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{{Short description|Two fundamental and often opposing concepts}}
{{Other uses|Dualism (disambiguation)}}{{God sidebar}}
'''Dualism''' or '''dualistic cosmology''' is the moral or belief that two fundamental concepts exist, which often oppose each other. It is an umbrella term that covers a diversity of views from various religions, including both traditional religions and scriptural religions.

[[#Moral dualism|Moral dualism]] is the belief of the great complement of, or conflict between, the benevolent and the malevolent. It simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and independent of how these may be represented. Moral opposites might, for example, exist in a worldview that has one god, more than one god, or none. By contrast, [[duotheism]], [[bitheism]] or [[ditheism]] implies (at least) two gods. While bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, or light and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system could be one in which one god is a creator and the other a destroyer. In [[theology]], dualism can also refer to the relationship between the deity and creation or the deity and the universe (see theistic dualism). That form of dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of [[Christianity]] and [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Rouner"/> Alternatively, in ontological dualism, the world is divided into two overarching categories. Within Chinese culture and philosophy the opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles are expressed as [[yin and yang]] and are traditionally foundational doctrine of [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]] and some Chinese Buddhist Schools. 

Many [[mythology|myths]] and creation [[motif (narrative)|motifs]] with dualistic cosmologies have been described in [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] and [[Cultural anthropology|anthropological]] literature. The motifs conceive the world as being created, organized, or influenced by two [[demiurge]]s, [[culture hero]]es, or other mythological beings, who compete with each other or have a complementary function in creating, arranging or influencing the world. There is a huge diversity of such cosmologies. In some cases, such as among the [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]], the beings collaborate rather than compete, and they contribute to the creation in a coequal way. In many other instances the two beings are not of the same importance or power (sometimes, one of them is even characterized as gullible). Sometimes they can be contrasted as good versus evil.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=42}} They may be often [[twins in mythology|believed to be twins]] or at least brothers.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=43}}{{sfn|Gusinde|1966|pp=71, 181}} Dualistic motifs in mythologies can be observed in all inhabited continents. Zolotarjov concludes that they cannot be explained by [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]] or borrowing but are rather of convergent origin. They are related to a dualistic organization of society ([[Kinship#Lineages, clans, phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides|moieties]]); in some cultures, the social organization may have ceased to exist, but mythology preserves the memory in more and more disguised ways.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=54}}

== Moral dualism ==
Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of [[Monism|monist]] or [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and—unlike ditheism/bitheism—independent of how these may be represented.

For example, Mazdaism (Mazdean [[Zoroastrianism]]) is both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist by definition) since in that philosophy God—the Creator—is purely good, and the [[antithesis]]<!-- Mazdaism's core tenet is truth/[[asha]] vs falsehood. -->—which is also uncreated—is an absolute one. [[Mandaeism]] is monotheistic and Gnostic and in its [[Mandaean cosmology|cosmology]], the [[World of Light]] ({{lang|mid|alma d-nhūra}}) that is good, is contrasted with the [[World of Darkness (Mandaeism)|World of Darkness]] or [[underworld]] (''alma d-hšuka'') that is evil.<ref name="Buckley 2002">{{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Jorunn Jacobsen |title=The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |publication-place=New York |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-515385-5 |oclc=65198443}}</ref><ref name=Routledge>{{cite book |last=Hanish |first=Shak |chapter=The Mandaeans In Iraq |editor-last=Rowe |editor-first=Paul S. |title=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=taxvDwAAQBAJ&dq=The+Mandaean+Association+of+New+Zealand&pg=PA160 |page=163 |year=2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317233794 |place=London and New York}}</ref> [[Zurvanism]] (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism) and [[Manichaeism]] are representative of dualistic ''and'' [[monism|monist]] philosophies since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the suppressed Christian [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] religions, such as [[Bogomilism|Bogomils]], [[Catharism]], and so on. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in [[Hermeticism]], where ''[[Nous]]'' "thought"—that is described to have created man—brings forth both good and evil, dependent on interpretation, whether it receives prompting from the God or from the Demon. Duality with [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]] is considered a [[logical fallacy]].

=== History ===
Moral dualism began as a theological belief. Dualism was first seen implicitly in Egyptian religious beliefs by the contrast of the gods [[Set (deity)|Set]] (disorder, death) and [[Osiris]] (order, life).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172631/dualism/38186/Egypt-and-Mesopotamia |title=Egypt and Mesopotamia |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref> The first explicit conception of dualism came from the Ancient Persian religion of [[Zoroastrianism]] around the mid-fifth century BC. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that believes that [[Ahura Mazda]] is the eternal creator of all good things. Any violations of Ahura Mazda's order arise from ''[[Asha|druj]]'', which is everything uncreated. From this comes a significant choice for humans to make. Either they fully participate in human life for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give ''druj'' power. Personal dualism is even more distinct in the [[good and evil|beliefs]] of later religions.

The religious dualism of [[Christianity]] between good and evil is not a perfect dualism as [[God]] (good) will inevitably destroy [[Satan]] (evil). Early Christian dualism is largely based on Platonic Dualism (See: [[Neoplatonism and Christianity]]). There is also a personal dualism in Christianity with a soul-body distinction based on the idea of an immaterial Christian [[soul]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Knight |first=Kevin |title=Soul |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |edition=Online |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14153a.htm |access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref>

== Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2021}}
When used with regards to multiple gods, ''dualism'' may refer to duotheism, bitheism, or ditheism. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not necessarily imply ''[[theism]]'' ([[god (word)|theos = god]]) at all.

Both bitheism and ditheism imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary or antonymous properties; however, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, bright and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf. [[theodicy]]). In the original conception of [[Zoroastrianism]], for example, [[Ahura Mazda]] was the spirit of ultimate good, while Ahriman ([[Angra Mainyu]]) was the spirit of ultimate evil.

In a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the two deities are not in conflict or opposition, one could be male and the other female (cf. duotheism{{clarify|reason=where would one go to [[Cf.|confer]]?|date=December 2016}}). One well-known example of a bitheistic or duotheistic theology based on gender polarity is found in the [[Neopaganism|neopagan]] religion of [[Wicca]]. In Wicca, dualism is represented in the belief of a god and a goddess as a dual partnership in ruling the universe. This is centered on the worship of a [[Wiccan views of divinity|divine couple]], the [[Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)|Moon Goddess]] and the [[Horned God]], who are regarded as lovers. However, there is also a ditheistic theme within traditional Wicca, as the Horned God has dual aspects of bright and dark—relating to day/night, summer/winter—expressed as the [[Holly King and Oak King|Oak King and the Holly King]], who in Wiccan myth and ritual are said to engage in battle twice a year for the hand of the Goddess, resulting in the changing seasons. (Within Wicca, bright and dark do not correspond to notions of "good" and "evil" but are aspects of the natural world, much like [[yin and yang]] in [[Taoism]].)

=== Radical and mitigated dualism ===
* '''Radical Dualism''' – or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces.{{sfn|Popov|2010|p=}} [[Manichaeism]] conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from [[Zoroastrianism]], in which the eternal spirit [[Ahura Mazda]] is opposed by his antithesis, [[Angra Mainyu]]; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant. The '[[Hymn of the Pearl]]' included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped inside it in a state of drunken distraction.
* '''Mitigated Dualism''' – is where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic movements as the [[Sethianism|Sethians]] conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.{{sfn|Popov|2010|p=}}

However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology of [[Persephone]]). [[Marcionism]], an early Christian sect, held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of different religions.{{sfn|Riparelli|2008|p=}}

== Theistic dualism ==
In theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between God and creation or God and the universe. This form of dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of Christianity and Hinduism.<ref>For dualism school of Hinduism, see: {{cite book|first=Francis X. |last=Clooney |date=2010 |title=Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199738724 |pages=51–58, 111–115}}</ref><ref name="Rouner"/>

=== Zoroastrianism ===
{{main|Zoroastrianism}}
[[Zoroastrianism]] or "Mazdayasna" is one of the world's oldest continuously-practiced religions, based on the teachings of the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian-speaking]] prophet [[Zoroaster]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Zarathustra – Iranian prophet |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zoroaster-Iranian-prophet |access-date=9 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroaster-i-the-name |access-date=2021-03-29 |website=www.iranicaonline.org |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> It has a dualistic cosmology of [[good and evil]] and an [[eschatology]] which predicts the ultimate conquest of evil by good.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Zoroastrianism/Zoroastrianism1_Intro.pdf |title=Introduction to Zoroastrianism |last=Skjærvø |first=Prods Oktor |year=2005 |website=Iranian Studies at [[Harvard University]] |access-date=2021-12-15 |archive-date=2021-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224194438/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Zoroastrianism/Zoroastrianism1_Intro.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zoroastrianism exalts an uncreated and benevolent deity of wisdom known as ''[[Ahura Mazda]]'' ({{Literal translation|Wise Lord}}) as its supreme being.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ahura-mazda |title=AHURA MAZDĀ – Encyclopaedia Iranica |website=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=2019-07-13}}</ref>

=== Manichaeism ===
{{main|Manichaeism}}
[[Manichaeism]] was a major religion<ref>{{cite book|first1=R. van den |last1=Broek |first2=Wouter J. |last2=Hanegraaff |title=Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7914-3611-0 |page=37}}</ref> founded in the 3rd century AD by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yarshater |first=Ehsan |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |volume=3 |number=2, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |date=1983}}</ref> prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] ({{circa|216|274 AD}}), in the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09591a.htm |title=Manichaeism |publisher=New Advent Encyclopedia |access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref> Manichaeism taught an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the [[conflict between good and evil|struggle]] between a [[goodness and value theory|good]], [[spirituality|spiritual]] world of [[light]], and an [[evil]], material world of [[darkness]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cosmogony-iii|title=Cosmogony and Cosmology iii. In Manicheism|website=Encyclopædia Iranica|language=en|access-date=2018-02-24|quote=[I]n Manicheism the world was a prison for demons...}}</ref> Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Its beliefs were based on local Mesopotamian religious movements and [[Gnosticism]].<ref>Widengren, Geo ''Mesopotamian elements in Manichaeism (King and Saviour II): Studies in Manichaean, Mandaean, and Syrian-gnostic religion'', Lundequistska bokhandeln, 1946.</ref>

=== {{vanchor|In Christianity}}  ===
[[Image:Cathars expelled.JPG|thumb|right|The Cathars being expelled from [[Carcassonne]] in 1209. The Cathars were denounced as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church for their dualist beliefs.]]
The dualism between God and Creation has existed as a central belief in multiple historical sects and traditions of Christianity, including [[Marcionism]], [[Catharism]], [[Paulicianism]], and other forms of [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] Christianity. Christian dualism refers to the belief that God and creation are distinct, but interrelated through an indivisible bond.<ref name="Rouner"/> However, Gnosticism is a diverse, [[syncretistic]] [[religious movement]] consisting of various [[belief systems]] generally united in a belief in a distinction between a supreme, transcendent [[God]] and a blind, evil [[demiurge]] responsible for creating the [[nature|material universe]], thereby trapping the [[divine spark]] within matter. Gnosticism is not limited to Christianity, and also incorporates beliefs from other Abrahamic traditions, such as early Jewish sects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pagels |first=Elaine |date=1989 |title=The Gnostic Gospels |location=New York |publisher=[[Random House]]}}</ref>

In sects like the Cathars and the Paulicians, this is a dualism between the material world, created by an evil god, and a moral god. Historians divide Christian dualism into absolute dualism, which held that the good and evil gods were equally powerful, and mitigated dualism, which held that material evil was subordinate to the spiritual good.<ref name="Peters">{{cite book|last=Peters |first=Edward |title=Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe |year=2011 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |isbn=978-0-8122-0680-7 |page=106}}</ref> The belief, by Christian theologians who adhere to a libertarian or compatibilist view of free will, that [[Free will in theology|free will]] separates humankind from God has also been characterized as a form of dualism.<ref name="Rouner"/> The theologian Leroy Stephens Rouner compares the dualism of Christianity with the dualism that exists in Zoroastrianism and the [[Samkhya]] tradition of Hinduism. The theological use of the word dualism dates back to 1700, in a book that describes the dualism between good and evil.<ref name="Rouner">{{cite book|last=Rouner |first=Leroy |title=The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology |year=1983 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0-664-22748-7 |page=166}}</ref>

The tolerance of dualism ranges widely among the different Christian traditions. As a monotheistic religion, the conflict between dualism and monism has existed in Christianity since its inception.<ref name="Russell">{{cite book|last=Russell |first=Jeffrey |title=A History of Heaven: The Singing Silence |year=1998 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-00684-0 |page=53}}</ref> The 1912 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' describes that, in the Catholic Church, "the dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by side with God was of course rejected" by the thirteenth century, but [[mind–body dualism]] was not.<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia">{{cite book|title=The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church |year=1912 |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |page=170}}</ref> The [[problem of evil]] is difficult to reconcile with absolute monism, and has prompted some Christian sects to veer towards dualism. Gnostic forms of Christianity were more dualistic, and some Gnostic traditions posited that the Devil was separate from God as an independent deity.<ref name="Russell"/> The Christian dualists of the Byzantine Empire, the [[Paulicianism|Paulicians]], were seen as Manichean heretics by Byzantine theologians. This tradition of Christian dualism, founded by [[Constantine-Silvanus]], argued that the universe was created through evil and separate from a moral God.<ref name="Hamilton">{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Janet |last2=Hamilton |first2=Bernard |last3=Stoyanov |first3=Yuri |title=Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-c. 1450: Selected Sources |year=1998 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7190-4765-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christiandualist00unse/page/1 1–2] |url=https://archive.org/details/christiandualist00unse/page/1}}</ref>

==== Cathars ====
{{Main|Catharism}}
The [[Catharism|Cathars]], a Christian sect in southern France, believed that there was a dualism between two gods, one representing good and the other representing evil. Whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is a matter of dispute, as the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser creator god), though unlike the second century Gnostics, they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (''gnosis'') as an effective [[Salvation|salvific]] force. In any case, the Roman Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The [[Albigensian Crusade]] was initiated by [[Pope Innocent III]] in 1208 to remove the Cathars from [[Languedoc]] in France, where they were known as Albigensians. The [[Medieval Inquisition|Inquisition]], which began in 1233 under [[Pope Gregory IX]], also targeted the Cathars.<ref name="Chidester">{{cite book|last=Chidester |first=David |title=Christianity: A Global History |year=2001 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-06-251770-8 |pages=266–268}}</ref>

=== In Hinduism ===
The [[Dvaita Vedanta]] school of [[Indian philosophy]] espouses a dualism between God and the universe by theorizing the existence of two separate [[realities]]. The first and the more important reality is that of [[Shiva]] or [[Shakti]] or [[Vishnu]] or [[Brahman]]. Shiva or Shakti or Vishnu is the supreme [[Self]], God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The second reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its own separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul ([[Jiva]]), matter, etc. exist with their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy as opposed to [[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[monistic]] conclusion of Vedas) is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Etter |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC&pg=PA59 |title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism |publisher=iUniverse Inc. |pages=59–60 |isbn=0-595-39312-8 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2018}} Because the existence of individuals is grounded in the divine, they are depicted as reflections, images or even shadows of the divine, but never in any way identical with the divine. [[Moksha|Salvation]] therefore is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the Supreme.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C&dq=dualism+dvaita+vedanta&pg=PA340 |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |pages=340–344 |isbn=1-898723-93-1 |via=[[Google Books]] }}{{Dead link|date=February 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Ontological dualism ==
[[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|100px|thumb|The yin and yang symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in Traditional Chinese Medicine, Confucianism and Taoist religion.]]

Alternatively, ''dualism'' can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching [[categorization|categories]]. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it. This form of ontological dualism exists in Taoism and Confucianism and a foundational theory within Traditional Chinese medicine, beliefs that divide the universe into the complementary oppositions of [[yin and yang]].<ref name="Girardot">{{cite book|last=Girardot |first=N.J. |title=Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun) |year=1988 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-06460-7 |page=247}}</ref> In traditions such as classical Hinduism ([[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Vaisheshika]] and the later [[Vedanta]] schools, which accepted the theory of [[Gunas]]), Chinese Pure land and [[Zen]] Buddhism or [[Islam]]ic [[Sufi]]sm, a key to enlightenment is "transcending" this sort of dualistic thinking, without merely substituting dualism with [[monism]] or [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]].

=== In Chinese philosophy ===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2017}}
The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of [[yin and yang]] is a large part of [[Chinese philosophy]], and is an important feature of [[Taoism]], both as a philosophy and as a religion, although the concept developed much earlier. Some argue that yin and yang were originally an earth and sky god, respectively.<ref name="Yin and Yang">{{cite web |last1=Roberts |first1=Jeremy |title=Yin and Yang |url=http://online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/239492?q=yin%20and%20yang |website=Ancient and Medieval History |publisher=Facts on File |access-date=19 March 2017}}</ref> 

Some of the common associations with yang and yin, respectively, are: male and female, [[light]] and [[darkness|dark]], active and passive, motion and stillness. Some scholars believe that the two ideas may have originally referred to two opposite sides of a mountain, facing towards and away from the sun.<ref name="Yin and Yang"/> The yin and yang symbol actually has very little to do with Western dualism; instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. In the yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. In Taoism, this symbolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as different aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the independent principles of yin and yang are actually dependent on one another for each other's distinguishable existence.

The complementary dualistic concept seen in yin and yang represent the reciprocal interaction throughout nature, related to a [[feedback loop]], where opposing forces do not exchange in opposition but instead exchange reciprocally to promote stabilization similar to [[homeostasis]]. An underlying principle in Taoism states that within every independent entity lies a part of its opposite. Within sickness lies health and vice versa. This is because all opposites are manifestations of the single Tao, and are therefore not independent from one another, but rather a variation of the same unifying force throughout all of nature.

== In other religions ==

=== Samoyed peoples ===
In a [[Nenets people|Nenets]] myth, [[Num (god) |Num]] and [[Nga (god)|Nga]] collaborate and compete with each other, creating land,{{sfn|Vértes|1990|pp=104, 105}} there are also other myths about competing-collaborating demiurges.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=47–48}}

=== Comparative studies of Kets and neighboring peoples ===
Among others, also dualistic myths were investigated in researches which tried to compare the mythologies of Siberian peoples and settle the problem of their origins. [[Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|Vyacheslav Ivanov]] and [[Vladimir Toporov]] compared the [[mythology]] of [[Ket people]] with those of speakers of [[Uralic languages]], assuming in the studies, that there are modelling [[Semiotics|semiotic]] systems in the compared mythologies; and they have also made typological comparisons.{{sfn|Ivanov|Toporov|1973}}<ref>{{harvp|Ivanov|1984a|p=390}}, in editorial afterword by Hoppál</ref> Among others, from possibly Uralic mythological analogies, those of [[Ob-Ugric languages|Ob-Ugric]] peoples{{sfn|Ivanov|1984b|pp=225, 227, 229}} and [[Samoyedic peoples]]{{sfn|Ivanov|1984b|pp=229, 230}} are mentioned. Some other discussed analogies (similar folklore [[Motif (narrative)|motifs]], and purely typological considerations, certain binary pairs in symbolics) may be related to dualistic organization of society—some of such dualistic features can be found at these compared peoples.{{sfn|Ivanov|1984b|pp=229–231}} It must be admitted that, for Kets, neither dualistic organization of society{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=39}} nor cosmological dualism{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=48}} has been researched thoroughly: if such features existed at all, they have either weakened or remained largely undiscovered;{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=39}} although there are some reports on division into two exogamous patrilinear moieties,{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=37}} folklore on conflicts of mythological figures, and also on cooperation of two beings in creating the land:{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=48}} the diving of the water fowl.{{sfn|Ivanov|1984b|p=229}} If we include dualistic cosmologies meant in broad sense, not restricted to certain concrete motifs, then we find that they are much more widespread, they exist not only among some Siberian peoples, but there are examples in each inhabited continent.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=56}}

=== Chukchi ===
A [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] myth and its variations report the creation of the world; in some variations, it is achieved by the collaboration of several beings ([[bird]]s, collaborating in a coequal way; or the creator and the [[raven]], collaborating in a coequal way; or the creator alone, using the birds only as assistants).{{sfnm|1a1=Anisimov|1y=1966|1p=|2a1=Anisimov|2y=1971|2p=|3a1=Zolotarjov|3y=1980|3pp=40–41}}

=== Fuegians ===
{{See also|Fuegians#Spiritual culture}}
All three [[Fuegians|Fuegian]] tribes had dualistic myths about [[culture hero]]es.{{sfn|Gusinde|1966|p=71}} The [[Yaghan people|Yámana]] have dualistic myths about the two  brothers. They act as culture heroes, and sometimes stand in an antagonistic relation with each other, introducing opposite laws. Their figures can be compared to the Kwanyip-brothers of the [[Selkʼnam]].{{sfn|Gusinde|1966|p=181}} In general, the presence of dualistic myths in two compared cultures does not imply relatedness or [[Diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]] necessarily.{{sfn|Zolotarjov|1980|p=56}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
* {{anl|Cosmology}}
* [[Didache#The Two Ways|Didache – The Two Ways]]
* [[Duality (disambiguation)|Duality]]
* {{anl|Mind-body dualism}}
* {{anl|Cosmotheism}}
* {{anl|Evil twin}}
* {{anl|Gnosticism}}
* {{anl|Pantheism}}
* {{anl|Nondualism}}
* '' {{anl|Table of Opposites}}''
*  {{anl|Trinity}}
*  {{anl|Yanantin}}

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Anisimov |first=F. А. |script-title=ru:Духовная жизнь первобытново общества |title=Dukhovnaya zhizn' pervobytnogo obshchestva |trans-title=The spiritual life of the primitive commune |publisher=Nauka |location=Moscow: Leningrad |year=1966 |language=ru}}
* {{cite book |last=Anisimov |first=F. А. |script-title=ru:Исторические особенности первобытново мышления |title=Istoricheskiye osobennosti pervobytnogo myshleniya |trans-title=Historical futures of the primitive mind |publisher=Nauka |location=Moscow: Leningrad |year=1971 |language=ru}}
* {{cite book |last=Gusinde |first=Martin |title=Nordwind—Südwind. Mythen und Märchen der Feuerlandindianer |trans-title=North wind—south wind. Myths and tales of Fuegians |year=1966 |publisher=E. Röth |location=Kassel |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ivanov |first1=Vyacheslav |author1-link=Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist) |last2=Toporov |first2=Vladimir |author2-link=Vladimir Toporov |title=Towards the Description of Ket Semiotic Systems |journal=Semiotica |publisher=Mouton |location=The Hague; Prague; New York |year=1973 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=318–346}}
* {{cite book |last=Ivanov |first=Vjacseszlav |others=Collected, appendix, editorial afterword by Hoppál, Mihály |chapter=Nyelvek és mitológiák |trans-chapter=Languages and mythologies |title=Nyelv, mítosz, kultúra |trans-title=Language, myth, culture |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |year=1984a |language=hu |isbn=963-281-186-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Ivanov |first=Vjacseszlav |others=Collected, appendix, editorial afterword by Hoppál, Mihály |chapter=Obi-ugor és ket folklórkapcsolatok |trans-chapter=Obi-Ugric and Ket folklore contacts |title=Nyelv, mítosz, kultúra |trans-title=Language, myth, culture |pages=215–233 |year=1984b |publisher=Gondolat |location=Budapest |language=hu |isbn=963-281-186-0}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Lavazza |editor1-first=Andrea |title=Contemporary Dualism: A Defense |editor2-last=Robinson |editor2-first=Howard |place=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |series=Routledge Studies in Contemporary Philosophy |isbn=978-0-415-81882-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEjIAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |year=2010 |surname=Popov |given=Igor N. |script-title=ru:Метафизика абсолютного дуализма: оратория преодоления |title=Metafizika absolyutnogo dualizma: oratoriya preodoleniya |trans-title=Metaphysics of Absolute Dualism: an oratorio of the overcoming |language=ru |place=Barnaul |publisher=Azbuka |isbn=978-5-93957-396-2 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2OutT9t-874eFdjX1lybGMwQ3M/view?usp=sharing}}
* {{cite book |last=Riparelli |first=Enrico |title=Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari |trans-title=The face of the dualistic Christ. From Marcion to the Cathars |year=2008 |language=it |place=Bern; Berlin; Bruxelles; Frankfurt am Main; New York; Oxford; Wien |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-490-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Vértes |first=Edit |title=Szibériai nyelvrokonaink hitvilága |trans-title=Belief systems of our language relatives in Siberia |publisher=Tankönyvkiadó |location=Budapest |year=1990 |language=hu |isbn=963-18-2603-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Zolotarjov |first=A. M. |year=1980 |chapter=Társadalomszervezet és dualisztikus teremtésmítoszok Szibériában |editor-last=Hoppál |editor-first=Mihály |trans-chapter=Social structure and dualistic creation myths in Siberia |title=A Tejút fiai. Tanulmányok a finnugor népek hitvilágáról |trans-title=The sons of Milky Way. Studies on the belief systems of Finno-Ugric peoples |pages=29–58 |publisher=Európa Könyvkiadó |location=Budapest |language=hu |isbn=963-07-2187-2}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Dualism}}
{{Wikiquote|Dualism}}
{{EB1911 poster|Dualism}}
*{{Commonscatinline|Dualism in cosmology}}
*[https://escholarship.org/uc/item/95b9b2db "Duality"] entry in the ''[https://escholarship.org/uc/nelc_uee UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology]''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050305082331/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-05 "Dualism in Philosophy and Religion"] in the ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''

{{metaphysics}}
{{philosophy of religion}}
{{Philosophy topics}}
{{belief systems}}
{{Heresies condemned by the Catholic Church}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dualism in cosmology| ]]
[[Category:Religious cosmologies]]
[[Category:Religious existentialism]]