View source for Distrust

{{short description|Lack of interpersonal confidence}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2025}}
{{For|the video game|Distrust (video game)}}
[[File:BRÈ GIRLS.jpg|thumb|262px|Aboriginal women showing distrust of the photographer]]{{emotion}}
'''Distrust''' is a formal way of not [[Trust (emotion)|trusting]] any one party too much in a situation of grave [[risk]] or deep [[doubt]]. It is commonly expressed in [[civics]] as a division or balance of powers, or in politics as means of validating [[treaty]] terms. Systems based on distrust simply divide the [[Moral responsibility|responsibility]] so that [[checks and balances]] can operate. The phrase "[[trust, but verify]]" refers specifically to distrust.

==In systems of government==
An [[electoral system]] inevitably is based on distrust, but not on mistrust. Parties [[compete]] in the system, but they do not compete to [[Subversion (politics)|subvert]] the system itself, or gain bad faith advantage through it—if they do they are easily caught by the others. Much mistrust does exist between parties, and it is exactly this which motivates putting in place a [[formal system]] of distrust. [[Diplomatic protocol]] for instance, which applies between [[Sovereign state|states]], relies on such means as [[formal disapproval]] which in effect say "we do not trust that person". It also tends to rely on a strict etiquette—distrusting each person's habits to signal their intent, and instead relying on a global standard for [[behaviour]] in sensitive social settings.

[[Corporate governance]] relies on distrust insofar as the board is not to trust the reports it receives from [[management]], but is empowered to investigate them, challenge them, and otherwise act on behalf of [[shareholder]]s vs. [[Management|managers]]. The fact that they rarely or never do so in most American companies is a sign that the distrust relationship has broken down—[[accounting scandal]]s and calls for [[accounting reform]] are the inevitable result. It is precisely to avoid such larger crises of trust in "the [[system]]" that formal distrust measures are put in place to begin with.

==In computer science==
A [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] as defined in [[computer science]] uses a more formal idea of distrust itself. Different parts of a system are not supposed to "trust" each other but rather perform specific assertions, [[Object (computer science)|requests]] and [[Verification and Validation (software)|validations]]. Once these are passed, the responsibility for [[error]]s lies strictly with the receiving part of the system, not that which sent the original information. Applying this principle inside one program is called contract-based design.

==Neurochemical studies==
[[Neuroeconomics]] explain how economists are attempting to understand why humans trust or distrust others by recording physiological measurements during trust experiments.<ref name="The Neuroeconomics of Distrust">{{cite journal|last=Zak|first=Paul J.|author2=Karla Borja|author3=William T. Matzner|author4=Robert Kurzban|year=2005|title=The Neuroeconomics of Distrust: Sex Differences in Behavior and Physiology|url=http://www.nexthumanproject.com/references/Neuroeconomics_of_Distrust.pdf|journal=The American Economic Review|volume=95|issue=2|pages=360–3|doi=10.1257/000282805774669709|pmid=29125276|hdl=10983/26303|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Economists conducted an experiment observing distrust through a trust game. Subjects were asked to anonymously donate various amounts of money to other anonymous subjects with no guarantee of receiving money in return. Various conditions were run of the experiment and after each decision, subjects' levels of the hormone [[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT) were measured. The results of this experiment suggest men and women respond to distrust physiologically differently; a heightened level of the hormone DHT in men is associated with distrust. However, more research is needed in order to accurately state the correlation between the amount of DHT present in males and responses to distrust.<ref name="The Neuroeconomics of Distrust" />

==Sociological studies==
It has been argued that by supporting healthy [[Suspicion (emotion)|suspicion]] and vigilance, distrust does not always have detrimental consequences and can be related to positive outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kramer|first=Roderick M.|date=1999|title=TRUST AND DISTRUST IN ORGANIZATIONS: Emerging Perspectives, Enduring Questions|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=50|issue=1|pages=569–598|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.569|pmid=15012464|s2cid=14616152 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> It has been shown to increase the speed and performance of individuals and groups<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lowry|first=Paul Benjamin|author2=Justin Scott Giboney|author3=Ryan Schuetzler|author4=Jacob Richardson|author5=Tom Gregory|author6=John Romney|author7=Bonnie Anderson|title=The Value of Distrust in Computer-Based Decision-Making Groups|journal=43rd Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|date=5–8 January 2009|ssrn=1487345}}</ref> at certain tasks. It has been empirically shown that distrust increases performance in nonroutine (creative, unstructured) tasks while decreasing performance in routine (cooperative, structured) tasks.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schul|first=Y.|author2=Mayo, R. |author3= Burnstein, E. |title=The value of distrust|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|year=2008|volume=44|issue=5|pages=1293–1302|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2008.05.003}}</ref>

Research on high-risk settings such as [[oil platform]]s, [[investment banking]], medical surgery, [[aircraft pilot]]ing and nuclear powerplants has related distrust to failure avoidance.<ref>Conchie, S. M. & Donald, I. J. (2007). The functions and development of safety-specific trust and distrust. [[Safety Science]], 46(1) 92-103.</ref><ref>Burns, C., Mearns, K. & McGeorge, P. (2006). Explicit and Implicit Trust Within Safety Culture. Risk Analysis, 26(5), 1139-1150.</ref> When nonroutine strategies are needed, distrusting persons perform better, while when routine strategies are needed trusting persons perform better.<ref>Schul, Y., Mayo, R., & Burnstein, E. (2008). The Value of Distrust. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1293–1302.</ref> This research was extended to entrepreneurial firms by Gudmundsson and Lechner.<ref name="GUDMUNDSSON, S.V 2013">GUDMUNDSSON, S.V. and LECHNER, C. (2013) Cognitive Biases, Organization, and Entrepreneurial Firm Survival. European Management Journal, 31(3), 278-294</ref> They argued that in entrepreneurial firms, the prospect of failure is ever present, resembling nonroutine situations in high-risk settings. They found that the firms of distrusting entrepreneurs were more likely to survive than the firms of optimistic or overconfident entrepreneurs, because the distrusting entrepreneurs would emphasize failure avoidance through sensible task selection, and more analysis.<ref>Teach, R.D., Schwartz, R.G., & Tarpley, F.A. (1989). The recognition and exploitation of opportunity in the software industry: a study of surviving firms. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. Wellesley, MA: Babson College, 383–397.</ref> Kets de Vries has pointed out that distrusting entrepreneurs are more alert about their external environment.<ref name="Vries, M. 2003">Kets de Vries, M. (2003). The entrepreneur on the couch. INSEAD Quarterly, 5, 17-19.</ref> Thus, distrusting entrepreneurs are less likely to discount negative events, and are more likely to engage control mechanisms.<ref name="GUDMUNDSSON, S.V 2013"/><ref>Davis, J. H., Schoorman, F. D., & Donaldson, L. (1997). Toward a stewardship theory of management. Academy of Management Review, 22, 20-47.</ref><ref name="Vries, M. 2003"/><ref>Lewicki, R., McAllister, D., & Bies, R. (1998). Trust and distrust: New relationships and realities. Academy of Management Review, 23, 438 – 458.</ref>  Thus, according to Gudmundsson and Lechner distrust leads to higher precaution and therefore increases chances of entrepreneurial firm survival.<ref name="GUDMUNDSSON, S.V 2013"/>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Conscientiousness]]
* [[Cynicism (contemporary)]]
* [[Disgust]]
* [[Misanthropy]]
* [[Neuroticism]]
* [[Resentment]]
* [[Skepticism]]
* [[Suspicion (emotion)]]
{{div col end}}
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==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Mistrust: Why Losing Faith in Institutions Provides the Tools to Transform Them |year=2021 |author=Ethan Zuckerman |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-1324002604}}

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[[Category:Reputation management]]
[[Category:Concepts in ethics]]
[[Category:Accountability]]
[[Category:Doubt]]

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