View source for Dynamic range

{{Short description|Ratio between the largest and smallest values that a certain quantity can assume}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2024}}

'''Dynamic range''' (abbreviated '''DR''', '''DNR''',<ref>ISSCC Glossary https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=4242527</ref> or '''DYR'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ti.com/lit/ug/slou301/slou301.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-08-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411140621/http://www.ti.com/lit/ug/slou301/slou301.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-11 }}, {{cite web |url=https://media.digikey.com/pdf/Data%20Sheets/Cirrus%20Logic%20PDFs/CS3511.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-08-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822003316/https://media.digikey.com/pdf/Data%20Sheets/Cirrus%20Logic%20PDFs/CS3511.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-22 }}, {{cite web |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/55106/1/proc-page35.pdf |title=The data {{as written|a|quisition [sic&#93;}} method of the Sussex MK4 EIM system |date=24 April 2014 |access-date=2016-08-11 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827150714/http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/55106/1/proc-page35.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-27 }}</ref>) is the [[ratio]] between the largest and smallest measurable values of a specific quantity. It is often used in the context of [[signal]]s, like [[sound]] and [[light]]. It is measured either as a ratio or as a [[base-10]] ([[decibel]]) or [[base-2]] (doublings, [[bit]]s or [[Stops (Dynamic Range)|stop]]s) [[Logarithmic scale|logarithmic]] value of the ratio between the largest and smallest signal values.<ref>{{citation |title=Dynamic range |url=http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=723-03-11 |work=Electropedia|publisher=IEC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426032033/http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=723-03-11 |archive-date=2015-04-26}}</ref>

Electronically reproduced audio and video is often processed to fit the original material with a wide dynamic range into a narrower recorded dynamic range for easier storage and reproduction. This process is called [[dynamic range compression]].

==Human perception==
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:auto; line-height:1.5em; text-align:right;"
|+ Power ratios and their equivalent decibels and stops (integer values in bold)
|-
! scope="col" | Factor (power)
! scope="col" | Decibels<br />({{math|10×log{{sub|10}} power}})
! scope="col" | Stops<br />({{math|log{{sub|2}} power}})
|-
|'''1''' ||   '''0''' ||  '''0'''
|-
|'''2''' ||      3.01 ||  '''1'''
|-
|3.16||   '''5''' ||     1.66
|-
|'''4''' ||      6.02 ||  '''2'''
|-
|'''5''' ||      6.99 ||     2.32
|-
|'''8''' ||      9.03 ||  '''3'''
|-
|'''10''' ||  '''10''' ||     3.32
|-
|'''16''' ||     12.0  ||  '''4'''
|-
|'''20''' ||     13.0  ||     4.32
|-
|31.6||  '''15''' ||     4.98
|-
|'''32'''||     15.1  ||  '''5'''
|-
|'''50''' ||     17.0  ||     5.64
|-
|'''100''' ||  '''20''' ||     6.64
|-
|'''1,000''' ||  '''30''' ||     9.97 
|-
|'''1,024''' ||     30.1  || '''10'''
|-
|'''10,000''' ||  '''40''' ||    13.3 
|- 
|'''100,000''' ||  '''50''' ||    16.6
|- 
|'''1,000,000''' ||  '''60''' ||    19.9
|- 
|'''1,048,576''' ||     60.2  || '''20'''
|-
|'''100,000,000''' ||  '''80''' ||    26.6 
|- 
|'''1,073,741,824''' ||     90.3  || '''30'''
|-
|'''10,000,000,000''' || '''100''' ||    33.2
|}
The human senses of [[sight]] and [[hearing]] have a relatively high dynamic range. However, a human cannot perform these feats of perception at both extremes of the scale at the same time. The human eye takes time to adjust to different light levels, and its dynamic range in a given scene is actually quite limited due to optical [[glare (vision)|glare]]. The instantaneous dynamic range of human audio perception is similarly subject to [[Auditory masking|masking]] so that, for example, a whisper cannot be heard in loud surroundings.

A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a [[soundproofing|soundproofed]] room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100&nbsp;[[Decibel|dB]] which represents a factor of 100,000 in [[amplitude]] and a factor of 10,000,000,000 in [[power (physics)|power]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://media.paisley.ac.uk/~campbell/AASP/Aspects%20of%20Human%20Hearing.PDF |title=Aspects of Human Hearing |author=D. R. Campbell |quote=The dynamic range of human hearing is [approximately] 120&nbsp;dB |access-date=2011-04-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110821051130/http://media.paisley.ac.uk/~campbell/AASP/Aspects%20of%20Human%20Hearing.PDF |archive-date=2011-08-21 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/earsens.html#c2 |quote=The practical dynamic range could be said to be from the threshold of hearing to the threshold of pain [130&nbsp;dB] |title=Sensitivity of Human Ear |access-date=2011-04-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604105752/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/earsens.html#c2 |archive-date=2011-06-04}}</ref> The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140&nbsp;dB,<ref name="HuberRunstein513"/><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-126/ |title=Occupational Noise Exposure, CDC DHHS (NIOSH) Publication Number 98-126 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713151526/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98-126/ |archive-date=2017-07-13 |doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB98126 |year=1998 |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> varying with frequency,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://people.xiph.org/~xiphmont/demo/neil-young.html|title=24/192 Music Downloads ...and why they make no sense|last=Montgomery|first=Christopher|website=xiph.org|access-date=2022-05-10|quote=The very quietest perceptible sound is about -8dbSPL|archive-date=2020-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200426050432/https://people.xiph.org/~xiphmont/demo/neil-young.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> from the [[threshold of hearing]] (around −9&nbsp;dB SPL<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~smgxprj/public/askscience_v1_8.pdf|title=What's the quietest sound a human can hear?|last=Jones|first=Pete R|date=November 20, 2014|publisher=University College London|access-date=2016-03-16|quote=On the other hand, you can also see in Figure 1 that our hearing is slightly more sensitive to frequencies just above 1 kHz, where thresholds can be as low as −9&nbsp;dB SPL!|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324102019/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~smgxprj/public/askscience_v1_8.pdf|archive-date=March 24, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.feilding.net/sfuad/musi3012-01/html/lectures/007_hearing_II.htm|title=Lecture 007 Hearing II|last=Feilding|first=Charles|website=College of Santa Fe Auditory Theory|access-date=2016-03-17|quote=The peak sensitivities shown in this figure are equivalent to a sound pressure amplitude in the sound wave of 10 μPa or: about -6&nbsp;dB (SPL). Note that this is for monaural listening to a sound presented at the front of the listener. For sounds presented on the listening side of the head there is a rise in peak sensitivity of about 6&nbsp;dB [−12&nbsp;dB SPL] due to the increase in pressure caused by reflection from the head.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507181640/http://www.feilding.net/sfuad/musi3012-01/html/lectures/007_hearing_II.htm|archive-date=2016-05-07}}</ref> at 3&nbsp;kHz) to the [[threshold of pain]] (from 120 to 140&nbsp;dB SPL<ref>{{Cite book|title=American Institute of Physics handbook|last=Newman|first=Edwin B.|date=1972-01-01|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0070014855|location=New York|pages=3–155|language=en|chapter=Speech and Hearing|quote=The upper limit for a tolerable intensity of sound rises substantially with increasing habituation. Moreover, a variety of subjective effects are reported, such as discomfort, tickle, pressure, and pain, each at a slightly different level. As a simple engineering estimate it can be said that naive listeners reach a limit at about 125&nbsp;dB SPL and experienced listeners at 135 to 140&nbsp;dB.|oclc = 484327}}</ref><ref name="painthres"/><ref name="dictionary"/>).  This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the [[tensor tympani]], [[stapedius muscle]], and [[outer hair cells]] all act as mechanical [[dynamic range compressor]]s to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.soundonsound.com/sos/mar11/articles/how-the-ear-works.htm|title=How The Ear Works|website=www.soundonsound.com|access-date=2016-03-18|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606112017/http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/mar11/articles/how-the-ear-works.htm|archive-date=2015-06-06}}</ref>

A human can see objects in [[starlight]]{{efn|[[Color vision|Colour differentiation]] is reduced at low light levels.}} or in bright [[sunlight]], even though on a moonless night objects receive one billionth (10<sup>−9</sup>) of the illumination they would on a bright sunny day; a dynamic range of 90&nbsp;dB. Change of sensitivity is achieved in part through adjustments of the iris and slow chemical changes, which take some time.

In practice, it is difficult for humans to achieve the full dynamic experience using electronic equipment. For example, a good quality [[liquid-crystal display]] (LCD) has a dynamic range limited to around 1000:1,{{efn|Commercially the dynamic range is often called the [[contrast ratio]] meaning the full-on to full-off [[luminance]] ratio.}} and some of the latest [[CMOS]] image sensors now{{When|date=July 2019}} have measured dynamic ranges of about 23,000:1.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dxomark.com/index.php/eng/DxOMark-Sensor |title=DXOmark Sensor Ranking |access-date=2015-06-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505035657/http://www.dxomark.com/index.php/eng/DxOMark-Sensor |archive-date=2010-05-05 }}</ref>{{efn|Reported as 14.5 [[Stops (Dynamic Range)|stop]]s, or doublings, equivalent to [[binary digit]]s.}}  Paper reflectance can produce a dynamic range of about 100:1.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/dynamic-range.htm |title = Dynamic Range in Digital Photography |access-date = 2011-07-11 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110717103219/http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/dynamic-range.htm |archive-date = 2011-07-17}}</ref> A [[professional video camera]] such as the Sony Digital Betacam achieves a dynamic range of greater than 90&nbsp;dB in audio recording.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pro.sony.com/bbsc/ssr/cat-videorecorders/cat-recmpegimx/product-MSWM2100%2F1/ |title=Sony Product Detail Page MSWM2100/1 |publisher=Sony Pro |access-date=2011-12-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229205150/http://pro.sony.com/bbsc/ssr/cat-videorecorders/cat-recmpegimx/product-MSWM2100%2F1/ |archive-date=2012-02-29 }}</ref>

== Audio ==
[[Audio engineer]]s use ''dynamic range'' to describe the ratio of the amplitude of the loudest possible [[Audio distortion|undistorted]] signal to the [[noise floor]], say of a [[microphone]] or [[loudspeaker]].<ref>Ballou Glen M., ''Handbook for Sound Engineers'', 3rd edition, Focal Press 2002, pp. 1107-1108</ref> Dynamic range is therefore the [[signal-to-noise ratio]] (SNR) for the case where the signal is the loudest possible for the system. For example, if the ceiling of a device is 5&nbsp;V (rms) and the noise floor is 10&nbsp;μV (rms) then the dynamic range is 500000:1, or 114&nbsp;dB:

<math display=block>20 \times \log_{10} \left(\frac{\rm 5\,V}{10 \, \mu \mathrm{V}}\right) = 20 \times \log_{10}(500000) = 20 \times 5.7 = 114 \,\mathrm{dB}</math>

In digital audio theory the dynamic range is limited by [[quantization error]]. The maximum achievable dynamic range for a digital audio system with ''Q''-bit uniform quantization is calculated as the ratio of the largest sine-wave rms to rms noise is:<ref name=seeber/>

<math display=block> \mathrm{DR_{ADC}} = 20 \times \log_{10} \left(\frac{2^Q}{1}\right) = \left ( 6.02 \cdot Q \right )\ \mathrm{dB} \,\!</math>

However, the usable dynamic range may be greater, as a properly [[dither]]ed recording device can record signals well below the noise floor.

The 16-bit [[compact disc]] has a theoretical undithered dynamic range of about 96&nbsp;dB;<ref name="Fries2005"/>{{efn|The 96&nbsp;dB figure is for a [[Triangle wave|triangle]] or [[sine wave]]. Dynamic range is 98&nbsp;dB for [[sine wave]]<ref name=seeber/> (see [[Quantization (signal processing)#Quantization noise model|Quantization noise model]]).}} however, the ''perceived'' dynamic range of 16-bit audio can be 120&nbsp;dB or more with [[Noise shaping|noise-shaped]] [[dither]], taking advantage of [[Equal-loudness contour|the frequency response of the human ear]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.xiph.org/~xiphmont/demo/neil-young.html |title=24/192 Music Downloads ...and why they make no sense |last=Montgomery |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Montgomery |date=March 25, 2012 |website=xiph.org |access-date=26 May 2013 |quote=With use of shaped dither, which moves quantization noise energy into frequencies where it's harder to hear, the effective dynamic range of 16 bit audio reaches 120dB in practice, more than fifteen times deeper than the 96dB claim. 120dB is greater than the difference between a mosquito somewhere in the same room and a jackhammer a foot away.... or the difference between a deserted 'soundproof' room and a sound loud enough to cause hearing damage in seconds. 16 bits is enough to store all we can hear, and will be enough forever. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707161555/http://xiph.org/~xiphmont/demo/neil-young.html |archive-date=7 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
 |url         = https://www.meridian-audio.com/meridian-uploads/ara/coding2.pdf
 |title       = Coding High Quality Digital Audio
 |last        = Stuart
 |first       = J. Robert
 |date        = 1997
 |publisher   = Meridian Audio Ltd
 |access-date = 2016-02-25
 |quote       = One of the great discoveries in PCM was that, by adding a small random noise (that we call dither) the truncation effect can disappear. Even more important was the realisation that there is a ''right'' sort of random noise to add, and that when the right dither is used, the resolution of the digital system becomes ''infinite''.
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407163817/https://www.meridian-audio.com/meridian-uploads/ara/coding2.pdf
 |archive-date = 2016-04-07
}}</ref>

Digital audio with undithered 20-bit quantization is theoretically capable of 120&nbsp;dB dynamic range, while 24-bit digital audio affords 144&nbsp;dB dynamic range.<ref name=HuberRunstein513/> Most [[Digital audio workstation]]s process audio with 32-bit [[floating-point]] representation which affords even higher dynamic range and so loss of dynamic range is no longer a concern in terms of [[digital audio processing]]. Dynamic range limitations typically result from improper [[gain staging]], recording technique including [[ambient noise]] and intentional application of [[dynamic range compression]].

Dynamic range in analog audio is the difference between low-level thermal noise in the electronic circuitry and high-level signal saturation resulting in increased distortion and, if pushed higher, [[Clipping (audio)|clipping]].<ref>Huber, Runstein 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA416 pp. 416, 487] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120223132/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA416 |date=2017-11-20 }}</ref> Multiple noise processes determine the noise floor of a system. Noise can be picked up from microphone self-noise, preamp noise, wiring and interconnection noise, media noise, etc.

Early 78 rpm phonograph discs had a dynamic range of up to 40&nbsp;dB,<ref>[http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=308 Audio Engineering Society. E-Library. Jerry B. Minter. April 1956. ''Recent Developments in Precision Master Recording Lathes''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211094752/http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=308 |date=2008-12-11 }}</ref> soon reduced to 30&nbsp;dB and worse due to wear from repeated play. Vinyl microgroove phonograph records typically yield 55-65&nbsp;dB, though the first play of the higher-fidelity outer rings can achieve a dynamic range of 70&nbsp;dB.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Century of Recorded Music: Listening to Musical History |last=Day |first=Timothy |year=2002 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09401-5 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYdtlP6hvPoC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120223132/https://books.google.com/books?id=EYdtlP6hvPoC |archive-date=2017-11-20 }}</ref>

German magnetic tape in 1941 was reported to have had a dynamic range of 60&nbsp;dB,<ref name="First100Years"/> though modern-day restoration experts of such tapes note 45-50&nbsp;dB as the observed dynamic range.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.aes.org/journal/suppmat/hess_2001_7.pdf |publisher=Audio Engineering Society |author=Richard L. Hess |date=July–August 2001 |title=The Jack Mullin/Bill Palmer tape restoration project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201123950/http://www.aes.org./journal/suppmat/hess_2001_7.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-01}}</ref> [[Ampex]] tape recorders in the 1950s achieved 60&nbsp;dB in practical usage,<ref name="First100Years"/> In the 1960s, improvements in tape formulation processes resulted in 7&nbsp;dB greater range,<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|158}} and Ray Dolby developed the [[Dolby noise reduction system#Dolby A|Dolby A-Type noise reduction system]] that increased low- and mid-frequency dynamic range on magnetic tape by 10&nbsp;dB, and high-frequency by 15&nbsp;dB, using [[companding]] (compression and expansion) of four frequency bands.<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|169}} The peak of professional analog magnetic recording tape technology reached 90&nbsp;dB dynamic range in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion, or about 80&nbsp;dB in practical broadband applications.<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|158}} The [[Dolby noise reduction system#Dolby SR|Dolby SR noise reduction system]] gave a 20&nbsp;dB further increased range resulting in 110&nbsp;dB in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion.<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|172}}

[[Compact Cassette]] tape performance ranges from 50 to 56&nbsp;dB depending on tape formulation, with [[type IV tape]] tapes giving the greatest dynamic range, and systems such as [[XDR (audio)|XDR]], [[dbx (noise reduction)|dbx]] and [[Dolby noise reduction system]] increasing it further. Specialized bias and record head improvements by Nakamichi and Tandberg combined with Dolby C noise reduction yielded 72&nbsp;dB dynamic range for the cassette.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

A [[dynamic microphone]] is able to withstand high sound intensity and can have a dynamic range of up to 140&nbsp;dB. Condenser microphones are also rugged but their dynamic range may be limited by the overloading of their associated electronic circuitry.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Huber |author2=Runstein |date=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA127 |page=127 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120223132/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA127 |archive-date=2017-11-20 |title=Modern Recording Techniques |url-status=live |publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780240810690 }}</ref> Practical considerations of acceptable distortion levels in microphones combined with typical practices in a recording studio result in a useful dynamic range of 125&nbsp;dB.<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|75}}

In 1981, researchers at Ampex determined that a dynamic range of 118&nbsp;dB on a dithered digital audio stream was necessary for subjective noise-free playback of music in quiet listening environments.<ref>[http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=11981 Audio Engineering Society. E-Library. Louis D. Fielder. May 1981. ''Dynamic Range Requirement for Subjective Noise Free Reproduction of Music''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211094725/http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=11981 |date=2008-12-11 }}</ref>

Since the early 1990s, it has been recommended by several authorities, including the [[Audio Engineering Society]], that measurements of dynamic range be made with an audio signal present, which is then filtered out in the noise floor measurement used in determining dynamic range.<ref>AES-6id-2000</ref> This avoids questionable measurements based on the use of blank media, or muting circuits.

The term ''dynamic range'' may be confusing in audio production because it has two conflicting definitions, particularly in the understanding of the [[loudness war]] phenomenon.<ref name="SOS_Dynamic_Range"/><ref name="DerutyTardieuAES"/> ''Dynamic range'' may refer to micro-dynamics,<ref name="Katz"/><ref>{{cite web |author=Ian Shepherd |url=http://productionadvice.co.uk/loudness-war-dynamic-range/ |title=Why the Loudness War hasn't reduced 'Loudness Range' |access-date=2014-02-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209113438/http://productionadvice.co.uk/loudness-war-dynamic-range/ |archive-date=2014-02-09 |date=2011-08-18 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=Jason Victor Serinus |url=http://www.stereophile.com/content/winning-loudness-wars |title=Winning the Loudness Wars |magazine=Stereophile |access-date=2014-02-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209155445/http://www.stereophile.com/content/winning-loudness-wars |archive-date=2014-02-09 }}</ref> related to [[crest factor]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sfxmachine.com/docs/loudnesswar/loudness_war.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.sfxmachine.com/docs/loudnesswar/loudness_war.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Loudness War: Background, Speculation and Recommendations |author=Earl Vickers |publisher=[[Audio Engineering Society]] |work=AES 2010: Paper Sessions: Loudness and Dynamics |location=San Francisco |date=November 4, 2010 |access-date=July 14, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dynamic Range Meter |url=http://www.pleasurizemusic.com/free-downloads |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027152639/http://www.pleasurizemusic.com/free-downloads |archive-date=2014-10-27 |access-date=2018-11-27 }}</ref> whereas the [[European Broadcasting Union]], in EBU3342 Loudness Range, defines ''dynamic range'' as the difference between the quietest and loudest volume, a matter of macro-dynamics.<ref name="SOS_Dynamic_Range"/><ref name="DerutyTardieuAES"/><ref name="EBU3342"/><ref>{{cite journal|date=26 July 2012|title=Measuring the Evolution of Contemporary Western Popular Music|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=2|article-number=521|arxiv=1205.5651|pmid=22837813|pmc=3405292|bibcode=2012NatSR...2..521S|doi=10.1038/srep00521|last1=Serrà|first1=J|last2=Corral|first2=A|last3=Boguñá|first3=M|last4=Haro|first4=M|last5=Arcos|first5=JL}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.17743/jaes.2014.0003|title=Perceptual Effects of Dynamic Range Compression in Popular Music Recordings|journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society|volume=62|pages=37–41|year=2014|last1=Hjortkjær|first1=Jens|last2=Walther-Hansen|first2=Mads}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Esben Skovenborg |publisher=AES 132nd Convention |date=April 2012 |url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=16254/ |title=Loudness Range (LRA) – Design and Evaluation |access-date=2014-10-25 |url-access=subscription  |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025174340/http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=16254%2F |archive-date=2014-10-25 }}</ref>

== Electronics ==
In [[electronics]] dynamic range is used in the following contexts: 
* Specifies the ratio of a maximum level of a [[parameter]], such as [[Power (physics)|power]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], [[voltage]]<ref name=slyusar/> or [[frequency]], to the minimum detectable value of that parameter. (See [[Audio system measurements]].)
* In a [[transmission system]], the ratio of the overload level (the maximum [[signal]] power that the system can tolerate without [[distortion]] of the signal) to the [[Noise (electronics)|noise level]] of the system. 
* In [[Digital data|digital]] systems or devices, the ratio of maximum and minimum signal levels required to maintain a specified [[bit error ratio]].
* Optimization of bit width of digital data path (according to the dynamic ranges of signal) can reduce the area, cost, and power consumption of digital circuits and systems while improving their performance. Optimal bit width for a digital data path is the smallest bit width that can satisfy the required signal-to-noise ratio and also avoid overflow.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/tcad.2005.859507|title=Dynamic-range estimation|journal=IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems|volume=25|issue=9|pages=1618–1636|year=2006|last1=Bin Wu|last2=Jianwen Zhu|last3=Najm|first3=F.N.|s2cid=11725031|arxiv=0802.3458 |bibcode=2006ITCAD..25.1618W }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1145/996566.996699|chapter=An analytical approach for dynamic range estimation|title=Proceedings of the 41st annual conference on Design automation - DAC '04|pages=472|year=2004|last1=Wu|first1=Bin|last2=Zhu|first2=Jianwen|last3=Najm|first3=Farid N.|isbn=1581138288|s2cid=8509478}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1109/iccad.2004.1382658|chapter=Dynamic range estimation for nonlinear systems|title=IEEE/ACM International Conference on Computer Aided Design, 2004. ICCAD-2004|pages=660–667|year=2004|last1=Bin Wu|last2=Jianwen Zhu|last3=Najm|first3=F.N.|isbn=0-7803-8702-3|s2cid=12949210 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1109/dac.2005.193932|chapter=A non-parametric approach for dynamic range estimation of nonlinear systems|title=Proceedings. 42nd Design Automation Conference, 2005|pages=841–844|year=2005|last1=Bin Wu|last2=Jianwen Zhu|last3=Najm|first3=F.N.|isbn=1-59593-058-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1109/isqed.2012.6187520|chapter=Dynamic range estimation for systems with control-flow structures|title=Thirteenth International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design (ISQED)|pages=370–377|year=2012|last1=Wu|first1=Bin|isbn=978-1-4673-1036-9|s2cid=1045127}}</ref>{{vn|date=June 2012}}

In audio and electronics applications, the ratio involved is often large enough that it is converted to a [[logarithm]] and specified in [[decibel]]s.<ref name=slyusar/>

== Metrology ==
{{More citations needed section|date=June 2009}}
In [[metrology]], such as when performed in support of science, engineering or manufacturing objectives, dynamic range refers to the range of values that can be measured by a sensor or metrology instrument. Often this dynamic range of measurement is limited at one end of the range by saturation of a sensing signal sensor or by physical limits that exist on the motion or other response capability of a mechanical indicator. The other end of the dynamic range of measurement is often limited by one or more sources of random [[noise]] or uncertainty in signal levels that may be described as defining the [[Sensitivity (electronics)|sensitivity]] of the sensor or metrology device. When digital sensors or sensor signal converters are a component of the sensor or metrology device, the dynamic range of measurement will be also related to the number of binary digits (bits) used in a digital numeric representation in which the measured value is linearly related to the digital number.<ref name=slyusar/> For example, a 12-bit digital sensor or converter can provide a dynamic range in which the ratio of the maximum measured value to the minimum measured value is up to 2<sup>12</sup> = 4096.

Metrology systems and devices may use several basic methods to increase their basic dynamic range. These methods include averaging and other forms of filtering, correction of receivers characteristics,<ref name=slyusar/> repetition of measurements, nonlinear transformations to avoid saturation, etc. In more advance forms of metrology, such as multiwavelength [[digital holography]], [[interferometry]] measurements made at different scales (different wavelengths) can be combined to retain the same low-end resolution while extending the upper end of the dynamic range of measurement by orders of magnitude.

== Music ==
In [[music]], dynamic range describes the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an [[musical instrument|instrument]], [[part (music)|part]] or piece of music.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schmidt|first1=J.C.|title=1996 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing Conference Proceedings|volume=2|pages=1013–1016|last2=Rutledge|first2=J.C.|chapter=Multichannel dynamic range compression for music signals|publisher=IEEE|doi=10.1109/ICASSP.1996.543295|year=1996|isbn=978-0-7803-3192-1|s2cid=5688882}}</ref> In modern recording, this range is often limited through [[dynamic range compression]], which allows for louder volume, but can make the recording sound less exciting or live.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdmasteringservices.com/dynamicdeath.htm |title=The Death Of Dynamic Range |publisher=CD Mastering Services |access-date=2008-07-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622150312/http://www.cdmasteringservices.com/dynamicdeath.htm |archive-date=2008-06-22 }}</ref>

The dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall does not exceed 80&nbsp;dB, and human speech is normally perceived over a range of about 40&nbsp;dB.<ref name=Eargle/>{{rp|4}}

== Photography ==
{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=400|image1=Central Park New York May 2015 007 original.jpg|image2=Central Park New York May 2015 007.jpg|footer=A scene demanding high dynamic range, taken with the [[Nikon D7000]] digital camera, capable of 13.9 stops of dynamic range per [[DxOMark]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dxomark.com/Cameras/Nikon/D7000 | title=Nikon D7000 : Tests and Reviews | publisher=[[DxO Labs]] | access-date=December 30, 2017 }}</ref> The unedited version of the digital photo is to the left, while the shadows have been [[push processing|pushed]] heavily in [[Photoshop]] to produce the final image on the right. The better the dynamic range of the camera, the more an exposure can be pushed without significantly increasing [[image noise|noise]].}}

[[Photography|Photographer]]s use ''dynamic range'' to describe the [[luminance]] range of a scene being photographed, or the limits of luminance range that a given [[digital camera]] or [[photographic film|film]] can capture,<ref>{{cite book | title = High Dynamic Range Video | author1 = Karol Myszkowski | author2 = Rafal Mantiuk | author3 = Grzegorz Krawczyk | publisher = Morgan & Claypool Publishers | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-59829-214-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PVPggnBIC-wC&q=photography+luminance+dynamic-range+film&pg=PA15 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140108014216/http://books.google.com/books?id=PVPggnBIC-wC&pg=PA15&dq=photography+luminance+dynamic-range+film#PPA16,M1 | archive-date = 2014-01-08 }}</ref> or the [[opacity]] range of developed film images, or the [[reflectance]] range of images on photographic papers.

The dynamic range of [[digital photography]] is comparable to the capabilities of [[photographic film]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://petapixel.com/2015/05/26/film-vs-digital-a-comparison-of-the-advantages-and-disadvantages/ |title=Film vs. Digital: A Comparison of the Advantages and Disadvantages |author=Michael Archambault |date=2015-05-26 |access-date=2016-07-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617102152/http://petapixel.com/2015/05/26/film-vs-digital-a-comparison-of-the-advantages-and-disadvantages/ |archive-date=2016-06-17 }}</ref> and both are comparable to the capabilities of the human eye.<ref name=cambridge>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/cameras-vs-human-eye.htm |title=Dynamic Range in Digital Photography |publisher=PetaPixel |access-date=2016-07-14 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708040146/http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/cameras-vs-human-eye.htm |archive-date=2016-07-08 }}</ref>

There are photographic techniques that support even higher dynamic range. 
*[[Graduated neutral density filter]]s are used to decrease the dynamic range of scene luminance that can be captured on [[photographic film]] (or on the [[image sensor]] of a [[digital camera]]): The filter is positioned in front of the lens at the time the exposure is made; the top half is dark and the bottom half is clear. The dark area is placed over a scene's high-intensity region, such as the sky. The result is more even exposure in the focal plane, with increased detail in the shadows and low-light areas. Though this does not increase the fixed dynamic range available at the film or sensor, it stretches usable dynamic range in practice.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Magic of Digital Nature Photography | author = Rob Sheppard | publisher = Sterling Publishing Company | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-57990-773-0 | url =  https://books.google.com/books?id=P39ysk_UwZcC&q=graduated+neutral+density+filter+digital+image+sensor&pg=PA70}}</ref>
*[[High-dynamic-range imaging]] overcomes the limited dynamic range of the sensor by selectively combining multiple exposures of the same scene in order to retain detail in light and dark areas. [[Tone mapping]] maps the image differently in shadow and highlights in order to better distribute the lighting range across the image. The same approach has been used in chemical photography to capture an extremely wide dynamic range: A three-layer film with each underlying layer at one hundredth (10<sup>−2</sup>) the sensitivity of the next higher one has, for example, been used to record nuclear-weapons tests.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/mctl98-2/p2sec05.pdf ''The Militarily Critical Technologies List''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615151105/http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/mctl98-2/p2sec05.pdf |date=2010-06-15 }} (1998), pages II-5-100 and II-5-107.</ref>

Consumer-grade [[image file format]]s sometimes restrict dynamic range.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.slrlounge.com/workshop/dynamic-range-and-raw-vs-jpeg/ |title=RAW vs. JPEG Overview |access-date=2016-07-14 |publisher=SLR Lounge |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817061358/https://www.slrlounge.com/workshop/dynamic-range-and-raw-vs-jpeg/ |archive-date=2016-08-17 }}</ref> The most severe dynamic-range limitation in photography may not involve encoding, but rather reproduction to, say, a paper print or computer screen. In that case, not only local tone mapping but also ''dynamic range adjustment'' can be effective in revealing detail throughout light and dark areas: The principle is the same as that of [[dodging and burning]] (using different lengths of exposures in different areas when making a photographic print) in the chemical darkroom. The principle is also similar to gain riding or automatic level control in audio work, which serves to keep a signal audible in a noisy listening environment and to avoid peak levels that overload the reproducing equipment, or which are unnaturally or uncomfortably loud.

If a camera sensor is incapable of recording the full dynamic range of a scene, [[high-dynamic-range imaging|high-dynamic-range]] (HDR) techniques may be used in postprocessing, which generally involve combining multiple exposures using software.

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Dynamic ranges of common devices
|-
! scope="col" | Device
! scope="col" | Stops
! scope="col" | [[Contrast ratio]]
! scope="col" | [[Optical density]]
|-
! scope="row" | Glossy photograph paper 
| 7 (7–{{frac|7|2|3}})<ref name="rogerandfrances"/>
| {{#expr:2^7 round 0}}:1
| {{#expr:ln(2^7)/ln(10) round 1}}
|-
! scope="row" | LCD
| 9.5 (9–11)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zdnet.com/home-and-office/work-life/high-dynamic-range-the-quest-for-greater-image-realism/ |author=Terry Relph-Knight |date=July 16, 2018 |title=High Dynamic Range: The quest for greater image realism |publisher=ZD Net |access-date=2022-12-25}}</ref>
| {{#expr:2^9.5 round -1}}:1 ({{#expr:2^9 round -1}}:1{{snd}}{{#expr:2^11 round -2}}:1)
| {{#expr:ln(2^9.5)/ln(10) round 1}} ({{#expr:ln(2^9)/ln(10) round 1}}{{snd}}{{#expr:ln(2^11)/ln(10) round 1}})
|-
! scope="row" | Typical cellphone camera
| ~10<ref name="CellStops">{{cite web |url=https://luminous-landscape.com/of-phones-pixels-and-photons-why-a-100-mp-cell-phone-is-not-a-gfx-100/ |title=Of Phones, Pixels and Photons – why a 100 mp cell phone is not a GFX 100 - Luminous Landscape |date=2021-04-27}}</ref>{{fv |reason=Source talks about a 108 MP phone and claims it is not useful. Makes some statements about useful resolution for phones but what we really need is a survey and summary of current phone capabilities. LMK if I've missed something.|date=April 2023}}
| varies{{efn|Starting from the mid-2010s, including the Google [[Nexus 6]], smartphones have adopted [[computational photography]] to combine multiple exposures to increase dynamic range in a processed image compared to a single image natively captured from the sensor. For example, videos taken with the iPhone 15 Pro (2023) were tested to have approximately 12 stops of dynamic range.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cined.com/iphone-15-pro-lab-test-rolling-shutter-dynamic-range-and-exposure-latitude/ |title=iPhone 15 Pro Lab Test: Rolling Shutter, Dynamic Range and Exposure Latitude |first=Gunther |last=Machu |date=November 29, 2023 |website=CineD |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref>}}
|
|-
! scope="row" | Negative film ([[List of motion picture film stocks#VISION3 color negative (ECN-2 process 2007–present)|Kodak VISION3]])
| 13<ref name="Kodak v3"/>
| {{#expr:2^13 round -2}}:1
| {{#expr:ln(2^13)/ln(10) round 1}}
|-
! scope="row" | Human eye
| 10–14<ref name=cambridge/>
| {{#expr:2^10 round -2}}:1{{snd}}{{#expr:2^14 round -3}}:1
| {{#expr:ln(2^10)/ln(10) round 1}}{{snd}}{{#expr:ln(2^14)/ln(10) round 1}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[OLED]] or [[Quantum dot display|quantum dot]]
| 13.2{{snd}}20.9<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archivalworks.com/blog/hdr-nits-are-a-lie-embrace-the-stop |title=HDR Nits are a Lie: It's Time to Embrace the Stop |author=Brian Wagner |date=July 2, 2020 |access-date=2022-12-25}}{{sps|date=December 2022}}</ref>
| {{#expr:2^13.2 round -2}}:1{{snd}}{{#expr:2^20.9 round -4}}:1
| {{#expr:ln(2^13.2)/ln(10) round 1}}{{snd}}{{#expr:ln(2^20.9)/ln(10) round 1}}
|-
! scope="row" | High-end DSLR camera ([[Nikon D850]])
| 14.8<ref name=DXOMark/>
| {{#expr:2^14.8 round -2}}:1
| {{#expr:ln(2^14.8)/ln(10) round 1}}
|-
! scope="row" | Digital cinema camera ([[Red Digital Cinema Camera Company|Red Weapon 8k]])
| >&nbsp;16.5<ref name="Red8k">{{cite web |url=https://www.dxomark.com/Reviews/RED-Helium-8K-DxOMark-Sensor-Score-108-A-new-all-time-high-score2 |title=Red Weapon 8k Rating by DxOMark |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619041130/https://www.dxomark.com/Reviews/RED-Helium-8K-DxOMark-Sensor-Score-108-A-new-all-time-high-score2 |archive-date=2017-06-19 |date=2017-01-10}}</ref>
| >{{#expr:2^16.5 round -2}}:1
| >{{#expr:ln(2^16.5)/ln(10) round 1}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Loudness war]]
*[[High dynamic range]]
**[[High-dynamic-range imaging]]
**[[High-dynamic-range rendering]]
**[[High-dynamic-range video]]
*[[Highlight headroom]]
*[[Range fractionation]]
*[[Spurious-free dynamic range]]

==Notes==
{{Noteslist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="HuberRunstein513">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA513 |title=Modern Recording Techniques |last2=Runstein |first2=Robert E. |publisher=Focal Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-240-81069-0 |edition=7 |page=513 |quote=the overall dynamic range of human hearing roughly encompasses a full 140&nbsp;dB |last1=Huber |first1=David Miles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120223132/https://books.google.com/books?id=W9U7A-rSXtEC&pg=PA513 |archive-date=2017-11-20}}</ref>
<ref name="painthres">{{cite web|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/sound/intens.html|title=Threshold of Pain|last=Nave|first=Carl R.|year=2006|publisher=SciLinks|quote=A nominal figure for the threshold of pain is 130 decibels ... Some sources quote 120&nbsp;dB as the pain threshold|work=HyperPhysics|access-date=2009-06-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706153853/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/intens.html|archive-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>
<ref name="dictionary">{{Cite book|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/96-110/pdfs/96-110.pdf|title=Preventing Occupational Hearing Loss - A Practical Guide|date=June 1996|publisher=[[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]|pages=88|quote=the threshold for pain is between 120 and 140&nbsp;dB SPL.|editor1-last=Franks|editor1-first=John R.|editor2-last=Stephenson|editor2-first=Mark R.|editor3-last=Merry|editor3-first=Carol J.|access-date=2009-07-15|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090423094848/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/96-110/pdfs/96-110.pdf|archive-date=2009-04-23}}</ref>
<ref name=seeber>
{{cite book
 |title       = Handbook of applied superconductivity
 |author      = Bernd Seeber
 |publisher   = CRC Press
 |year        = 1998
 |isbn        = 978-0-7503-0377-4
 |pages       = 1861–1862
 |url         = https://books.google.com/books?id=ll26eLzw3jYC&q=1.76-db+6.02n+dynamic+range+bits+sinusoidal+rms-value&pg=PA1862
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20171120223132/https://books.google.com/books?id=ll26eLzw3jYC&pg=PA1862&dq=1.76-db+6.02n+dynamic+range+bits+sinusoidal+rms-value
 |archive-date = 2017-11-20
}}</ref>
<ref name="Fries2005">{{cite book |title=Digital Audio Essentials |last=Fries |first=Bruce |author2=Marty Fries |year=2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |isbn=978-0-596-00856-7 |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0vsd5z2Rg4C&pg=PA147 |quote=Digital audio at 16-bit resolution has a theoretical dynamic range of 96&nbsp;dB, but the actual dynamic range is usually lower because of overhead from filters that are built into most audio systems." ... "Audio CDs achieve about a 90-dB signal-to-noise ratio. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143140/https://books.google.com/books?id=w0vsd5z2Rg4C&pg=PA147 |archive-date=2017-01-09 }}</ref>
<ref name="First100Years">{{cite book |title=Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years |last=Daniel |first=Eric D. |author2=C. Denis Mee |author3=Mark H. Clark  |year=1998 |publisher=Wiley-IEEE Press |isbn=978-0-7803-4709-0 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WrCSCqMk5gC }}</ref>
<ref name=Eargle>{{cite book |author=John Eargle |date=2005 |isbn=9780387284705 |title=Handbook of Recording Engineering |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media}}</ref>
<ref name=slyusar>{{cite journal |last= Slyusar |first= Vadim I. |date= 2004 |title= A method of investigation of the linear dynamic range of reception channels in a digital antenna array |journal= Radioelectronics and Communications Systems |type= Military Radioelectronic Technologies special issue |volume= 47 |issue= 9 |pages= 20–25 |doi= 10.3103/S0735272704090043 |doi-broken-date= 1 July 2025 |url= http://slyusar.kiev.ua/en/IZV_2004_9.pdf |access-date= 2022-05-01 |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160205184346/http://slyusar.kiev.ua/en/IZV_2004_9.pdf |archive-date= 2016-02-05 }}</ref>
<ref name="SOS_Dynamic_Range">{{Cite news | last = Deruty | first = Emmanuel | title = 'Dynamic Range' & The Loudness War | work = Sound on Sound | access-date = 2013-10-24 | date = September 2011 | url = http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/sep11/articles/loudness.htm | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131108122402/http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/sep11/articles/loudness.htm | archive-date = 2013-11-08 }}</ref>
<ref name="DerutyTardieuAES">{{cite journal |author1=Emmanuel Deruty |author2=Damien Tardieu |journal=Journal of the Audio Engineering Society |volume=62 |date=January 2014 |title=About Dynamic Processing in Mainstream Music |issue=1/2 |pages=42–55 |doi=10.17743/jaes.2014.0001 }}</ref>
<ref name="Katz">{{cite book | last = Katz | first = Robert | title = Mastering Audio | page = 109 |chapter = 9 | publisher = Boston | location = Amsterdam | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-240-80545-0 }}</ref>
<ref name="EBU3342">{{citation |url=http://tech.ebu.ch/docs/tech/tech3342.pdf |title=Tech 3342 - Loudness Range: a Measure to Supplement EBU R 128 Loudness Normalization |publisher=[[European Broadcasting Union]] |access-date=2016-07-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608193338/https://tech.ebu.ch/docs/tech/tech3342.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-08 }}</ref>
<ref name="Kodak v3">{{cite web|url=http://motion.kodak.com/motion/About/The_Storyboard/17788/index.htm|title=Dynamic Range}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
<ref name=DXOMark>{{cite web | url=https://www.dxomark.com/Cameras/Nikon/D850 | title=Nikon D850 : Tests and Reviews | publisher=[[DxO Labs]] | access-date=December 30, 2017 }}</ref>
<ref name=rogerandfrances>{{cite web | url=http://www.rogerandfrances.com/subscription/ps%20paper%20grades.html | title=Paper grades | access-date=November 9, 2019 }}</ref>
}}

==External list==
* [http://www.audiocheck.net/audiotests_dynamiccheck.php Audible dynamic range (online test)]
* {{cite web |url=http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/dynamic.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905003034/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/dynamic.html |archive-date=2006-09-05 |work=Recording Technology History |title=Dynamic Range |author=Steven E. Schoenherr |date=2002}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.seis.com.au/TechNotes/TN200410A_SNR.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041221020708/http://www.seis.com.au/TechNotes/TN200410A_SNR.html |archive-date=2004-12-21 |title=TN200410A - Dynamic Range |author=Vaughan Wesson |date=October 2004}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dynamic Range}}
[[Category:Signal processing]]
[[Category:Audio amplifier specifications]]
[[Category:Electronics concepts]]
[[Category:Engineering ratios]]