor3-first=Lorenzo |editor3-last=Nigro |editor4-first=Nicolò |editor4-last=Marchetti|editor5-first=Licia |editor5-last=Romano |title=Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: Near Eastern archaeology in the past, present and future: heritage and identity, ethnoarchaeological and interdisciplinary approach, results and perspectives; visual expression and craft production in the definition of social relations and status |chapter=Death and cult of dead in Middle Bronze Age&nbsp;II Ebla: An archaeological and anthropological study on shaft tomb P. 8680, near southern palace (Area&nbsp;FF) |volume=3 |year=2010 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06217-6}}
*{{cite book |title=The Origins of Globalization |first1=Karl |last1=Moore |first2=David Charles |last2=Lewis |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-135-97008-6}}
*{{cite journal |last= Nadali |first= Davide |year=2007 |title=Monuments of War, War of Monuments: Some considerations on commemorating war in the third millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |journal=Orientalia |publisher=Pontificium Institutum Biblicum |volume=76 |issue=4 |oclc=557711946}}
*{{cite book |title=Early History of the Alphabet: An introduction to West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography |first1=Joseph |last1=Naveh |publisher=Magnes Press, Hebrew University |year=1982 |isbn=978-965-223-436-0}}
*{{cite book |title= Justice Among Nations |first=Stephen C. |last=Neff |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-674-72654-3 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}
*{{cite book |last1=Nigro |first1=Lorenzo |title=Byblos and Jericho in the Early Bronze I: Social Dynamics and Cultural Interactions: Proceedings of the International Workshop Held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University |date=2007 |publisher=Lorenzo Nigro |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4926p1H7wV4C |language=en}}
*{{cite journal |first=Lorenzo|last=Nigro |editor1-first= Claude |editor1-last=Doumet-Serhal |title=The eighteenth century&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} princes of Byblos and Ebla and the chronology of the Middle Bronze Age |year=2009 |journal=Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises |volume=Hors-Série VI (Interconnections in the Eastern Mediterranean: Lebanon in the Bronze and Iron Ages: Proceedings of the International Symposium Beirut 2008) |publisher=Beyrouth: Ministère de la Culture, Direction Générale des Antiquités|issn= 1683-0083}}
*{{cite book |chapter= The Early Bronze Age in Southeastern Anatolia |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323&nbsp;{{sc|BCE}}) |last=Ökse |first=Tuba |editor1-first=Sharon R. |editor1-last=Steadman |editor2-first= Gregory|editor2-last= McMahon |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 2011 |isbn=978-0-19-537614-2}}
*{{cite book |last1=Otto |first1=Adelheid |last2=Biga |first2=Maria Giovanna |editor1-first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-first=Frances |editor2-last=Pinnock |editor3-first=Lorenzo |editor3-last=Nigro|editor4-first=Nicolò |editor4-last=Marchetti |editor5-first=Licia |editor5-last=Romano |title=Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East: Near Eastern archaeology in the past, present and future: Heritage and identity, ethnoarchaeological and interdisciplinary approach, results and perspectives; visual expression and craft production in the definition of social relations and status |chapter=The Identification of Tall Bazi with Armi |volume=1 |year=2010 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-06175-9}}
*{{cite book |title= The archives of Ebla: An empire inscribed in clay |first=Giovanni |last=Pettinato |publisher=Doubleday |year=1981 |isbn= 978-0-385-13152-0 |url= https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett}}
*{{cite book |title=Ebla, a new look at history |first=Giovanni |last= Pettinato |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year= 1991 |isbn= 978-0-8018-4150-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Peyronel |first=Luca |editor1-first=Hartmut |editor1-last=Kühne |editor2-first=Rainer Maria |editor2-last=Czichon |editor3-first=Florian Janoscha |editor3-last=Kreppner |title=Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 29 March - 3 April 2004, Freie Universität Berlin |chapter=Domestic Quarters, Refuse Pits, and Working Areas. Reconstructing Human Landscape and Environment at Tell Mardikh-Ebla during the Old Syrian Period ({{circa|2000–1600}}&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}) |volume=1 |year=2008|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05703-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Peyronel |first1=Luca |last2= Vacca |first2= Agnese |editor1-first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |editor2-last=Marchetti |editor2-first=Nicolò |title=Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East|chapter=Natural Resources, Technology and Manufacture Processes at Ebla. A Preliminary Assessment |year=2013 |publisher=Left Coast Press |isbn=978-1-61132-228-6}}
*{{cite book |first=Frances|last=Pinnock|title= Proceedings of the First International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Rome, May 18th-23rd 1998 |chapter=Some thoughts about the transmission of iconographies between North Syria and Cappadocia, end of third – beginning of the second millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}} |volume=2 |editor1-first=Paolo |editor1-last=Matthiae |publisher=Università degli studi di Roma "La Sapienza." Dipartimento di scienze storiche, archeologiche ed antropologiche dell'antichità |year=2000 |isbn=978-88-88233-00-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Pinnock |first=Frances |chapter=Byblos and Ebla in the third millennium&nbsp;{{sc|BC}}. Two urban patterns in comparison |series=Rome "La Sapienza" Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan (ROSAPAT) |volume=4 |title= Byblos and Jericho in the Early Bronze I: Social Dynamics and Cultural Interactions: Proceedings of the International Workshop Held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University|editor1-first= Lorenzo |editor1-last=Nigro|publisher= Rome "La Sapienza" University |year= 2007 |issn= 1826-9206}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Crawford |editor1-first= Harriet |last=Pinnock |first=Frances |title= The Sumerian World |chapter=Ebla |year=2013|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-21912-2}}
*{{cite book |chapter=Before Israel: Syria-Palestine in the Bronze Age |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |editor-first=Michael David|editor-last=Coogan |first1=Wayne T. |last1=Pitard |publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year= 1998 |edition=revised |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2}}
*{{cite book |title= Brotherhood of Kings: How international relations shaped the ancient Near East |first=Amanda H. |last=Podany |year= 2010 |isbn=978-0-19-979875-9 |publisher= Oxford University Press}}
*{{cite book |series=Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Records |volume=6 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |title=Religion and Ideology in Assyria|first=Beate |last=Pongratz-Leisten |year=2015 |isbn= 978-1-61451-426-8}}
*{{cite book |title=Mobile Pastoralism and the Formation of Near Eastern Civilizations: Weaving together society |first=Anne |last=Porter |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2012|isbn=978-0-521-76443-8}}
*{{cite book|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter= Eblaites|title=The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East |first=Gary A. |last=Rendsburg |editor-first=Eric M. |editor-last=Meyers |year=1997 |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-19-511216-0}}
*{{cite book |title= Ritual, Performance, and Politics in the Ancient Near East |first=Lauren |last=Ristvet |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year= 2014 |isbn=978-1-316-19503-1}}
*{{cite book |title=Ancient Iraq |first=Georges |last=Roux |publisher= Penguin UK |year= 1992 |isbn=978-0-14-193825-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Shaw |first= Ian |editor1-last=Shaw |editor1-first= Ian |editor2-last=Jameson |editor2-first=Robert |title=A Dictionary of Archaeology |chapter=Ebla |year=1999 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75196-1}}
*{{cite journal |last=Shea |first=William H. |year=1981 |title=The Calendars of Ebla. Part II. The New Calendar |journal=Andrews University Seminary Studies |publisher=Andrews University Press |volume=19 |issue=1 |issn=0003-2980}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Arbeitman |editor1-first=Yoël L. |last=Singer |first=Itamar|title=The Asia Minor Connexion: Studies on the Pre-Greek Languages in Memory of Charles Carter |chapter=Semitic Dagan and Indo-European *dl'eg'om: Related Words?|series= Orbis Supplementa |volume= 13|year=2000 |publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-0798-0}}
*{{cite book |last= Stanley |first= Bruce E.|editor1-last=Dumper|editor1-first= Michael|editor2-last=Stanley |editor2-first=Bruce E.|year= 2007|chapter= Ebla|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A historical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-919-5}}
*{{cite book|publisher=Routledge |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture|first= William H. Jr. |last=Stiebing |orig-year= 2009 |year=2016 |edition=2 |isbn=978-1-315-51116-0}}
*{{cite book|last= Stieglitz|first=Robert R.|editor1-first=Cyrus Herzl |editor1-last= Gordon|editor2-first=Gary|editor2-last=Rendsburg|title=Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language |volume=2 |chapter=Ebla and the gods of Canaan |year=1990 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-0-931464-49-2}}
*{{cite book |last= Stieglitz |first=Robert R. |editor1-first=Cyrus Herzl |editor1-last=Gordon |editor2-first=Gary |editor2-last=Rendsburg |title=Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language |volume=4 |chapter=The Deified Kings of Ebla |year=2002 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-060-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Stieglitz |first=Robert R. |editor1-first=Cyrus Herzl |editor1-last=Gordon |editor2-first=Gary |editor2-last=Rendsburg |title=Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language |volume=4 |chapter=Divine Pairs in the Ebla Pantheon |year=2002a |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-060-6}}
*{{cite book|title=The Politics of Dead Kings: Dynastic Ancestors in the Book of Kings and Ancient Israel|series= Forschungen zum Alten Testament |volume= 48 |first1= Matthew J.|last1=Suriano|publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year= 2010 |issn=1611-4914 |isbn=978-3-16-150473-0}}
*{{cite book|title= Ancient Near Eastern Cylinder Seals from the Marcopolic Collection |first=Beatrice |last=Teissier|publisher= University of California Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-520-04927-7}}
*{{cite book |title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An investigation |chapter=The City-State in Ancient Western Syria |volume=21 |first=Ingolf|last= Thuesen |editor1-first=Mogens Herman |editor1-last=Hansen|year= 2000 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=978-87-7876-177-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Tonietti |first=Maria Vittoria|editor1-first=Regine |editor1-last=Pruzsinszky |editor2-first=Dahlia |editor2-last=Shehata |title=Musiker und Tradierung: Studien zur Rolle von Musikern bei der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung von literarischen Werken |chapter=Musicians in the Ebla Texts |year=2010 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-50131-8}}
*{{cite book |title= Peoples Of The Past: Canaanites |first= Jonathan N. |last=Tubb |publisher= University of Oklahoma Press |year= 1998 |isbn= 978-0-8061-3108-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb}}
*{{cite book|last= Van De Mieroop|first=Marc|editor-last=Ehrenberg|editor-first= Erica|title=Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen|chapter= Foreign Contacts and the Rise of an Elite in Early Dynastic Babylonia|year=2002|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1-57506-055-2}}
*{{cite book|title= Ebla to Damascus: Art and Archaeology of Ancient Syria : an Exhibition from the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums of the Syrian Arab Republic|chapter= Tell Leilan And Shubat Enlil|first= Harvey |last=Weiss |editor1-first=Harvey |editor1-last=Weiss|publisher= Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service|year= 1985|isbn= 978-0-86528-029-8}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Wellisch|first=Hans H.|date=1981|title=Ebla: The World's Oldest Library|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25541212|journal=The Journal of Library History|publisher= University of Texas Press |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=488–500|jstor=25541212|issn=0275-3650}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=van Lerberghe|editor1-first=Karel|editor2-last=Voet|editor2-first=Gabriela|last=Westenholz|first=Joan Goodnick|title=Languages and Cultures in Contact: At the Crossroads of Civilizations in the Syro-Mesopotamian realm. Proceedings of the 42th RAI|chapter=Emar – the City and its God|series= Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta|volume= 92|year=1999|publisher=Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies, Leuven|isbn=978-90-429-0719-5}}
*{{cite book|title= Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide|chapter= Syria and Canaan|last= Wright|first= David P.|editor-first=Sarah Iles |editor-last=Johnston|publisher= Harvard University Press|year= 2004|isbn= 978-0-674-01517-3}}
*{{cite book|title=Excavating Asian History: Interdisciplinary Studies in Archaeology and History|chapter=Reconstructing the World of Ancient Mesopotamia: Divided Beginnings and Holistic History|editor1-first=Norman|editor1-last=Yoffee|editor2-first=Bradley L.|editor2-last=Crowell|first=Richard L.|last=Zettler|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year= 2006|isbn=978-0-8165-2418-1}}
{{refend}}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
*Bonechi, Marco. "More on the Ebla gatekeepers", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp.&nbsp;33–36, 2012
*Catagnoti, Amalia. "In the aftermath of the war. The truce between Ebla and Mari (ARET XVI 30) and the ransom of prisoners", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp.&nbsp;45–63, 2012
*[https://iris.univr.it/bitstream/11562/1114808/1/Diss_Fiammetta_Gori.pdf] Gori, Fiammetta, "Numeracy in early syro-mesopotamia. A study of accounting practices from Fāra to Ebla", University of Verona Dissertation, 2024
*Maiocchi, Massimo. "Decorative Parts and Precious Artifacts at Ebla", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 62, pp.&nbsp;1–24, 2010
*{{cite journal|first1=Nicolò|last1=Marchetti|first2=Lorenzo|last2=Nigro|title=Cultic Activities in the Sacred Area of Ishtar at Ebla during the Old Syrian Period: The "Favissae" F.5327 and F.5238|journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies|volume=49|pages= 1–44|year=1997|publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research|issn=0022-0256|jstor=1359889|doi=10.2307/1359889|hdl=11573/109496 |s2cid=163416496}}
*Pinnock, Frances. "Ebla and Ur: Relations, Exchanges and Contacts between Two Great Capitals of the Ancient Near East.", Iraq, vol. 68, pp.&nbsp;85–97, 2006
*[http://www.bu.edu/asor/pubs/jcs/53/pinnock.pdf] Pinnock, Frances. "The Urban Landscape of Old Syrian Ebla." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 53, pp.&nbsp;13–33, 2001
*{{cite journal|first1=Paolo|last1=Matthiae|title= Ebla in the Late Early Syrian Period: The Royal Palace and the State Archives|journal= The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=39|issue=3|pages= 94–113|year=1976|publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research|issn=0006-0895|jstor=3209400|doi=10.2307/3209400|s2cid=165282182}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1293/ Ebla (Tell Mardikh)] Suggestion to have Ebla (Tell Mardikh) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site
*[http://digilander.libero.it/jimdigriz/jor_syr/ebla.html Ebla - Tell Mardikh] with photos and plans of the digs {{in lang|it}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160604035859/http://www.asor.org/pubs/jcs/53/ascalone.pdf ''Two Weights from Temple N at Tell Mardikh-Ebla'', by E. Ascalone and L. Peyronel (pdf)]
{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant |state=collapsed}}
{{Syria topics}}
{{Idlib Governorate}}
{{Early Rulers of Mesopotamia}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ebla| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 16th century BC]]
[[Category:Amorite cities]]
[[Category:Ancient Levant]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Syria]]
[[Category:Tells (archaeology)]]
[[Category:Kish civilization]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]