View source for Early world maps

{{Short description|List of early depictions of the world}}
{{Further|List of historical maps|history of cartography}}
{{use dmy dates |date=March 2024}}

The earliest known [[world map]]s date to [[classical antiquity]], the oldest examples of the 6th to 5th centuries [[Common Era|BCE]] still based on the [[flat Earth]] paradigm. World maps assuming a [[spherical Earth]] first appear in the [[Hellenistic period]]. The developments of [[Greek geography]] during this time, notably by [[Eratosthenes]] and [[Posidonius]] culminated in the Roman era, with [[Ptolemy world map|Ptolemy's world map]] (2nd century CE), which would remain authoritative throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. Since Ptolemy, knowledge of the approximate size of the Earth allowed cartographers to estimate the extent of their geographical knowledge, and to indicate parts of the planet known to exist but not yet explored as ''[[terra incognita]]''.

With the [[Age of Discovery]], during the 15th to 18th centuries, world maps became increasingly accurate; exploration of Antarctica, Australia, and the [[European exploration of Africa|interior of Africa]] by western mapmakers was left to the 19th and early 20th century.

==Antiquity==

===Bronze Age Saint-Bélec slab===

The [[Saint-Bélec slab]] discovered in 1900 by [[Paul du Châtellier]], in Finistère, France, is dated to between 1900 BCE and 1640 BCE. A recent analysis, published in the Bulletin of the French Prehistoric Society, has shown that the slab is a three-dimensional representation of the [[Odet|River Odet]] valley in Finistère, France. This would make the Saint-Bélec slab the oldest known map of a territory in the world. According to the authors, the map probably was not used for navigation, but rather to show the political power and territorial extent of a local ruler's domain of the early [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gershon|first=Livia|title=Is This 4,000-Year-Old Bronze Age Slab the Oldest Known Map in Europe?|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/bronze-age-slab-oldest-known-map-europe-180977439/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-06|title=La plus ancienne carte d'Europe ?|url=https://www.inrap.fr/la-plus-ancienne-carte-d-europe-15574|access-date=2021-04-09|website=Inrap|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-04-06|title=Bronze Age slab found in France is oldest 3D map in Europe|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56648055|access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 2021 |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=99–146 |first1=C. |last1=Nicolas |first2=Y. |last2=Pailler |first3=P. |last3=Stephan |first4=J. |last4=Pierson |first5=L. |last5=Aubry |first6=B. |last6=Le Gall |first7=V. |last7=Lacombe |first8=J. |last8=Rolet |title=La carte et le territoire : la dalle gravée du Bronze ancien de Saint-Bélec (Leuhan, Finistère) |journal=Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française|doi=10.3406/bspf.2021.15173 |url=http://www.prehistoire.org/shop_515-47906-5446-800/04-2021-tome-118-1-p.-99-146-c.-nicolas-y.-pailler-p.-stephan-j.-pierson-l.-aubry-b.-le-gall-b.-le-gall-v.-lacombe-j.-rolet-la-carte-et-le-territoire-la-dalle-gravee-du-bronze-ancien-de-saint-belec-leuhan-finistere.html|access-date=2021-04-14|language=fr}}</ref>

===Babylonian {{lang|la|Imago Mundi}} (c. 6th c. BCE)===
{{Main|Babylonian Map of the World}}

[[File:Baylonianmaps.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.2|{{lang|la|[[Babylonian Map of the World|Imago Mundi]]}} Babylonian map, the oldest known world map, 6th century BC [[Babylonia]]. Now in the [[British Museum]].]]

A Babylonian world map, known as the {{lang|la|Imago Mundi}}, is commonly dated to the 6th century BCE.<ref name=BM92687>[http://britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=362000&partId=1 British Museum Inv. No. 92687]: "6th C BC approx".
See also: Siebold, Jim. [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/103.html Slide 103]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109193653/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/103.html |date=2016-11-09 }}. Via henry-davis.com – accessed 2008-02-04. First published 1899, formerly also dated to an earlier period, {{circa|lk=no|900}} BCE. {{cite book|title=Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in Pre-Modern Societies|first1=Kurt A. |last1=Raaflaub |first2=Richard J. A. |last2=Talbert|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-9146-3|page=147}}</ref>
The map as reconstructed by [[Eckhard Unger]] shows [[Babylon]] on the [[Euphrates]], surrounded by a circular landmass including [[Assyria]], [[Urartu]] ([[Armenia]])<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=1151277 |title=Imago Mundi's Logo the Babylonian Map of the World |first=Catherine Delano |last=Smith |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=48 |year=1996 |pages=209–211 |doi=10.1080/03085699608592846}}</ref> and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" ([[Oceanus]]), with eight outlying regions ({{lang|akk-Latn<!--presumably Akkadian-->|nagu}}) arranged around it in the shape of triangles, so as to form a star. The accompanying text mentions a distance of seven {{lang|akk-Latn|beru}} between the outlying regions. The descriptions of five of them have survived:<ref>{{cite book|first=Irving|last=Finkel|title=A join to the map of the world: A notable discovery|year=1995|pages=26–27}}</ref>

*The third region is where "the winged bird ends not his flight", i.e., cannot reach.
*On the fourth region "the light is brighter than that of sunset or stars": it lay in the northwest, and after sunset in summer was practically in semi-obscurity.
*The fifth region, due north, lay in complete darkness, a land "where one sees nothing", and "the sun is not visible".
*The sixth region, "where a horned bull dwells and attacks the newcomer".
*The seventh region lay in the east and is "where the morning dawns".

===Anaximander (c. 610–546 BCE)===
{{Main|Anaximander}}
[[File:Anaximander world map (mul).svg|thumb|Reconstruction of Anaximander's map]]
[[Anaximander]] (died c. 546 BCE) is credited with having created one of the first maps of the world,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/AncientWebPages/104.html|title=Timechart of historical cartography: Antiquity|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225024916/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/AncientWebPages/104.html|archive-date=25 February 2021}}</ref> which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the [[Aegean Sea]] at the center. This was all surrounded by the ocean.

===Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550–476 BCE)===
[[File:Hecataeus world map-en.svg|thumb|left|Reconstruction of Hecataeus' map]]
{{Main|Hecataeus of Miletus}}
[[Hecataeus of Miletus]] is credited with a work entitled {{lang|grc-Latn|[[Hecataeus of Miletus#Periodos Ges|Periodos Ges]]}} ("Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey"), in two books each organized in the manner of a [[periplus]], a point-to-point coastal survey. One, on [[Europe]], is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean, describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as [[Scythia]]. The other book, on [[Asia]], is arranged similarly to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' of which a version of the 1st century CE survives. Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of [[Egypt]] being particularly comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon [[Anaximander]]'s map of the Earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The work only survives in some 374 fragments, by far the majority being quoted in the geographical lexicon the [[Stephanus of Byzantium#The Ethnica|''Ethnica'']], compiled by [[Stephanus of Byzantium]].

===Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE)===
{{Main|Eratosthenes}}
[[File:Mappa di Eratostene.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|1883 reconstruction of [[Eratosthenes]]' map<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html|title=World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.)|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813075803/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html|archive-date=13 August 2021}}</ref>]]
[[Eratosthenes]] (276–194 BCE) drew an improved world map, incorporating information from the campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]] and his successors. [[Asia]] became wider, reflecting the new understanding of the actual size of the continent. Eratosthenes was also the first geographer to incorporate parallels and meridians within his cartographic depictions, attesting to his understanding of the spherical nature of the Earth.

===Posidonius (c. 135–51 BCE)===
{{Main|Posidonius}}
[[File:Sphendoné,_hoc_est,_Funda_Posidonii.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|A 1628 reconstruction of [[Posidonius]]' ideas about the positions of continents (many details could not have been known by Posidonius)]]
[[Posidonius]] (or Poseidonius) of [[Apamea, Syria|Apameia]] (c. 135–51 BCE) was a Greek [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosopher<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061021/ "Poseidonius"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. "Greek philosopher, considered the most learned man of his time and, possibly, of the entire Stoic school."</ref> who traveled throughout the Roman world and beyond and was a celebrated [[polymath]] throughout the Greco-Roman world, like [[Aristotle]] and [[Eratosthenes]]. His work "about the ocean and the adjacent areas" was a general geographical discussion, showing how all the forces had an effect on each other and applied also to human life. He measured the Earth's circumference by reference to the position of the star [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]]. His measure of 240,000 [[stadion (unit of length)|stadia]] translates to {{convert|24,000|mi|}}, close to the actual circumference of {{convert|24,901|mi|}}.<ref>Poseidonius, [http://www.attalus.org/translate/poseidonius.html#202.K fragment 202]</ref> He was informed in his approach by Eratosthenes, who a century earlier used the elevation of the Sun at different latitudes. Both men's figures for the Earth's circumference were uncannily accurate, aided in each case by mutually compensating errors in measurement. However, the version of Posidonius' calculation popularised by [[Strabo]] was revised by correcting the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria to 3,750 stadia, resulting in a circumference of 180,000 stadia, or {{convert|18,000|mi|}}.<ref>Brown, Lloyd Arnold (1979). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qh7nDfGm7BkC&pg=PA30 ''The Story of Maps'']. Dover Publications. pp. 29–31.</ref> [[Ptolemy]] discussed and favored this revised figure of Posidonius over Eratosthenes in his {{lang|grc-Latn|Geographia}}, and during the [[Middle Ages]] scholars divided into two camps regarding the circumference of the Earth, one side identifying with Eratosthenes' calculation and the other with Posidonius' 180,000 stadion measure, which is now known to be about 33% too low. This was the number used by [[Christopher Columbus]] to underestimate the distance to India as 70,000 stades.<ref>[[John Freely|Freely, John]] (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=MfhjAAAAQBAJ ''Before Galileo: The Birth of Modern Science in Medieval Europe'']. {{ISBN|978-1468308501}}.</ref>

===Strabo (c. 64 BCE – 24 CE)===
{{Main|Strabo|Geographica}}
Strabo is mostly famous for his 17-volume work {{lang|grc-Latn|Geographica}}, which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known to his era.<ref name="SG17">''Strabonis Geographica'', Book 17, Chapter 7.</ref> The {{lang|grc-Latn|Geographica}} first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469. Although Strabo referenced the antique Greek astronomers Eratosthenes and [[Hipparchus]] and acknowledged their astronomical and mathematical efforts towards geography, he claimed that a descriptive approach was more practical. {{lang|grc-Latn|Geographica}} provides a valuable source of information on the ancient world, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. Within the books of {{lang|grc-Latn|Geographica}} is a map of Europe. Whole world maps according to Strabo are reconstructions from his written text.

===Pomponius Mela (c. 43 CE)===
{{Main|Pomponius Mela}}
[[File:Karte Pomponius Mela rotated.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An 1898 reconstruction of [[Pomponius Mela]]'s view of the world]]
Pomponius is unique among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the Earth into five zones, of which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence of [[antichthones]], people inhabiting the southern temperate zone inaccessible to the folk of the northern temperate regions due to the unbearable heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and boundaries of [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], he repeats Eratosthenes; like all classical geographers from [[Alexander the Great]] (except [[Ptolemy]]) he regards the [[Caspian Sea]] as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, corresponding to the Persian ([[Persian Gulf]]) and Arabian ([[Red Sea]]) gulfs on the south.

===Marinus of Tyre (c. 120 CE)===
{{Main|Marinus of Tyre}}
Marinus of Tyre's world maps were the first in the [[Roman Empire]] to show [[China]]. Around 120 CE, Marinus wrote that the habitable world was bounded on the west by the [[Fortunate Islands]]. The text of his geographical treatise however is lost. He also invented the [[equirectangular projection]], which is still used in map creation today. A few of Marinus' opinions are reported by Ptolemy. Marinus was of the opinion that the {{lang|grc-Latn|[[Oceanus|Okeanos]]}} was separated into an eastern and a western part by the continents ([[Europe]], Asia and Africa). He thought that the inhabited world stretched in latitude from [[Thule]] ([[Shetland]]) to [[Agisymba]] ([[Tropic of Capricorn]]) and in longitude from the [[Isles of the Blessed]] to [[China|Shera (China)]]. Marinus also coined the term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the [[Arctic Circle]]. His chief legacy is that he first assigned to each place a proper [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]; he used a "Meridian of the [[Isles of the Blessed]] ([[Canary Islands]] or [[Cape Verde Islands]])" as the [[zero meridian]].

===Ptolemy (c. 150)===
{{Main|Ptolemy|Ptolemy's world map}}<!--more sources at linked articles-->
[[File:Ptolemy-World Vat Urb 82.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.4|The oldest surviving [[Ptolemy's world map|Ptolemaic world map]], redrawn according to his 1st projection by [[Orthodox monasticism|monks]] at [[Constantinople]] under [[Maximus Planudes]] around 1300]]
[[File:Cosmographia Claudii Ptolomaei ante 1467 (7455943) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Nicolaus Germanus]]'s 1467 Latin world map according to Ptolemy's 2nd projection, the first known to the west]]
Surviving texts of [[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Ptolemy's Geography|Geography]]'', first composed {{circa|lk=no|150}}, note that he continued the use of Marinus's equirectangular projection for its regional maps while finding it inappropriate for maps of the [[Ecumene|entire known world]]. Instead, in Book VII of his work, he outlines three separate projections of increasing difficulty and fidelity. Ptolemy followed Marinus in underestimating the circumference of the world; combined with accurate absolute distances, this led him to also overestimate the length of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in terms of [[degree of arc|degrees]]. His [[prime meridian]] at the [[Fortunate Isles]] was therefore around 10 actual degrees further west of [[Alexandria]] than intended, a mistake that was corrected by [[Book of the Description of the Earth|Al-Khwārizmī]] following the translation of [[Syriac language|Syriac]] editions of Ptolemy into [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]] in the 9th century. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the work date to [[Maximus Planudes]]'s restoration of the text a little before 1300 at [[Chora Monastery]] in [[Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]); surviving manuscripts from this era seem to preserve separate recensions of the text which diverged as early as the 2nd or 4th century. A passage in some of the recensions credits an [[Agathodaemon (cartographer)|Agathodaemon]] with drafting a world map, but no maps seem to have survived to be used by Planude's monks. Instead, he commissioned new world maps calculated from Ptolemy's thousands of coordinates and drafted according to the text's 1st<ref>''Vat. Urbinas Graecus'' 82.</ref> and 2nd projections,<ref>''Codex Seragliensis'' GI 57</ref> along with the equirectangular regional maps. A copy was translated into [[Latin]] by [[Jacobus Angelus]] at [[Republic of Florence|Florence]] around 1406 and soon supplemented with maps on the 1st projection. Maps using the 2nd projection were not made in Western Europe until [[Nicolaus Germanus]]'s 1466 edition.{{refn|name=snyd|{{Citation |last=Snyder |first=John P. |title=Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UzjTJ4w9yEC&pg=PA14 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |date=1993|isbn=978-0226767475 }}}} Ptolemy's 3rd (and hardest) projection does not seem to have been used at all before [[Age of Discovery|new discoveries]] expanded the known world beyond the point where it provided a useful format.<ref name="snyd"/>

[[Cicero]]'s ''[[Dream of Scipio]]'' described the Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos. Many medieval manuscripts of [[Macrobius]]' ''Commentary on the Dream of Scipio'' include maps of the Earth, including the [[antipodes]], zonal maps showing the [[Clime#Ptolemy|Ptolemaic climate]]s derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as {{lang|la|globus terrae}}, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres.<ref>Eastwood, B., and Graßhoff, G. (2004). "Planetary Diagrams for Roman Astronomy in Medieval Europe, ca. 800–1500". ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' 94:3. pp. 49–50.</ref><ref>Macrobius, ''Commentary on the Dream of Scipio'', transl. [[William Harris Stahl|W. H. Stahl]], (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952), chapters v-vii (pp. 200–212).</ref>

==={{lang|la|Tabula Peutingeriana}} (4th century)===
{{Main|Tabula Peutingeriana}}
The {{lang|la|[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]}} (''Peutinger table'') is an [[itinerarium]] showing the {{lang|la|[[cursus publicus]]}}, the road network in the [[Roman Empire]]. It is a 13th-century copy of an original map dating from the 4th century, covering Europe, parts of Asia (India) and North Africa. The map is named after [[Konrad Peutinger]], a German 15th–16th century humanist and antiquarian. The map was discovered in a library in [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] by [[Conrad Celtes]], who was unable to publish his find before his death, and bequeathed the map in 1508 to Peutinger. It is conserved at the [[Österreichische Nationalbibliothek]], [[Hofburg]], Vienna.
{{wide image|Tabula Peutingeriana - Miller.jpg|3000px|Modern re-drawing of the {{lang|la|[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]}}, from Iberia in the west, to India in the east.}}
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==Middle Ages==
{{Further|Mappa mundi}}

===Cosmas Indicopleustes' Map (6th century)===
{{Main|Cosmas Indicopleustes}}
[[File:WorldMapCosmasIndicopleustes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|World map by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]]]]

Around 550 [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] wrote the copiously illustrated ''[[Christian Topography]]'', a work partly based on his personal experiences as a merchant on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean in the early 6th century. Though his [[cosmogony]] is refuted by modern science, he has given a historic description of India and [[Sri Lanka]] during the 6th century, which is invaluable to historians. Cosmas seems to have personally visited the Kingdom of [[Axum]] in modern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], as well as [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. In 522 CE, he visited the [[Malabar Coast]] (South India). A major feature of his ''Topography'' is Cosmas' worldview that the [[world]] is [[flat earth|flat]], and that the [[sky|heavens]] form the shape of a box with a curved lid, a view he took from unconventional interpretations of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[scripture]]. Cosmas aimed to prove that pre-Christian geographers had been wrong in asserting that the earth was spherical and that it was in fact modelled on the [[Tabernacle]], the house of worship described to [[Moses]] by God during the Jewish Exodus from Egypt.
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===Isidore of Sevilla's ''T and O map'' (c. 636)===
{{Main|Isidore of Seville|T and O map}}
{{See also|V-in-square map}}
[[File:Diagrammatic T-O world map - 12th c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[T and O map]] from a 12th-century copy of ''[[Etymologiae]]'']]
The medieval [[T and O map]]s originate with the description of the world in the ''[[Etymologiae]]'' of [[Isidore of Seville]] (died 636). This qualitative and conceptual type of medieval [[cartography]] represents only the top-half of a spherical Earth.<ref>Michael Livingston, [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2002/20020610/medieval_maps.shtml Modern Medieval Map Myths: The Flat World, Ancient Sea-Kings, and Dragons] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209042605/http://www.strangehorizons.com/2002/20020610/medieval_maps.shtml |date=2006-02-09 }}, 2002.</ref> It was presumably tacitly considered a convenient [[map projection|projection]] of the inhabited portion of the world known in Roman and medieval times (that is, the [[clime|northern temperate]] half of the globe). The ''T'' is the [[Mediterranean]], dividing the three [[continent]]s, [[Asia]], [[Europe]] and [[Africa]], and the ''O'' is the surrounding [[Ocean]]. [[Jerusalem]] was generally represented in the center of the map. Asia was typically the size of the other two continents combined. Because the sun rose in the east, Paradise (the Garden of Eden) was generally depicted as being in Asia, and Asia was situated at the top portion of the map.

===Albi Mappa Mundi (8th century)===
[[File:Mappa mundi dAlbi.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Albi Mappa Mundi]]

The {{ill|Mappa mundi of Albi|fr|Mappa mundi d'Albi}} is a medieval map of the world, included in a manuscript of the second half of the 8th century, preserved in the old collection of the library Pierre-Amalric in [[Albi]], France.<ref>{{cite web|title=Focus sur... La Mappa mundi d'Albi|url=http://mediatheques.grand-albigeois.fr/1307-focus-sur...-la-mappa-mundi-d-albi.htm|website=mediatheques.grand-albigeois.fr|language=fr}}</ref> This manuscript comes from the chapter library of the Sainte-Cécile [[Albi Cathedral]]. The Albi Mappa Mundi was inscribed in October 2015 in the [[Memory of the World Programme]] of [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{cite web|title=La " Mappa mundi d'Albi " a rejoint en octobre 2015 le registre " Mémoire du monde " de l'Unesco|url=http://www.culture.fr/C-en-regions/France/Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrenees/Actualites/Architecture-patrimoine/La-Mappa-mundi-d-Albi-a-rejoint-en-octobre-2015-le-registre-Memoire-du-monde-de-l-Unesco|website=culture.fr|language=fr}}.</ref>

The manuscript bearing the card contains 77 pages. It is named in the eighteenth century "''Miscellanea''" (Latin word meaning "collection"). This collection contains 22 different documents, which had educational functions. The manuscript, a [[Parchment]] probably made from a goat or sheep skin, is in a very good state of preservation.

The map itself is 27&nbsp;cm high by 22.5 wide. It represents 23 countries on 3 continents and mentions several cities, islands, rivers and seas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Présentation de la Mappa Mundi d'Albi|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10kubpgtEW0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/10kubpgtEW0 |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|website=www.youtube.com| date=4 February 2016 |language=fr}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The known world is represented in the form of a horseshoe, opening at the level of the Strait of Gibraltar, and surrounding the Mediterranean, with the Middle East at the top, Europe on the left and North Africa on the right.
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===Ibn Hawqal's map (10th century)===
[[File:Ibn Howqal World map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|World map by Ibn Hawqal (south at top)]]
[[Ibn Hawqal]] was an Arab scientist of the 10th century who developed a world map, based on his own travel experience and probably the works of Ptolemy. Another such cartographer was [[Istakhri]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ocoV2iI4vcoC&pg=PA120 ''The History of cartography'' by John Brian Harley, David Woodward pp. 120''ff'']</ref>

===Anglo-Saxon ''Cotton'' World Map (c. 1040)===
[[File:Cotton world map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Anglo-Saxon 'Cotton' world map (c. 1040). Britain and Ireland are bottom left.]]
This map appears in a copy of a classical work on geography, the Latin version by [[Priscian]] of the ''Periegesis'', that was among the manuscripts in the [[Cotton library]] ([[MS. Tiberius]] B.V., fol. 56v), now in the [[British Library]]. It is not intended purely as an illustration to that work, for it contains much material gathered from other sources, including some which would have been the most up-to-date available, although it is based on a distant Roman original (similar to the source of [//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Isidore-Seville-mappamundi.jpg another 11th-century world map], illustrating an edition of Isidore of Seville) – on which the network of lines appears to indicate the boundaries of [[Roman Empire|imperial]] provinces. The date of drawing was formerly estimated at {{circa|992–994}} CE, based on suggested links to the journey of [[Sigeric the Serious|Archbishop Sigeric of Canterbury]] from Rome<ref>Siebold, Jim [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/EMwebpages/210mono.html Slide 210 monograph: Cottoniana or Anglo-Saxon Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730125852/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/EMwebpages/210mono.html |date=2018-07-30 }}, via henry-davis.com - accessed 2008-02-04</ref> but more recent analysis indicates that, although the information was revised about that time, the map was probably drawn between 1025 and 1050.<ref>British Library [http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=001COTTIBB00005U00056V00&largeimage=1#largeimage Collect Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428061515/http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/personalisation/object.cfm?uid=001COTTIBB00005U00056V00&largeimage=1#largeimage |date=2009-04-28 }}, accessed 2008-03-14</ref>

Like the later map by al-Idrisi (see below) this map is clearly outside the largely symbolic early medieval mapping tradition, but equally it is not based on the famous Ptolemaic co-ordinate system. East is at the top, but Jerusalem is not in the centre, and the Garden of Eden is nowhere to be seen. Unusually, all the waterways of Africa, not just the Red Sea, are depicted in red (mountains are green). The depiction of the far East is ambitious, including India and Taprobane (Sri Lanka) – the latter depicted according to the exaggerated classical conception of its size. Unsurprisingly, Britain itself is depicted in some detail. Great Britain, unusually by medieval standards, is shown as one island, albeit with an exaggerated Cornish promontory, and [[Isle of Man|Mona]], Ireland and the many Scottish islands are all indicated. The cartographer is slightly confused by Iceland, depicting it both by a version of its classical name 'Thule', north-west of Britain, and as 'Island', logically linked with Scandinavia.

An open-access high-resolution digital image of the map with place and name annotations is included among the thirteen medieval maps of the world edited in the [[Virtual Mappa]] project.
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===Beatus Mappa Mundi (1050)===
{{Main|Beatus of Liébana}}
[[File:Beatus map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|World map from the [[Saint-Sever Beatus]]]]
Beatus of Liébana (c. 730–798) was an [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturian]] [[monk]] and [[theologian]]. He corresponded with [[Alcuin of York|Alcuin]], and took part in the [[Adoptionist]] controversy, criticizing the views of [[Felix of Urgel]] and [[Elipandus of Toledo]]. He is best remembered today as the author of his ''Commentary on the [[Apocalypse]]'', published in 776. An illustrated manuscript known as the [[Saint-Sever Beatus]], featuring the ''Commentary'', was produced around 1050 at the Abbey of Saint-Sever, Aquitaine, France. It contains one of the oldest Christian world maps as an illustration of the ''Commentary''. Although the original manuscript and map has not survived, copies of the map survive in several of the extant manuscripts.

===Mahmud al-Kashgari's Map (1072)===
{{Main|Mahmud al-Kashgari}}
[[File:Kashgari map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Mahmud al-Kashgari]]'s ''[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]]'']]
[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|Kara-Khanid]] scholar [[Mahmud al-Kashgari]] compiled a ''[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]]'' (''Compendium of the languages of the Turks'') in the 11th century. The manuscript is illustrated with a 'Turkocentric' world map, oriented with east (or rather, perhaps, the direction of midsummer sunrise) on top, centered on the ancient city of [[Balasagun]] in what is now [[Kyrgyzstan]], showing the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north, and [[Iraq]], [[Armenia]], [[Yemen]] and [[Egypt]] to the west, [[China]] and [[Japan]] to the east, [[Hindustan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Gog and Magog]] to the south. Conventional symbols are used throughout – blue lines for rivers, red lines for mountain ranges etc. The world is shown as encircled by the ocean.<ref>[http://strangemaps.wordpress.com/2007/02/22/81-the-first-turkish-world-map-by-kashgari-1072/ 81 – The First Turkish World Map, by Kashgari (1072) « Strange Maps<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The map is now kept at the Pera Museum in Istanbul.

===Al-Idrisi's ''Tabula Rogeriana'' (1154)===
{{Main|Al-Idrisi|Tabula Rogeriana}}
[[File:Tabula Rogeriana 1929 copy by Konrad Miller.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Original ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'' (1154) with south up.]]
The Arab geographer, [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]], incorporated the knowledge of [[Africa]], the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Far East]] gathered by [[Islamic economics in the world|Arab merchants]] and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world at the time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.
The ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'' was drawn by Al-Idrisi in 1154 for the [[Normans|Norman]] King [[Roger II of Sicily]], after a stay of eighteen years at his court, where he worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map. The map, written in Arabic, shows the [[Eurasia]]n continent in its entirety, but only shows the [[North Africa|northern part]] of the African continent.

===Ebstorf Mappa Mundi (1235)===
{{Main|Ebstorf Map}}
[[File:Ebstorfer-stich2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Redrawn [[Ebstorf Map]], original {{circa|lk=no|1235}}, but since destroyed by wartime bombing.]]
The Ebstorf Map was an example of a European [[mappa mundi]], made by [[Gervase of Ebstorf]], who was possibly the same man as [[Gervase of Tilbury]],<ref>Gervase of Tilbury, ''Otia Imperialia'', (Oxford Medieval Texts), Oxford, 2002, p. xxxiv.</ref> some time in the thirteenth century. It was a very large map: painted on 30 goatskins sewn together, it measured about {{convert|3.6|x|3.6|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The head of Christ was depicted at the top of the map, with his hands on either side and his feet at the bottom.<ref>{{cite book |first=Evelyn |last=Edson |title=Mapping Time and Space: How Medieval Mapmakers viewed their World |location=London |publisher=British Library |year=1997 |page=138 |isbn=0-7123-4535-3 }}</ref> The Map was a greatly elaborated version of the medieval tripartite or [[T and O map]]; it was centred on Jerusalem with east at the top of the map. It represented [[Rome]] in the shape of a lion, and had an evident interest in the distribution of bishoprics.<ref>Gervase of Tilbury, ''Otia Imperialia'', (Oxford Medieval Texts), Oxford, 2002, p. xxxv</ref> The original was destroyed in the bombing of [[Hanover]] in 1943 during World War II, but some photographs and colour copies remain.

===Hereford Mappa Mundi (1300)===
{{Main|Hereford Mappa Mundi}}
[[File:Hereford Mappa Mundi 1300.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Hereford Mappa Mundi]], {{circa|lk=no|1300}}]]
The [[Hereford]] [[Mappa Mundi]] is a detailed mappa mundi based on the [[T and O map]] style, dating to {{circa|lk=no|1300}}. The map is signed by one "Richard of [[Holdingham|Haldingham]] or [[Sleaford|Lafford]]". Drawn on a single sheet of [[vellum]], it measures {{convert|158|by|133|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The writing is in black ink, with additional red and gold, and blue or green for water (with the [[Red Sea]] coloured red). The captions demonstrate clearly the multiple functions of these large medieval maps, conveying a mass of information on Biblical subjects and general history, in addition to geography.

[[Jerusalem]] is drawn at the centre of the circle, [[east]] is on top, showing the [[Garden of Eden]] in a circle at the edge of the world (1). [[Great Britain]] is drawn at the northwestern border (bottom left, 22 & 23). Curiously, the labels for [[Africa]] and [[Europe]] are reversed, with Europe scribed in red and gold as 'Africa', and vice versa.

An open-access high-resolution digital image of the map with more than 1,000 place and name annotations is included among the thirteen medieval maps of the world edited in the [[Virtual Mappa]] project.
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===Pietro Vesconte's World Map (1321)===
{{Main|Pietro Vesconte}}
[[File:World map pietro vesconte.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Pietro Vesconte]]'s world map, 1321]]
Italian geographer [[Pietro Vesconte]] was a pioneer of the field of the [[portolan chart]]. His nautical charts are among the earliest to map the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Black Sea]] regions accurately. He also produced progressively more accurate depictions of the coastlines of northern Europe. In his world map of 1321 he brought his experience as a maker of portolans to bear; the map introduced a previously unheard of accuracy to the mappa mundi genre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/228Fmono.html |title=Vesconte World Maps|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217102006/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/LMwebpages/228Fmono.html|archive-date=17 February 2020}}</ref> The world map, as well as a map of the [[Holy Land]] and plan of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and [[Jerusalem]] were made for inclusion in [[Marino Sanuto the Elder|Marino Sanuto]]'s ''[[Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Harley |editor1-first=John Brian |editor2-first=David |editor2-last=Woodward |title=The History of Cartography |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-226-31633-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJaP4i7-_MIC&pg=RA2-PA432 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Catalan World Atlas (1375)===
{{Main|Catalan Atlas}}
[[File:Catalan-Atlas - 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Two leaves of The [[Catalan Atlas|Catalan world atlas]]]]
The Catalan World Atlas was produced by the [[Majorcan cartographic school]] and is attributed to [[Cresques Abraham]]. It has been in the royal library of France (now the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]) since the time of [[Charles V of France|Charles V]]. The Catalan Atlas originally consisted of six vellum leaves folded down the middle, painted in various colours including gold and silver. The first two leaves contain texts in the [[Catalan language]] covering [[cosmography]], [[astronomy]], and [[astrology]]. These texts are accompanied by illustrations. The texts and illustration emphasize the Earth's spherical shape and the state of the known world. They also provide information to sailors on tides and how to tell time at night.

Unlike many other nautical charts, the Catalan Atlas is read with the north at the bottom. As a result of this the maps are oriented from left to right, from the Far East to the Atlantic. The first two leaves, forming the oriental portion of the Catalan Atlas, illustrate numerous religious references as well as a synthesis of medieval mappae mundi (Jerusalem located close to the centre) and the travel literature of the time, notably ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' and the ''Travels'' of [[Sir John Mandeville]]. Many Indian and Chinese cities can be identified.

==="Da Ming Hunyi Tu" world map (after 1389)===
{{Main|Da Ming Hunyi Tu}}
{{Further|Geography of China}}
[[File:Da-ming-hun-yi-tu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Da Ming Hunyi Tu]] map]]
The ''Da Ming Hunyi Tu'' ({{lang-zh|s=大明混一图|l=Amalgamated Map of the Great Ming Empire}}) world map, likely made in the late 14th or the 15th century,<ref>
The place names on the map reflect the political situation in 1389, or the 22nd year of the reign of the [[Hongwu Emperor]]. Thus some Chinese scholars concluded that it was indeed created in 1389 or little later (Wang et al., ''Juanben caihui Daming Hunyi Tu yanjiu'' 绢本彩绘大明混一图研究 (As Regards the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu Drawn in Colours on Stiff Silk), in: ''Zhongguo gudai dituji: Ming dai'' 中國古代地图集 明代 (An Atlas of Ancient Maps in China: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644)), Beijing, 1994, pp. 51–55).
Others maintain that this reflects an earlier source and that the  ''Da Ming Hun Yi Tu'' itself was created much later (Miya Noriko, "Kon'itsu Kyōri Rekidai Kokuto no Zu" he no michi 「混一疆理歴代国都之図」への道, ''Mongoru jidai no shuppan bunka'' モンゴル時代の出版文化, 2006, 487–651 (pp. 511–512).</ref>
shows China at the centre and Europe, half-way round the globe, depicted very small and horizontally compressed at the edge. The coast of Africa is also mapped from an Indian Ocean perspective, showing the Cape of Good Hope area.
It is believed that maps of this type were made since about the 1320s, but all earlier specimens have been lost, so the earliest survivor is the elaborate, colourful ''Da Ming Hunyi Tu'', painted on {{convert|17|m2|sqft|abbr=on}} of silk.

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===Gangnido world map (1402)===
{{Main|Gangnido}}
[[File:KangnidoMap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ryūkoku copy of the [[Gangnido]] world map of Joseon (Korea) (c. 1479–1485)<ref name="robinson2007"/>]]
The ''Gangnido'' ("Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals (of China)")<ref name="robinson2007">{{cite journal |title=Chosŏn Korea in the Ryukoku Kangnido: Dating the Oldest Extant Korean Map of the World (15th Century) |last=Robinson |first=Kenneth R. |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=59 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=177–192 |doi=10.1080/03085690701300964 |s2cid=128416415 }}</ref> is a world map and historical map of China, made in [[Korea]] in 1402, although extant copies, all in Japan, were created much later. It plays a key role in reconstructing the content of the now-lost 14th-century Chinese map of the world named ''Shengjiao Guangbei Tu'', which was based on Chinese cartographic techniques with additional input from western sources, via Islamic scholarship in the [[Mongol Empire]]. It also demonstrates the post-Mongol era stagnation of East Asian cartography as geographic information about the West was not updated until the introduction of European knowledge in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>{{cite book
 |author=Miya Noriko 宮紀子
 |chapter=Kon'itsu Kyōri Rekidai Kokuto no Zu" he no michi 「混一疆理歴代国都之図」への道
 |title=Mongoru jidai no shuppan bunka モンゴル時代の出版文化
 |pages=487–651
 |year=2006
 |language=ja
}}</ref> Superficially similar to the ''Da Ming Hun Yi Tu'' (which has been less well known in the West because it is kept in closed archive storage), the Gangnido shows its Korean origin in the enlargement of that country, and incorporates vastly improved (though wrongly positioned, scaled and oriented) mapping of Japan. Elsewhere, the map betrays a decorative rather than practical purpose, particularly in the portrayal of river systems, which form unnatural loops rarely seen on Chinese maps. Nonetheless, it is considered as "superior to anything produced in Europe prior to the end of the fifteenth century".<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Jackson |title=The Mongols and the West |location=New York |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2005 |page=330 |isbn=0-582-36896-0 }}</ref>
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===De Virga world map (1411–1415)===
{{Main|De Virga world map|Albertinus de Virga}}
[[File:DeVirgaDetail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Photo of the [[De Virga world map]] (1411–1415), which disappeared in the 1930s]]
The '''De Virga world map''' was made by Albertinus de Virga between 1411 and 1415. Albertin de Virga, a Venetian, is also known for a 1409 map of the Mediterranean, also made in Venice. The world map is circular, drawn on a piece of [[parchment]] {{convert|69.6|x|44|cm|in|abbr=on}}. It consists of the map itself, about {{convert|44|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter, and an extension containing a calendar and two tables.
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===Bianco's world map (1436)===
{{Main|Bianco world map}}
[[File:Biancomap.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bianco world map]] (1436)]]
Andrea Bianco's atlas of 1436 comprises ten leaves of [[vellum]], measuring {{convert|29|x|38|cm|in|abbr=on}}, in an 18th-century binding. The first leaf contains a description of the ''[[Rule of marteloio]]'' for resolving the course, with the "circle and square", two tables and two other diagrams. The next eight leaves contain various navigation charts. The ninth leaf contains a circular world map measuring {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} in circumference. And the final leaf contains the Ptolemaic world map on Ptolemy's first projection, with graduation. Some believe Bianco's maps were the first to correctly portray the coast of Florida, as a macro-peninsula is attached to a large island labeled [[Antillia]]. Bianco also collaborated with [[Fra Mauro]] on the Fra Mauro world map of 1459.
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===Borgia world map (early 15th century)===
{{Main|Borgia map}}
[[File:Mapa_de_Borgia_XV.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Borgia map]] (early 15th century)]]
Mainly a decoration piece, the Borgia map is a world map made sometime in the early 15th century, and engraved on a metal plate.
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===Genoese map (1457)===
{{Main|Genoese map}}
[[File:Genoese map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Genoese map]] of 1457, Biblioteca Nazionale at Florence]]
The [[Genoese map]] of 1457 is a [[world map]] that relied extensively on the account of the traveller to Asia [[Niccolo da Conti]], rather than the usual source of [[Marco Polo]].<ref name="Whitfield, p.36">{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Whitfield |url=https://archive.org/details/newfoundlandsmap0000whit |url-access=registration |title=New Found Lands: Maps in the History of Exploration |page=[https://archive.org/details/newfoundlandsmap0000whit/page/36 36] |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0-415-92026-4 }}</ref> The author is unknown, but is a more modern development than the [[Fra Mauro map|Fra Mauro world map]], less intricate and complete, with fairly good proportions given to each of the continents. The map depicts the main landmarks of the time, and figures such as the legendary [[Prester John]] in Africa, the Great Khan in China, "Xilam" ([[Ceylon]]) and Sumatra, and the design of a three-masted European ship in the [[Indian Ocean]], something which had not occurred, suggesting that a sea-lane was a possibility.<ref name="Whitfield, p.36" />
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===Fra Mauro world map (1459)===
{{Main|Fra Mauro map}}
[[File:FraMauroDetailedMapInverted.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Fra Mauro map]] (1459)]]
The '''Fra Mauro map''' was made between 1457 and 1459 by the [[Venice|Venetian]] monk [[Fra Mauro]]. It is a circular planisphere drawn on [[parchment]] and set in a wooden frame, about {{convert|2|m|}} in diameter.
The original world map was made by Fra Mauro and his assistant Andrea Bianco, a sailor-cartographer, under a commission by king [[Afonso V of Portugal]]. The map was completed on April 24, 1459, and sent to [[Portugal]], but did not survive to the present day. Fra Mauro died the next year while he was making a copy of the map for the Seignory of Venice, and the copy was completed by Andrea Bianco.

The map is preserved in the [[Museo Correr]] in [[Venice, Italy|Venice]].
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===Martellus world map (1490)===
[[File:Martellus world map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Martellus world map (1490)]]
The world map of [[Henricus Martellus Germanus]] (Heinrich Hammer), c. 1490, was remarkably similar to the terrestrial globe later produced by [[Martin Behaim]] in 1492, the ''[[Erdapfel]]''. Both show heavy influences from [[Ptolemy]], and both possibly derive from maps created around 1485 in Lisbon by [[Bartolomeo Columbus]]. Although Martellus is believed to have been born in Nuremberg, Behaim's home town, he lived and worked in Florence from 1480 to 1496.
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===Behaim's ''Erdapfel'' globe (1492)===
{{Main|Erdapfel}}
[[File:Behaims Erdapfel.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Behaim's ''[[Erdapfel]]'']]
[[File:RavensteinBehaim.jpg|thumb|left|Modern recreation of the [[Gore (segment)|gores]] of the ''Erdapfel'']]

The ''Erdapfel'' ({{langx|de|earth apple}}) produced by [[Martin Behaim]] in 1492 is considered to be the oldest surviving terrestrial [[globe]]. It is constructed of a laminated linen ball reinforced with wood and overlaid with a [[map]] painted on [[Gore (segment)|gores]] by [[Georg Glockendon]].<ref>[http://nuernberg.bayern-online.de/die-stadt/wissenswertes/der-behaim-globus/ Behaim Globe at Bayern-online]</ref> The Americas are not included yet, as [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] returned to Spain no sooner than March 1493. It shows a rather enlarged Eurasian continent and an empty ocean between Europe and Asia. It includes the mythical [[Saint Brendan's Island]]. Japan and Asian islands are disproportionately large. The idea to call the globe "apple" may be related to the [[Reichsapfel]] ("Imperial Apple", [[Globus cruciger]]) which was also kept in Nuremberg along with the [[Imperial Regalia]] ([[Reichskleinodien]]). In 1907, it was transferred to the [[Germanisches Nationalmuseum|Germanic Museum]] in [[Nuremberg]].
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==After 1492==
{{Further|Age of Discovery}}

===Juan de la Cosa Map (1500)===
[[File:1500 map by Juan de la Cosa-North up.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Map of Juan de la Cosa]], shown rotated right (in the original manuscript north points left), 1500]]
{{Main|Map of Juan de la Cosa}}
The [[Juan de la Cosa]], a Spanish cartographer, [[explorer]] and [[conquistador]], born in [[Santoña]] in what was then the Kingdom of Castille, made several maps of which the only survivor is the ''Mappa Mundi'' of 1500. It is the first known European cartographic representation of the [[Americas]]. It is now in the [[Naval Museum of Madrid|Museo Naval]] in [[Madrid]]. Reproductions of it are given by Humboldt in his ''Atlas géographique et physique''.
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===Cantino Planisphere (1502)===
{{Main|Cantino planisphere}}
[[File:Cantino planisphere (1502).jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|[[Cantino planisphere]], 1502, Biblioteca Estense, [[Modena]]]]
The ''[[Cantino planisphere]]'' or Cantino world map is the earliest surviving map showing [[Portugal|Portuguese]] discoveries in the east and west. It is named after Alberto Cantino, an agent for the [[Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara|Duke of Ferrara]], who successfully smuggled it from Portugal to [[Italy]] in 1502. It shows the islands of the [[Caribbean]], as well as Africa, Europe and Asia. The map is particularly notable for portraying a fragmentary record of the [[Brazil]]ian coast, discovered in 1500 by Portuguese explorer [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] who conjectured whether it was merely an island<ref>Letter of Pero Vaz de Caminha, ''beijo as maãos de vosa alteza. deste porto seguro da vosa jlha da vera cruz'' (see original letter in archaic Portuguese, [http://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Carta_a_El_Rei_D._Manuel_(ortografia_original) in the Portuguese Wikisource project): ''I kiss Your Majesty's Hands'', from this safe haven of your island of Vera Cruz]</ref> or part of the continent that several [[Spain|Spanish]] expeditions had just encountered farther north (cf. [[Amerigo Vespucci]]).
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===Caverio Map (c. 1505)===
{{Main|Caverio map}}
[[File:Caverio Map circa 1506.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Caverio Map ({{Circa|1505}}), Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris]]
The [[Caverio Map]], also known as the Caveri Map or Canerio Map, is a map drawn by [[Nicolay de Caveri]], {{Circa|1505}}. It is hand drawn on parchment and coloured, being composed of ten sections or panels, measuring {{convert|2.25|by|1.15|m|ft}}. Historians believe that this undated map signed with "Nicolay de Caveri Januensis" was completed in 1504–05. It was probably either made in [[Lisbon]] by the Genoese Canveri, or copied by him in [[Genoa]] from the very similar [[Cantino map]]. It was one of the primary sources used to make the [[Waldseemüller map]] in 1507. The Caverio map is currently at the [[Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] in Paris.

===Ruysch World Map (1507)===
{{Main|Johannes Ruysch}}
[[File:Ruysch map.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|[[Johannes Ruysch|Ruysch]]'s 1507 map of the world]]
[[Johannes Ruysch]] an explorer, cartographer, astronomer and painter from the [[Low Countries]] produced the second oldest known printed representation of the New World.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ruysch World Map: Census and Commentary |first=Donald L. Jr. |last=McGuirk |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=1989 |pages=133–141 |doi=10.1080/03085698908592674 }}</ref> The Ruysch map was published and widely distributed in 1507. It uses [[Ptolemy]]'s coniform projection, as does the [[Contarini-Rosselli]] 1506 map. Both document [[Christopher Columbus]]' discoveries as well as that of [[John Cabot]], including information from Portuguese sources and [[Marco Polo]]'s account. There are notes on his map that clearly were from Portuguese sources. [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and [[Cuba]] are shown connected to Asia, as [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] and [[John Cabot|Cabot]] believed. “Sipganus” (Marco Polo's Japan) is identical with “Spagnola” ([[Hispaniola]]) on the Ruysch map. The presence of codfish is noted on the Ruysch map in the area of the [[Grand Banks]] of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and shows the discoveries the Portuguese had made along the African coast and shows India as a triangular peninsula with [[Ceylon]] in the correct proportion and position.
Greenland is shown connected to Newfoundland and Asia on Ruysch's map, and not Europe as earlier maps had shown. Around the north pole, Ruysch drew islands, based on reports in the book ''[[Inventio Fortunata]]'' of the English friar [[Nicholas of Lynne]]. The island above Norway is labeled 'European Hyberborea' and has similarities to [[Svalbard]]. The peninsula stretching out towards it is marked with the church of 'Sancti Odulfi', St Olaf's church in [[Vardø (town)|Vardø]] on the [[Finnmark]] coast.

===Waldseemüller and Ringmann map (1507)===
{{Main|Waldseemüller map}}
[[File:Waldseemuller map 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Waldseemüller map]] with joint sheets, 1507]]
The cartographers [[Martin Waldseemüller]] and [[Matthias Ringmann]] from southern Germany, supported by the mapping friend [[René II, Duke of Lorraine]], collected map data over several years, including information on the most recent discoveries, to build up a new collective work of geography and cartography. Along with a book they further incorporated, for the first time in history, the name ''America'' on a map, holding the strong opinion that it was a new continent that [[Amerigo Vespucci]] had discovered on his voyage and not only a few smaller islands as [[Christopher Columbus]] did in the ''[[List of islands in the Caribbean|West Indies]]''.
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===Piri Reis Map (1513)===
{{Main|Piri Reis map}}
[[File:Piri reis world map 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Fragment of the [[Piri Reis map]] by [[Piri Reis]] in 1513]]
The '''Piri Reis map''' is a famous world map created by 16th-century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkish]] admiral and cartographer [[Piri Reis]]. The surviving third of the map shows part of the western coasts of Europe and North Africa with reasonable accuracy, and the coast of [[Brazil]] is also easily recognizable. Various Atlantic islands including the [[Azores]] and [[Canary Islands]] are depicted, as is the mythical island of [[Antillia]]. The map is noteworthy for its apparent south-eastward extension of the American continent to depict a southern landmass that some controversially claim is evidence for early awareness of the existence of [[Antarctica]]. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this is actually a record of the coast as far as [[Cape Horn]], bent south-eastward simply to fit on the parchment.
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===Pietro Coppo Map (1520)===
{{Main|Pietro Coppo}}
[[File:PietroCoppo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map by [[Pietro Coppo]], [[Venice]], 1520]]
The map by [[Pietro Coppo]] was one of the last world maps to feature the "[[Dragon's Tail (peninsula)|Dragon's Tail]]" extending southwards from the far eastern extremity of Asia, the last vestige of Ptolemy's landlocked depiction of the Indian Ocean, nearly 1,500 years earlier.
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===Padrón Real (1527)===
{{Main|Padrón Real|Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)}}
The editions of the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[Padrón Real|royal standard map]] ({{lang|es|Padrón Real}} or {{lang|es|General}}) overseen by [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribeiro]] in the 1520s and 1530s are considered to be the first scientific world maps based on empiric latitude observations. Europe and [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] are very precisely delineated, although Portuguese control of the African trade routes limited the accuracy of information on the Indian Ocean. Incorporating information from the [[Magellan expedition|Magellan]], [[Estêvão Gomes|Gomes]], and [[Loaysa expedition]]s and [[geodesy|geodesic]] research undertaken to establish the demarcation line of the 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the maps show for the first time the real extension of the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the continuous coast of [[North America]].

The originals are now lost but six copies of known provenance have survived.<ref name=hd>{{cite web|url=http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1/346mono|title=Carta Universal|last=Ribero|first=Diego|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109171456/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ren/Ren1/346mono|archive-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> The 1525 Castiglione Map is now held by the [[Estense Library]] in [[Modena]], [[Italy]]; the 1526 [[Salviati Planisphere]] is held by the [[Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana]] in [[Florence]]; the 1527 Weimar Map is held by the [[Anna Amalia Bibliothek]] in [[Weimar]], [[Germany]]; and the 1529 [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|Propaganda]] Map is held by the [[Vatican Library]].<ref name=hd/> Detailed copies of the Propaganda Map were made in the 19th century by [[William Griggs (inventor)|William Griggs]].

<gallery mode=packed>
File:Castiglione Map.png | 1525 Castiglione Map
File:Planisferio Salviati.jpg | 1526 [[Salviati Planisphere]]
File:Weimar 1527.png | 1527 Weimar Map
File:Propaganda Map.jpg | 1529 Propaganda Map
</gallery>
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===Mercator world map (1569)===
{{Main|Mercator 1569 world map|Mercator projection|Gerardus Mercator}}
[[File:Mercator 1569.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Gerardus Mercator|Mercator]] ''Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio'', 1569. [[Mercator 1569 world map#Basel map|High res image.]]]]
[[Flemish people|Flemish]] geographer and cartographer [[Gerardus Mercator]] world map of 1569 introduced a [[Map projection#Cylindrical|cylindrical map projection]] that became the standard map projection known as the [[Mercator projection]]. It was a large planisphere measuring {{convert|202 by 124|cm||abbr=on}}, printed in eighteen separate sheets. While the linear scale is constant in all directions around any point, thus preserving the angles and the shapes of small objects (which makes the projection [[conformal projection|conformal]]), the Mercator projection distorts the size and shape of large objects, as the scale increases from the Equator to the poles, where it becomes infinite. The title ({{lang|la|Nova et Aucta Orbis Terrae Descriptio ad Usum Navigatium Emendate}}: "new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of navigation") and the [[Mercator 1569 world map#Summary of the legends|map legends]] show that the map was expressly conceived for the use of marine navigation. The principal feature of the projection is that [[rhumb line]]s, sailing courses at a constant bearing, are mapped to straight lines on the map. The development of the Mercator projection represented a major breakthrough in the nautical cartography of the 16th century although it was only slowly adopted by seafaring nations.
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===''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum'' by Abraham Ortelius (1570)===
{{Main|Theatrum Orbis Terrarum}}
[[File:Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, by Abraham Ortelius, World, 1572.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Abraham Ortelius|Ortelius]]'s map ''[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]]'' (1570)]]
The ''Theatrum Orbis Terrarum'' (or  "Theatre of the World") is considered to be the first true modern [[atlas (cartography)|atlas]]. Prepared by [[Abraham Ortelius]] and originally printed on May 20, 1570, in [[Antwerp]], it consisted of a collection of uniform [[map]] sheets and sustaining texts bound to form a book for which copper printing plates were specifically engraved. The Ortelius atlas is sometimes referred to as the summary of sixteenth-century [[cartography]]. Many of his atlas's maps were based upon sources that no longer exist or are extremely rare. Ortelius appended a unique source list (the "Catalogus Auctorum") identifying the names of contemporary cartographers, some of whom would otherwise have remained obscure. Three [[Latin]] editions of this (besides a [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a [[French language|French]] and a [[German language|German]] edition) appeared before the end of 1572; twenty-five editions came out before Ortelius's death in 1598; and several others were published subsequently, as the atlas continued to be in demand until approximately 1612.
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==={{lang|de|Die ganze Welt in einem Kleberblat}} by Heinrich Bünting (1581)===
{{Main|Bünting Clover Leaf Map}}
[[File:1581 Bunting clover leaf map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|{{lang|de|Die ganze Welt in einem Kleberblat}} (The entire World in a Cloverleaf). Jerusalem is in the centre of the map surrounded by the three continents.]]
The '''Bünting Clover Leaf Map''', also known as '''The World in a Cloverleaf''' ([[German language|German]] title: {{lang|de|Die ganze Welt in einem Kleberblat/Welches ist der Stadt Hannover meines lieben Vaterlandes Wapen}}) is an historic [[mappa mundi]] drawn by the [[Germans|German]] [[Protestant]] [[pastor]], [[theologist]], and [[cartographer]] [[Heinrich Bünting]]. The map was published in his book {{lang|la|Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae}} (Travel through Holy Scripture) in 1581.

Today the map is found within the Eran Laor maps collection in the [[National Library of Israel]] in [[Jerusalem]]. A mosaic model of the map is installed on the fence of [[Safra Square]] at the site of Jerusalem's city hall.

The map is a figurative illustration, in the manner of the medieval mappa mundi format, depicting the world via a [[clover]] shape.<ref name="Carlton2015">{{cite book|author=Genevieve Carlton|title=Worldly Consumers: The Demand for Maps in Renaissance Italy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MCkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-25545-3|page=42}}</ref> The shape is a symbolisation of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Trinity]] and a component at the symbolisation of the German city [[Hanover]], where Bünting was born. The city of Jerusalem is represented as the centre, surrounded by three central continents, with some more areas of the world being accordingly illustrated separately from the clover.

==="Kunyu Wanguo Quantu" by Matteo Ricci (1602)===
[[File:Kunyu Wanguo Quantu (坤輿萬國全圖).jpg|right|upright=1.5|thumb|''Kunyu Wanguo Quantu'' (1602), Japanese copy]]
{{Main|Kunyu Wanguo Quantu}}
Kunyu Wanguo Quantu ({{zh|c=坤輿萬國全圖|l=A Map of the Myriad Countries of the World}}; {{langx|it|Carta Geografica Completa di tutti i Regni del Mondo}}, "Complete Geographical Map of all the Kingdoms of the World"), printed by Italian [[Jesuit]] [[missionary]] [[Matteo Ricci]] at the request by [[Wanli Emperor]] in 1602, is the first known European-styled Chinese world map (and the first Chinese map to show the [[Americas]]). The map is in [[Classical Chinese]], with detailed annotations and descriptions of various regions of the world, a brief account of the discovery of the Americas, [[polar projection]]s, scientific explanation of parallels and meridians, and proof that the Sun is bigger than the Moon. Following Chinese cartographical convention, Ricci placed China ("the Middle Kingdom") at the centre of the world. This map is a significant mark of the expansion of Chinese knowledge of the world, and an important example of [[cultural syncretism]] directly between Europe and China. It was also exported to [[Korea]] and [[Japan]] as well.<ref name="Rothstein">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/arts/design/20map.html?pagewanted=1|title=Map That Shrank the World|last=Rothstein|first=Edward |date=2010-01-19|work=New York Times, Arts, Exhibition Review |publisher=New York Times Company|access-date=20 January 2010|location=New York}}</ref>

===Hendrik Hondius map (1630)===
{{Main|Henricus Hondius II}}
[[File:Nova totius Terrarum Orbis geographica ac hydrographica tabula (Hendrik Hondius) balanced.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Henricus Hondius II|Hendrik Hondius]], {{lang|la|Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula}}, 1630]]

{{lang|la|Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula}} is a map of the world created by [[Henricus Hondius II|Hendrik Hondius]] in 1630, and published the following year at [[Amsterdam]], in the atlas {{lang|la|Atlantis Maioris}} Appendix. Illustrations of the four elements of fire, air, water, and land are included. In the four corners, there are portraits of [[Julius Caesar]], [[Claudius Ptolemy]], and the atlas's first two publishers, [[Gerard Mercator]] and [[Jodocus Hondius]], the father of Hendrik.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nova totius terrarum orbis geographica ac hydrographica tabula|url=http://maps.bpl.org/id/m8709|publisher=[[Norman B. Leventhal Map Center]]}}</ref> Among its claims to notability is the fact that it was the first dated map published in an atlas, and therefore the first widely available map, to show any part of Australia, the only previous map to do so being [[Hessel Gerritsz]]' 1627 {{lang|nl|Caert van't Landt van d'Eendracht}} ("Map of the [[Eendrachtsland|Land of Eendracht]]"), which was not widely distributed or recognised. The Australian coastline shown is part of the west coast of Cape York Peninsula, discovered by [[Jan Carstensz]] in 1623. Curiously, the map does not show the west coast features shown in Gerritsz' Caert.

=== Shahid-i Sadiq (1647) ===
[[File:Map_of_the_Inhabited_Quarter.png|thumb|Map of the "Inhabited Quarter" by Sadiq Isfahani from [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]], 1647]]

The {{lang|ar-Latn|Shahid-i Sadiq}} was an atlas composed by Sadiq Isfahani in [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.myoldmaps.com/early-medieval-monographs/204-map-of-the-inhabited/204-sadiq-isfahani.pdf |title=Map of the "Inhabited Quarter" |date=1647 |first=Sadiq |last=Isfahani}}</ref> This included the ''Inhabited Quarter'', a map of the parts of the world which he held to be suitable for human life.<ref name="Schwartzberg1302">Schwartzberg, 1302</ref> This is one of the only surviving maps made in India. The map stretched from the Insulae Fortunatae ([[Canary Islands]]) in the top right to Andalusia ([[Europe]]) to Sus al Aqsa ([[Western Africa]]) in the left.<ref name=":0" />  The {{lang|ar-Latn|Shahid-i Sadiq}} included The 32 sheet atlas—with maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the era—is part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647.<ref name="Schwartzberg1302" /> This map measures {{convert|661|×|645|cm|in ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Schwartzberg1303">Schwartzberg, 1303</ref>{{clear}}

===Nicolaes Visscher map (1658)===
[[File:Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula by Nicolaes Visscher, 1658.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Nicolaes Visscher I|Nicolaes Visscher]] map of 1658, {{lang|la|Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula}}, 1658]]
This engraved double hemisphere map, {{lang|la|Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula}}, was created by [[Nicolaes Visscher I|Nicolaes Visscher]] in 1658 in [[Amsterdam]]. It also contains smaller northern and southern polar projections. The border is decorated with mythological scenes, one in each corner, drawn by the painter [[Nicolaes Berchem]], showing [[Zeus]], [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Persephone]] and [[Demeter]]. It is an early example of highly decorated Dutch world maps.<ref>{{cite web|title=Visscher, Nicolaes (1618–1679). Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula. Amsterdam: 1658.|url=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/visscher-nicolaes-1618-1679-orbis-terrarum-nova-et-5780592-details.aspx|publisher=[[Christie's]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Orbis Terrarum Nova et Accuratissima Tabula, 1658|url=https://www.commbank.com.au/about-us/shaping-australia/dutch-sea-charts/2086.html|publisher=[[Commonwealth Bank of Australia]]}}</ref>
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===Gerard van Schagen's Map of the World (1689)===
[[Image:World Map 1689.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|Van Schagen's map of the world, 1689]]
{{main|Gerard van Schagen}}
Gerard van Schagen (c. 1642–1724?) was a [[cartographer]] from [[Amsterdam]], known for his exquisite reproductions of maps, particularly of those by [[Nicolaes Visscher I]] and [[Frederick de Wit]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.helmink.com/Antique_Map_van_Schagen_World/Scans/van%20Schagen%20World/index.html |title=van Schagen 1680 World & Continents |access-date=2016-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410112031/http://www.helmink.com/Antique_Map_van_Schagen_World/Scans/van%20Schagen%20World/index.html |archive-date=2016-04-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/cgi/i/image/image-idx?sid=314a0176db9cc5c4d98da8d2c09526c8;type=boolean;view=reslist;c=carto;;rgn1=carto_ve;q1=Schagen Catalog of van Schagen's maps] at the [[University of Amsterdam]]</ref><ref>[http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/cgi/i/image/image-idx?c=carto;page=index;tpl=p_schagen.tpl Biographical sketch] {{in lang|nl}}</ref> The map is of 1689. The original size is {{convert|48.3 x 56.0|cm||abbr=on}} and was produced using copper engraving. There is only one known example, which is in the [[Amsterdam University]].
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=== Tovmas Vanandetsi world map (1695) ===
[[File:Armenian map of the world by brothers Hadriaan and Peter Damiaan Schoonebeek in Amsterdam 1695.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Vanandetsi and Schoonebeek brothers' world map, 1695]]
Hamatarats Ashkharhatsuyts (Geographic Map of the World),<ref>{{Cite web |title=RareMaps.com |url=https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/58630/armenian-world-map-hamataratz-ashk-anonymous}}</ref> was produced in 1695 in [[Amsterdam]] by the Armenian printing firm founded by {{ill|Tovmas Vanandetsi|hy|Թովմաս Վանանդեցի}}. At the time, one of the most reliable maps of the two hemispheres was the first large-scale map drawn in [[Armenian language|Armenian]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Art-A-Tsolum |date=21 August 2023 |url=https://allinnet.info/history/the-publication-of-the-first-armenian-printed-world-map/}}</ref> The world map was created in a Western [[Cartography|cartographic]] style. To engrave the map's copper plates, the Schoonebeek brothers, who were considered the best masters, were employed. The map is divided into eight sections, totaling 150 × 120&nbsp;cm in size. The different portions of the map were adhered to a thin canvas to guard against damage during folding. The map has conventional, astrological, and mythical symbols representing the four seasons in each of its four corners.
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===Samuel Dunn's map of the world (1794)===
{{main|Samuel Dunn (mathematician)}}
[[File:1794 Samuel Dunn Wall Map of the World in Hemispheres - Geographicus - World2-dunn-1794.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|World map by [[Samuel Dunn (mathematician)|Samuel Dunn]], 1794]]

[[Samuel Dunn (mathematician)|Samuel Dunn]] (died 1794) was a British [[mathematician]] and amateur astronomer. His map covers the entire world in a double hemisphere projection. This map follows shortly after the explorations of [[Captain Cook]] in the Arctic and Pacific Northwest, so the general outline of North America is known. However, when this map was made, few inland expeditions had extended westward beyond the [[Mississippi River]].<ref>Gordon Goodwin: "Dunn, Samuel (d.1794)" in Leslie Stephen, ''Dictionary of National Biography'', 16, London, 1888, 211–213.</ref> A southern continent is noticeably absent; earlier maps had depicted the hypothetical continent ''[[Terra Australis]]''. These southern continents were speculative, as Antarctica had not yet been discovered.
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==See also==
{{columnslist|colwidth=28em|
*[[Cylcon]], Aboriginal Australian cylindro-conical stones some of which are thought to contain maps
*[[Dieppe maps]], a series of 16th-century world maps produced in Dieppe, France
*"[[Here be dragons]]", a phrase indicating uncharted areas
*[[History of cartography]]
*[[Jambudvīpa]], a geographic idea originated in India
*[[Johannes Schöner globe]], made in 1520
*''[[Mappa mundi]]'', medieval European maps of the world
*[[Nebra sky disc]], a Bronze Age "map" of the cosmos
*''[[Terra incognita]]'', uncharted territories documented in early maps
*[[Vinland Map]], a claimed 15th-century map later confirmed as a 20th-century forgery
*[[Virtual Mappa]], a project to digitise medieval ''mappa mundi''
*[[Mao Kun map]], also called Zheng He's navigation map, a world map dated to the 17th century but thought to be a copy of an early 15th-century map
}}

{{portal bar|Maps|World}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |contributor-last=Brodersen |contributor-first=Kai |date=2012 |contribution=Chapter 4: Cartography |title=Geography in Classical Antiquity |first=Daniela |last=Dueck |pages=99–110 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |url=https://archive.org/details/geographyinclass0000duec/ |isbn=9780521197885}}
* {{cite journal |last=Edson |first=Evelyn |date=1993 |title=The Oldest World Maps: Classical Sources of Three Eighth Century Mappaemundi |journal=Ancient World |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=169–184}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fox |first1=Michael |first2=Stephen R |last2=Reimer |date=2008 |title=Mappae Mundi: Representing the World and Its Inhabitants In Texts, Maps, and Images In Medieval and Early Modern Europe |location=Edmonton |publisher=Department of English and Film Studies, University of Alberta |isbn=9781551951874 |oclc=227019112}}
* {{cite book |last=Goffart |first=Walter |date=2003 |title=Historical Atlases: The First Three Hundred Years, 1570–1870 |location=Chicago |publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226300726 |oclc=727367115}}
* {{cite book |last1=Harwood |first1=Jeremy |first2=A. Sarah |last2=Bendall |date=2006 |title=To the Ends of the Earth: 100 Maps That Changed the World |location=Cincinnati, OH |publisher=David & Charles |isbn=9781582974644 |oclc=75546416}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Harvey |editor-first=Paul D.A. |date=2006 |title=The Hereford World Map: Medieval World Maps and their Context |location=London |publisher=British Library |isbn=9780712347600 |oclc=0712347607}}
* {{cite book |last=Shirley |first=Rodney W. |date=1993 |title=The Mapping of the World: Early Printed World Maps 1472–1700 |location=London |publisher=Holland Press |isbn=9781853682711 |oclc=29389647}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Talbert |editor-first=Richard J.A. |date=2000 |title=Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton Univ. Press |isbn=9780691031699 |oclc=43970336}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wendt |first1=Henry |first2=John |last2=Delaney |first3=Alex |last3=Bowles |date=2010 |title=Envisioning the World: The First Printed Maps 1472–1700 |location=Santa Rosa, CA |publisher=Sonoma County Museum |oclc=617728973}}
* {{cite journal |last=Woodward |first=David |date=1985 |title=Reality, Symbolism, Time, and Space in Medieval World Maps |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=510–521 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1985.tb00090.x}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline|Maps of the world before Columbus}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Early world maps
  |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
* [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/EMwebpages/EML.html Index of Maps of the Early Medieval Period  – HenryDavis.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312024719/http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/EMwebpages/EML.html |date=2007-03-12 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310025504/http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/maphist/mappinghistory.html Mapping History] –  resource from the British Library
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/ Geography and Map Reading Room at the Library of Congress]
* [http://ancientworldmaps.blogspot.com/ Ancient World Maps]
* [http://www.cambridge.org/us/talbert/index.html The Peutinger Map ]
* [https://sims2.digitalmappa.org/36 Virtual Mappa]: Digital Editions of Early Medieval Maps of the World, edit. Martin Foys, Heather Wacha, et al. (Philadelphia, PA: Schoenberg Institute of Manuscript Studies, 2018): {{doi|10.21231/ef21-ev82}}
* [http://historiacartarum.org/medieval-maps-and-mapping-resources/ Medieval Maps and Mapping Resources]

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[[Category:Historic maps of the world| Early]]
[[Category:History of geography]]
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