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{{Short description|Central doctrine of Confucianism}}
{{redirect|Zhongyong|the ruler of Wu|Zhongyong of Wu}}
{{About|the Confucian Doctrine of the Mean|the Aristotelian Doctrine of the Mean|Nicomachean Ethics}}
{{italic title}}
{{infobox Chinese
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| piccap = "Doctrine of the Mean" in [[seal script]] (top) and modern (bottom) Chinese characters
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| c = {{linktext|中庸}}
| p = zhōngyōng
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| qn = Trung Dung
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| kanji = 中庸
| kana = ちゅうよう
| romaji = Chūyō
| hangul = 중용
| hanja = 中庸
| rr = Jungyong
| mr = Chungyong
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[[File:SSID-13466849 中庸.pdf|thumb|Cover of a modern printed edition]]
{{Confucianism}}

The '''''Doctrine of the Mean''''' or '''''Zhongyong'''''<!--Chinese in infobox--> is one of the [[Four Books]] of classical Chinese philosophy and a central doctrine of [[Confucianism]]. The text is attributed to [[Zisi]] (Kong Ji), the only grandson of [[Confucius]] (Kong Zi). It was originally a chapter in the ''[[Classic of Rites]]''.

The phrase "doctrine of the mean" occurs in Book VI, verse 29 of the ''[[Analects]]'' of [[Confucius]], which states:
{{blockquote|The Master [Confucius] said, The virtue embodied in the doctrine of the Mean is of the highest order. But it has long been rare among people|''[[Analects]]''|6:29 ([[Burton Watson]] tr.)}}

The ''Analects'' never expands on what this term means, but Zisi's text, ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', explores its meaning in detail, as well as how to apply it to one's life.  The application of Confucian metaphysics to politics and [[virtue ethics]].  The text was adopted into the canon of the [[Neo-Confucian]] movement, as compiled by [[Zhu Xi]].

While [[Burton Watson]] translated ''Zhōngyōng'' as ''Doctrine of the Mean'', other English-language translators have rendered it differently. [[James Legge]] in 1861 called it ''Constant Mean'', [[Pierre Ryckmans (writer)|Pierre Ryckmans]] (aka Simon Leys) used ''Middle Way'', while [[Arthur Waley]] chose ''Middle Use''. [[Ezra Pound]]'s translations include ''Unswerving Pivot'' and ''Unwobbling Pivot''. [[Roger T. Ames]] and David L. Hall titled their 2001 translation ''Focusing the Familiar''.

==Authorship==

The authorship of ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' is controversial. Traditionally, authorship of the treatise (which was actually a chapter from ''Liji'', one of the Five Classics of antiquity) was attributed to [[Zisi]] (Kong Ji / Tzu Ssu / Zi Si / 子思), a grandson of Confucius and disciple of Zeng Shen; however, this was first questioned by Qing dynasty scholar Cui Shu (1740—1816). According to some modern scholars parts of it may have been written or edited by Confucians during the transition from the Qin to Han dynasties. However, it is widely agreed that the book presents the ethical core of Confucian teachings.<ref>
* {{cite journal |last1=Jing |first1=Shan |last2=Doorn |first2=Neelke |title=Engineers' Moral Responsibility: A Confucian Perspective |journal=Science and Engineering Ethics |date=1 February 2020 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=233–253 fn 5 |doi=10.1007/s11948-019-00093-4 |pmid=30806938 |pmc=6978444 |issn=1353-3452 |quote=The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong, 中庸) was originally a chapter in The Classic of Rites. The authorship of The Doctrine of the Mean is controversial. It is said to be written by Tzu Ssu (Zi Si, 子思) a disciple of Zeng Shen, but it is also maintained that it was written by Confucians during the Han Dynasties.|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Suh |first1=Jungho |title=The Confucian doctrine of the Mean, the optimality principle, and social harmony |journal=Society and Economy |date=March 2020 |volume=42 |issue=1 |page=60n1 |doi=10.1556/204.2020.00004 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340961960 |quote=Although there is no consensus as to whether Zhong Yong was written solely by Zisi or was edited by multiple figures as time passed, it is widely agreed that the book presents the ethical core of Confucian teachings (Sim 2007).|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>
{{cite book |last1=Shen |first1=Vincent |title=Dao Companion to Classical Confucian Philosophy |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-2936-2 |pages=119–121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA120|quote=...for the musicology section of the Sui shu also quotes the Southern Dynasty scholar Shen Yue (441—513) as saying that portions of the ''Zisizi'' are still to be seen in the Book of Rites, namely the ''Doctrine of the Mean''... The biography of Confucius in the ''Shiji''... also names Zisi as the author of the Doctrine of the Mean. Based on the Shiji and the Sui Shu, we can see that the Doctrine of the Mean has traditionally been attributed to Zisi. And while that traditional ascription was not challenged for centuries, some questions raised during that time as to the original organization... Wang Bo (1197—1274)... never went so far as to doubt that any of the 31 sections were not written by Zisi. That was left to the Qing dynasty scholar Cui Shu (1740—1816)... Some modern scholars have tried to combine the insights of Wang and Cui by suggesting multiple authorship of the Doctrine of the Mean. Specifically, it has been suggested that either the entire first half or the second through to the nineteenth sections thereof were penned by Zisi, with the remaining sections being added later by students of either Mencius or Zisi. Other evidence has been put forth to support the view that the Doctrine of the Mean is made up of materials written by Zisi and other unknown author or authors during the transition from the Qin dynasty to the Han dynasty..."}}

</ref><ref>

{{cite book |last1=Gray |first1=Patrick |title=Varieties of Religious Invention: Founders and Their Functions in History |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-935972-1 |page=76n50 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHM_CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |quote=For the diverse opinions regarding the date and authorship of the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', see Xu Fuguan, "Zhongyong de diwei wenti: jin jiuzheng yu Qian Binsi xiansheng"..., in ''Xueshu yu zhengzhi zhijian'' ..., vol. 2. (Jiulong: Nan shan shu wu, 1976), 322—38}}</ref>  Others seem to attribute it to Confucius himself.<ref>
* {{cite book |last1=Christians |first1=Clifford G. |title=Media Ethics and Global Justice in the Digital Age |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15214-4 |page=123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFqHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 |quote=In another of Confucius's four major books, ''The Doctrine of the Mean''...}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kuhn |first1=Dieter |title=The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06202-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnCbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |quote=His poems embodied Confucius' ''Doctrine of the Mean''}}
* {{cite web |title=The Doctrine of the Mean by Confucius |url=https://philosophy.lander.edu/oriental/reader/reader/c3878.html |website=philosophy.lander.edu |quote=In ''The Doctrine of the Mean'',[1] one of the writings attributed to Confucius}}
* {{cite web |title=The Internet Classics Archive {{!}} The Doctrine of the Mean by Confucius |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/doctmean.html |website=classics.mit.edu |quote=The Doctrine of the Mean By Confucius Written ca. 500 B.C.E}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brigg |first1=Morgan J. |last2=Bleiker |first2=Roland |title=Mediating Across Difference: Oceanic and Asian Approaches to Conflict Resolution |date=2011 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6096-7 |page=232 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F4EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 |quote=Confucius specifies four common scenarios in the ''Doctrine of the Mean''}}
* {{cite book |last1=Huang |first1=Yong |title=Why Be Moral?: Learning from the Neo-Confucian Cheng Brothers |date=2014 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-5291-3 |page=142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WK7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |quote=In the ''Doctrine of Mean'', after a similar you do not wish others do to you, do not do to them,"—Confucius says...}}</ref>

==Interpretation==
''The Doctrine of the Mean'' is a text rich with symbolism and guidance to perfecting oneself.  The mean is also described as the "unswerving pivot" or ''zhongyong''.  ''Zhong'' means bent neither one way or another, and ''yong'' represents unchanging.<ref>''The Great Digest and Unwobbling Pivot'', 1951.</ref> In [[James Legge]]'s translation of the text, the goal of the mean is to maintain balance and harmony from directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium.  The person who follows the mean is on a path of duty and must never leave it. A superior person is cautious, a gentle teacher and shows no contempt for their inferiors. The person always does what is natural according to their status in the world. Even common people can carry the mean into their practices, as long as they do not exceed their natural order.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/conf3.htm Internet Sacred Text Archive], 2008.</ref>

''The Doctrine of the Mean'' represents moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity, honesty and propriety.<ref>{{cite book|title=''Britannica Encyclopedia''|author=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Rosen Pub Group|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59339-292-5}}</ref> The guiding principle is that one should never act in excess. ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' is divided into three parts:

# The Axis &ndash; [[Confucian]] Metaphysics
# The Process &ndash; Politics
# The Perfect Word/Sincerity &ndash; Ethics (The Great Digest and Unwobbling Pivot, 1951).

==Guidelines==
''Doctrine of the Mean'' proposed three guidelines—Self-watchfulness, Leniency and Sincerity—for how to pursue the Doctrine of the Mean, and one who follows these guidelines can be called a [[Junzi|respectable person]]:<ref name=Qiubai>{{cite journal|last1=Qiubai|first1=Deng|title=On Doctrine of the Mean|journal=Journal of Capital Normal University (Social Sciences Edition)|date=2006|page=43| url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_sdsfdxxb-shkx200006007.aspx| access-date=16 November 2014}}</ref>

"[[Confucius|Zhong-ni]] said, 'The [[Junzi|respectable person]] embodies the course of the Mean; the average person acts contrary to the course of the Mean."<ref name="THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN">{{cite web|last1=Legge|first1=James|title=THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN|website=sacred-texts.com |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/conf3.htm|access-date=21 June 2015}}</ref>

===Self-watchfulness===
[[File:SSID-13466849 中庸.pdf|thumb|page=18|A page from the ''Doctrine of the Mean'']]
This guideline requires self-education, self-questioning and self-discipline during the process of self-cultivation. This principle was exposited in the first chapter of ''Doctrine of the Mean'':<ref name=Qiubai/>

"The [[Junzi|respectable person]] does not wait till he sees things to be cautious, nor till he hears things to be apprehensive. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior person is watchful over himself, when he is alone."<ref name="THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN"/>

===Leniency===

This guideline requires understanding, concern and tolerance towards one another. Leniency was exposited in the 13th chapter:<ref name=Qiubai/>

"When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others."<ref name="THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN"/>

In this chapter, Confucius explained this guideline with four examples: "to serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me", " to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me", "to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me", "to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me."<ref name=Qiubai/>

===Sincerity===

Sincerity contributes to a close connection between Heaven and human. This guideline was exposited in the 23rd chapter:<ref name=Qiubai2>{{cite journal|last1=Qiubai|first1=Deng|title=On Doctrine of the Mean|journal=Journal of Capital Normal University (Social Sciences Edition)|date=2006|page=44|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_sdsfdxxb-shkx200006007.aspx|access-date=16 November 2014}}</ref>

"It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under [[heaven]], who can give its full development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and [[Earth]]. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion."<ref name="THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN"/>

==In Chinese society==
In [[China]] prior to the twentieth century the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' was integrated into the education system statewide. Also, one of the prerequisites for employment in the imperial government was the study and understanding of [[Four Books and Five Classics|the Four Classics]], included in this is the ''Doctrine of the Mean''. The imperial state wanted to reinforce the three bonds of society; between the parent and child, husband and wife, and ruler and subject.  This was believed to emphasize a peaceful home and an orderly state.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}

Recently in China, the [[New Confucians]] revisited the Classics, because of its strong foundation in the educational system. Using the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' has become a useful source for New Confucians due to the similarities in the terminology and expression used by them and found within the text.  This is further reinforced by the support from ancient sages and worthies who prefer education systems more closely linked to traditional Confucian thought.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}

==Modern views==
{{Expand section|date=August 2022}}
[[Sun Yat-sen]] critiqued the doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|title=中華學報|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCYEAAAAMAAJ&q=chiang+duke+chou+descent|year=1979|publisher=中央文物供應社總經銷|page=113}}</ref> 

[[Chiang Kai-shek]] praised the doctrine as the book that introduced him to learning and as an essence of ancient Chinese learned thought.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loh |first=Pichon P. Y. |date=1970 |title=The Ideological Persuasion of Chiang Kai-Shek |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/311494 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=212 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00011914 |jstor=311494 |issn=0026-749X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

According to [[Mao Zedong]]'s comment on [[Ai Siqi]]'s analysis of ''Doctrine of the Mean'', ''Doctrine of the Mean'' is an [[eclecticism]] which simultaneously opposes the abolishment of [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] and excessive exploitation. According to Mao, ''Doctrine of the Mean'' failed to realize that something deserves absolute negation, and in compromise, ''Doctrine of the Mean'' prevented [[China]] from progress. In his comment, Mao said that the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' also goes against [[dialectics]] as it stops qualitative change by emphasizing balance and harmony, maintaining [[Contradiction#Dialectical_materialism|contradictions]] past the point where they can be [[Aufheben|abolished]].

On another occasion, Mao cited the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', stating, "Being excessive is too left-leaning and being deficient means too right-leaning. We need to find an optimal status, which is what the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' suggests" and that "this thought is indeed a great discovery of Confucius [...] a great achievement, an important category of philosophy, and it deserves a good explanation."<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |url= |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |pages=250 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |oclc=1348572572 |author-link=Christopher Marquis |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>

[[Lu Xun]], a leading figure of modern Chinese literature, saw ''Doctrine of the Mean'' as major contributing factor of the abject [[ethnic stereotype]] in modern China, believing it prevented reform from happening.

In his speech ''Silent China'', Lu Xun said that Chinese likes the reconcilable and the compromised. "For example, people will not allow you to add a window to a dark room, but when you threaten to uncover the roof, they would compromise to the idea of adding a window. Without a radical proposal pushing them, Chinese won't permit even the mildest reform."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Xun|first1=zhu zhe Lu|title=Wu sheng di Zhongguo|date=1995|publisher=Hua yi chu ban she|location=Beijing|isbn=7-80039-655-X|edition=Di 1 ban.}}</ref>

==Translation and study==
[[Andrew H. Plaks]] wrote the essay "The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the ''Zhongyong''", which was published in ''[[De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européenes]]''. In his essay Plaks argues that since the text of the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' is "too easy", this factor is, as paraphrased by [[Joshua A. Fogel]], an author of a book review for the ''De l'un au multiple'' book ''[[The Journal of Asian Studies]]'', a "major impediment" to translation.<ref name=Fogelp161>Fogel, p. 161.</ref>

The [[Tsinghua bamboo slips]] feature the text "Bao xun" (保訓) which shares the topos of centrality with the ''Zhongyong''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xinfajia.net/6264.html|title=王连龙：《保训》与《逸周书》-法家经典--新法家}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|China}}
* [[Golden mean (philosophy)]], a tenet of the philosophy of [[Aristotle]], in which he endorses temperance between the extremes of excess and deficiency. Cf. [[Via media]].
* Aristotle's [[Nicomachean Ethics#Book II: That virtues of character can be described as means|Nicomachean Ethics Book II: That virtues of character can be described as means]]
* [[Argument to moderation]] (fallacy)
* [[Middle Way]] in Buddhism
* [[Naive dialecticism]]
* [[Phronesis]] in ancient Greek philosophy
* [[Wasat (Islamic term)]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Fogel, Joshua A. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2659512 ''De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européenes'' (book review)]. ''[[The Journal of Asian Studies]]'', ISSN 0021-9118, 02/2001, Volume 60, Issue 1, pp.&nbsp;159 – 161. Available from [[JStor]].
* Gardner, Daniel. "Confucian Commentary and Chinese Intellectual History". ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 57.2 (1998): 397-.
* Hare, John. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/index.htm "The Chinese Classics"]. Internet Sacred Text Archive. 2008. Accessed: 27 October 2008.
* Riegel, Jeffrey. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/ "Confucius"]. ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. 2006. Accessed: 23 October 2008.
* [[Ezra Pound|Pound, Ezra]] (translation and commentary). "The Great Digest & Unwobbling Pivot". New York, New York, US: New Directions, 1951.
* Smith, Huston. ''The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions''. New York, New York, US: HarperCollins, 1991.
* Williams, Edward T. "Ancient China" ''The Harvard Theological Review'' vol.9, no.3 (1916): 258-268.
* Wing-Tsit Chan. "Neo-Confucianism: New Ideas on Old Terminology" ''Philosophy East and West'' vol.17, no. 1/4 (1967): 15-35.
* [http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9082544 "Zhongyong"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed: 27 Oct 2008

==Further reading==
* Plaks, Andrew. "[http://books.openedition.org/editionsmsh/1507 The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the ''Zhongyong'']." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20131206174713/http://books.openedition.org/editionsmsh/1507 Archive]) In: Alleton, Vivianne and Michael Lackner (editors). ''[[De l'un au multiple: traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages]]''. Éditions de la maison des sciences de l'homme (Les Editions de la MSH, [[:fr:Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme|FR]]), 1999, [[Paris]]. p.&nbsp;311-331. {{ISBN|273510768X}}, 9782735107681.

==External links==
{{wikisource|The Doctrine of the Mean|''The Doctrine of the Mean''}}
{{wikisourcelang|zh|禮記/中庸|中庸}}
* [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Classics/zhongyong.html ''Doctrine of the Mean''], description and excerpts at [[Chinaknowledge]]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/con-dao/docofmean.html ''Doctrine of the Mean''], an English translation by [[A. Charles Muller]]
* [http://www.nothingistic.org/library/confucius/mean/ ''The Doctrine of the Mean''], an English translation by [[James Legge]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110724192237/http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/docmean.txt ''The Doctrine of the Mean''], an English translation by [[Wing-tsit Chan]]
* [http://ctext.org/liji/zhong-yong ''Zhong Yong''], Chinese text interspersed with an English translation by [[James Legge]] (at the [[Chinese Text Project]])
* {{librivox book | title=The Doctrine of the Mean | author=Confucius}}

{{Confucian texts}}

[[Category:Confucian texts]]
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Four Books and Five Classics]]