View source for Darjeeling

{{Short description|City in West Bengal, India}}
{{About|the municipality in West Bengal, India|the district|Darjeeling district|the tea|Darjeeling tea|other uses}}
{{Pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Pp-pc}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Darjeeling
| other_name         = 
| other_name_lang    = 
| settlement_type    = City
| image_skyline      = {{Multiple image
| border                 = infobox
| total_width            = 300
| image_style            = border:1;
| perrow                 = 1/2
| image1 = Darjeeling-panoramic.jpg
| image2 = DarjeelingTrainFruitshop (2).jpg
| image3 = Tea plantation Darjeeling.JPG
}}
| image_caption      = Left to right from top: Darjeeling with [[Kangchenjunga]], the world's third-highest mountain, rising behind it; a [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] train en route to the main train station; a [[tea garden]], or tea plantation
| image_seal = 
| image_alt          = 
| nickname           = 
| map_alt            = Darjeeling is located at the northern end of West Bengal, near its boundary with Sikkim.
| image_map1         = {{maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-width=300|frame-height=170|frame-align=center|zoom=4|type=point|title=Darjeeling|marker=city|type2=shape|stroke-width2=2|stroke-color2=#808080}}
| map_caption1       = Interactive map of Darjeeling
| coordinates        = {{coord|27|02|15|N|88|15|47|E|region:IND-WB_type:city(119,000)|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   =  {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1  = State
| subdivision_name1  = {{flagicon image|}} [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2  = [[Autonomous administrative divisions of India|Territorial Administration]]
| subdivision_name2  = [[Gorkhaland Territorial Administration]]
| subdivision_type3  = District
| subdivision_name3  = [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]]
| established_title  = Settled
| established_date   = Leased in 1835 from [[Tsugphud Namgyal]], the [[Chogyal]] of the [[Kingdom of Sikkim]], and annexed in 1849.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|pp=47–48}}{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=85–86}} Municipality, 1 July 1850.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}}{{Sfn|Lamb|1986|p=71}}
| founder            = [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[East India Company]], during [[Company rule in India]]{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|pp=319–320}}{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|pp=325–326}}
| named_for          = 
| government_type    = Municipality
| governing_body     = [[Darjeeling Municipality]]
| leader_title       = [[Chairman]]
| leader_name        = Dipen Thakuri<ref>{{cite news |title=TMC props BGPM at civic helm |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/trinamul-congress-props-bharatiya-gorkha-prajatantrik-morcha-at-civic-helm/cid/1910326 |access-date=26 May 2023 |work=The Telegraph |date=17 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=26 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526115215/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/trinamul-congress-props-bharatiya-gorkha-prajatantrik-morcha-at-civic-helm/cid/1910326 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| unit_pref          = Metric
| area_footnotes     = {{efn|"In year 2001, the area of Darjeeling Municipality was {{Convert|10.75|km2|mi2}} but after the reorganization and bifurcation of wards in 2011, the town now covers an area of {{Convert|7.43|km2|mi2}} only."{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}}}}
| area_rank          = 
| area_total_km2     = 7.43
| area_metro_km2     = 
| elevation_footnotes = {{efn|"The average altitude of Darjeeling Town is 6710 ft (about 2045 m.) However, the highest point in the Darjeeling district is [[Sandakphu]] (close to 12,000 ft) which also happens to be the highest altitude point in the whole of [[West Bengal]]."{{Sfn|Rahamtulla|Roy|Khasim|2020|p=157}} }}
| elevation_m        = 2045
| population_total   = 118805
| population_as_of   = 2011
| population_rank    = 
| population_density_km2 = 15990
| population_demonym = 
| population_footnotes = {{efn|India did not have a decadal census in 2021 because of [[COVID-19]]; the next one is a digital census planned for 2024.<ref name="Mandal 2022">{{Cite web |last=Mandal |first=Dilip |title=Decade without data – Why India is delaying Census when US, UK, China went ahead during Covid |website=The Print |date=13 May 2022 |url=https://theprint.in/opinion/decade-without-data-why-india-is-delaying-census-when-us-uk-china-went-ahead-during-covid/954383/ |access-date=30 July 2022 |quote=In all likelihood, India will not have its decadal census any time soon. The logjam is such that it may lead to a situation where a whole decade goes by without any official data on India and Indians. 2021 was a Census year and the Narendra Modi government decided not to conduct it due to the Covid pandemic. Now, Home Minister Amit Shah has said that the next Census will be an e-survey and carried out by 2024—it will be India's first 'digital Census'. |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015359/https://theprint.in/opinion/decade-without-data-why-india-is-delaying-census-when-us-uk-china-went-ahead-during-covid/954383/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}{{efn|"Population of the town experienced a rapid growth in the last fifty years, and Census of India (2011b) estimated the total population of the town is 118,805 persons (Tables 21.1 and 21.2)."{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=367}}}}{{efn|"The density of population in Darjeeling town is 15,990 persons per sq.km as per 2011 census report."{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}}}}
| population_metro   = 
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]]<ref name=nclm50>{{Cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |title=Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India: 50th report (delivered to the Lokh Sabha in 2014) |page=95 |publisher=National Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=13 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2016}}</ref>
| timezone1          = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1        = +5:30
}}

'''Darjeeling''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ɑːr|ˈ|dʒ|iː|l|ɪ|ŋ}},<ref name=oed-darj-pronunciation>{{Cite OED|Darjeeling|id=47293|access-date=17 August 2022|quote=Pronunciation: Brit. Eng. /dɑːˈdʒiːlɪŋ/, U.S. Eng /dɑrˈdʒilɪŋ/}}</ref> {{IPA|ne|ˈdard͡ziliŋ|lang}}, {{IPA|bn|ˈdarˌdʒiliŋ|lang}}) is a city in the northernmost region of the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[West Bengal]]. Located in the [[Eastern Himalayas]], it has an average elevation of {{Convert|6709|ft|order=flip}}.{{Sfn|Rahamtulla|Roy|Khasim|2020|p=157}} To the west of Darjeeling lies the [[Koshi Province|easternmost province]] of [[Nepal]], to the east the [[Kingdom of Bhutan]], to the north the Indian state of [[Sikkim]], and farther north the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] of [[China]]. [[Bangladesh]] lies to the south and southeast, and most of the state of West Bengal lies to the south and southwest, connected to the Darjeeling region by a narrow [[Siliguri Corridor|tract]]. [[Kangchenjunga]], the world's third-highest mountain, rises to the north and is prominently visible on clear days.{{efn|"mist-enshrouded for half the year, on clear days the skyline is climaxed by the magnificent peak of Kangchenjunga".{{Sfn|Spate|Learmonth|2017|p=476}}}}{{Sfn|Bernbaum|2022|p=32}}

In the early 19th century, during [[Company rule in India|East India Company rule]] in India, Darjeeling was identified as a potential summer retreat for British officials, soldiers and their families. The narrow mountain ridge was leased from the [[Kingdom of Sikkim]], and eventually annexed to [[British India]]. Experimentation with growing tea on the slopes below Darjeeling was highly successful. Thousands of labourers were recruited chiefly from Nepal to clear the forests, build European-style cottages and work in the [[tea garden|tea plantation]]s. The widespread deforestation displaced the indigenous peoples. Residential schools were established in and around Darjeeling for the education of children of the [[Domicile (law)|domiciled]] British in India. By the late-19th century, a novel narrow-gauge mountain railway, the [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]], was bringing summer residents into the town and carrying a freight of tea out for export to the world. After India's independence in 1947, as the British left Darjeeling, its cottages were purchased by wealthy Indians from the plains and its tea plantations by out-of-town Indian business owners and conglomerates.

Darjeeling's population today is constituted largely of the descendants of the indigenous and immigrant labourers that were employed in the original development of the town. Although their [[lingua franca|common language]], the [[Nepali language]], has been given official recognition at the state and federal levels in India, the recognition has created little meaningful employment for the language's speakers nor has it increased their ability to have a significantly greater say in their political affairs. The tea industry and tourism are the mainstays of the town's economy. Deforestation in the region after India's independence has caused environmental damage, affecting the perennial springs that supply the town's water. The population of Darjeeling meanwhile has exploded over the years, and unregulated construction, traffic congestion and water shortages are common. Many young locals, educated in government schools, have taken to migrating out for the lack of jobs matching their skills. Like out-migrants from the neighbouring northeastern India, they have been subjected to [[Ethnic relations in India#Racism against North-East Indians in other states of India|discrimination]] and racism in some Indian cities.

Darjeeling's culture is highly cosmopolitan—a result of diverse ethnic groups intermixing and evolving away from their historical roots. The region's indigenous cuisine is rich in fermented foods and beverages. Tourists have flocked to Darjeeling since the mid-19th century. In 1999, after an international campaign for its support, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]]. In 2005, [[Darjeeling tea]] was given [[geographical indication]] by the [[World Trade Organization]] as much for the protection of the brand as for the development of the region that produces it.
{{TOC left}}
{{Clear left}}

==Toponymy==
At the time of the first British arrival, Darjeeling was known among its [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] inhabitants as {{transliteration|lep|Dorje-ling}}, or the "Place of the [[Thunderbolt]]".{{efn|"Stories of Darjeeling's colonial founding are by now legion. In 1829, Captain George Lloyd and J.W. Grant were passing through Darjeeling en route to settle a border dispute between Sikkim and Nepal. The location was then known by local Lepcha peoples as Dorje-ling, or "Place of the Thunderbolt".{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}}}} According to the ''Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names'', Darjeeling is derived from the [[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]] {{transliteration|bo|Dorje ling}} or {{transliteration|bo|Dorje-glin}}, meaning "Land of Dorje", i.e. of the [[vajra]], the weapon of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Indra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Everett-Heath |first=John |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001/acref-9780191866326-e-1736 |chapter=Darjeeling |title=Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names |edition=3rd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main article|History of Darjeeling}}
===1780 to 1835===
{{Multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 480
| align             = right
| image_style       = border:none;
| title             = 
| image2            = Himalayan journal Hooker page 129.jpg
| caption2          = A Lepcha girl and a Buddhist lama in Dorjiling from [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]]'s ''Himalayan Journals'', volume I, 1854
| image1            = Darjeeling Sikkim Bhutan Nepal - Copy (5).jpg
| caption1          = Darjeeling, Nepal, Bengal, Bhutan, Sikkim, and Tibet
}}

Darjeeling lies between the [[Mechi river|Mechi]] and [[Teesta river|Teesta]] rivers in the Eastern Himalayas. In the 18th century, it was part of a boundary region that had stirred ambitions and insecurities in several [[South Asia]]n states.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}} For the greater part of the century, the [[Chogyal]]-ruler of the northern [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] had asserted possession of this territory.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}} In the closing decades, the [[Gurkha kingdom]] of Nepal expanded eastwards to bring Darjeeling into its territory.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}} Its army stopped short of the Teesta, beyond which at the time lay the [[Kingdom of Bhutan]].{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dozey |first=E. C. |title=A Concise History of the Darjeeling District Since 1835, with a complete itinerary of tours in Sikkim and the District |publisher=N. Mukherjee |year=1922 |oclc=62351881 |url=https://archive.org/details/ConciseHistoryOfDarjeelingDistrictSince1835/page/n1/mode/2up}}</ref>

The English [[East India Company]] began to show an interest in the Darjeeling hills in the early 19th century.{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|p=47}} At the time Darjeeling's indigenous population largely consisted of the [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]] and [[Limbu people|Limbu]] peoples.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}} The Company's interference in territorial matters began in the aftermath of its army's victory over the Gurkhas in the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]]. Fought between 1814 and 1816, the war concluded with two treaties, the [[Treaty of Sugauli]] and the [[Treaty of Titalia]], under which Nepal was required to return the Darjeeling territory to Sikkim.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}}

In 1829, two East India Company officials, Captain George Lloyd and J. W. Grant, en route to resolving a boundary dispute between Nepal and Sikkim, passed a [[crescent]]-shaped [[mountain ridge]] which they fancied excellent for a [[sanitorium]] for the British, or a resort for sheltering and recuperating from the heat of India's plains.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=5}}{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|p=50}}{{Sfn|Lamb|1986|p=69}} [[Lord William Bentinck]], the [[Governor-General of India]], to whom Lloyd communicated his notion, concurred, recommending a small presence of the army in addition for monitoring the frontier.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}

===1835–1857: East India Company rule===
Taking the ambition forward, in 1835 the East India Company negotiated the lease of a {{Convert|24|x|6|miles|km|order=flip|sigfig=1}} strip of land in a [[grant deed]] from the Chogyal.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|pp=47–48}} By the end of 1838, sappers from the army were readied for clearing the woods and construction planned in earnest after the [[monsoon rains]].{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|p=118}} The following year, [[Archibald Campbell (doctor)|Archibald Campbell]], a physician, was made "superintendent" of Darjeeling, and two public buildings, a hotel and a courthouse were raised.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|p=118}} Soon, work had begun on [[bungalow]]s that conformed to British tastes.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Art of W. Taylor in 1854, Himalayan Journals; or, Notes of a Naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains, &c. Volume 1 by J. D. Hooker, Kanchanjunga from Hodgson's bungalow (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = "View of Kinchinjunga from Mr. Hodgson's bungalow at Dorjiling from a sketch by W. Taylor Esq., B. C. S.,"<ref name=william-taylor-himalayan-journals-illustrator>{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Taylor, William 1808&ndash;1892 |url=http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no2003047601/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |publisher=OCLC WorldCat Identities |archive-date=5 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805040355/http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-no2003047601/ |url-status=live }}</ref> frontispiece, Joseph Dalton Hooker, ''Himalayan Journals'', London: John Murray, 1854.
| image2 = IGI1908India1857b-coloured - Hill Stations.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Hill Station]]s and summer capitals at the end of East India Company rule (1857)
}}
Turning Darjeeling into a resort required many more workers than were available in the scattered local populations.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=85–86}} The British attracted workers from the neighbouring kingdoms, chiefly from Nepal but also from Sikkim and Bhutan. They did so by offering regular wages and [[lodging]]s, a contrast to the burdensome tax and [[forced labour]] regimens common in those kingdoms at the time.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=85–86}} Tens of thousands arrived in Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=85–86}} Not long after the Darjeeling Hill Cart Road was built in Northern Bengal, connecting [[Siliguri]] at the base of the Himalayan foothills to Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|p=287}}

In 1833 the East India Company lost its monopoly rights in the [[tea]] trade with China.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=118–119}} A plan was prepared for growing tea in India.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=118–119}} Superintendent Campbell began experimentation in 1840 in Darjeeling which soon proved successful.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=118–119}} European planters and sponsors acquired large stretches of the surrounding hillside and converted them to plantations, called ''[[tea garden]]s''.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=8}} Existing tracks and paths in the hills were improved, renamed as roads, and connected to the Hill Cart Road. The botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], who visited Darjeeling in the 1840s, noted that carts and pack animals on these roads were bringing fruit and produce from Nepal, wool and salt from Tibet, and labourers looking for work from just about everywhere.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Jayeeta |chapter=Himalayan Darjeeling and Mountain Histories of Labour and Mobility |pages=80–81 |editor1-last=Middleton |editor1-first=Townsend |editor2-last=Shneiderman |editor2-first=Sara |title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-948355-6}}</ref>

The labour migrations created a burgeoning hostility between the East India Company and the neighbouring Himalayan kingdoms.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}} By 1849 the hostility came to a head. Campbell and Hooker were allegedly kidnapped.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}} Despite the two being released without harm, the British exploited the incident to annex some {{Convert|640|mi2|km2|order=flip}} of territory between the Mechi and the Teesta rivers from Sikkim.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=6}}{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|pp=47–48}}

Darjeeling became a municipality in 1850.{{Sfn|Lamb|1986|p=71}} In the span of 15 years, this Himalayan tract had become a ''[[hill station]]'', an official retreat for British administrators in a hilly, temperate region of India.{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|pp=319–320}} Hill stations, such as [[Simla]] (summer capital of the British Indian Empire), [[Ooty]] (summer capital of the [[Madras Presidency]]), and [[Nainital]] (summer capital of the [[North-Western Provinces]]) were all established between 1819 and the 1840s, a period during which the rule of the East India Company had spread to the greater part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the British felt confident about planning them.{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|pp=319–320}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilmour |first=David |title=The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-28354-4 |lccn=2005044679 |year=2006 |page=223}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Philip |first=Kavita |title=Civilizing Natures: Race, Resources, and Modernity in Colonial South India |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0-8135-3360-0 |page=29}}</ref> Darjeeling later became the summer capital of the [[Bengal Presidency]].{{Sfn|Bhattacharya|2022|pp=325–326}}

===1858–1947: British Raj===
From 1850 to 1870 the tea industry in Darjeeling grew to 56 tea gardens employing some 8,000 labourers.{{Sfn | Middleton | Shneiderman | 2018 | p=8}} The tea gardens' security forces kept a close watch on the labourers and used coercion when necessary to maintain intensive production. The labourers' disparate cultural and ethnic backgrounds and the tea gardens' commonly remote locations ensured the absence of worker mobilization.{{Sfn|Zivkovic|2014|p=9}} By the turn of the 20th century, 100 tea gardens employed an estimated 64,000 workers,{{Sfn | Middleton | Shneiderman | 2018 | p=8}} and more than five million [[pound sterling]] were invested in Darjeeling tea.{{Sfn | Zivkovic | 2014 | p=9}} The widespread deforestation caused by the tea industry drastically changed the lives of the region's forest dwellers, who were either forced to relocate to other forests or become employed in their former habitat in new colonial occupations.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|p=125}} To the mix of the forest dwellers recruited, more labourers joined from across the Himalayas.{{Sfn | Shneiderman | Middleton | 2018 | p=8}} They communicated with each other in the [[Nepali language]].{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=8}} Later the language, and their customs and traditions would create the distinctive ethnicity of Darjeeling, called [[Indian Gorkha]].{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=8}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image2 = Hill village on Darjeeling Railway XL.jpg
| caption2 =  Darjeeling Railway in a village, 1880
| image1 = Darjeeling Hill Road 1865 - XL.jpg
| caption1 = Hill Cart Road, shown in 1865
}}

By the last decades of the 19th century, large numbers of administrative officials of the imperial and [[British Raj#Major provinces|British Raj provincial]] governments had begun to travel to hill stations during the summers.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} Commerce in the stations had grown as had the trade with the plains.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} A train service to Darjeeling was announced in 1872. By 1878 trains could take summer residents from Calcutta, the capital of the British Indian Empire,<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Calcutta (''Kalikata'') |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=IX Bomjur to Central India |publisher=Published under the Authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press |year=1908 |page=260 |quote=Capital of the Indian Empire, situated in 22° 34' N and 88° 22' E, on the east or left bank of the Hooghly river, within the Twenty-four Parganas District, Bengal |url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_001.gif |chapter-url=http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_266.gif |access-date=9 June 2022 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524220705/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume=9&objectid=DS405.1.I34_V09_001.gif |url-status=live }}</ref> to Siliguri at the base of the Darjeeling hills. Thereafter, [[Litter (vehicle)#Indian subcontinent|Tonga horse-carriages]] were required to cover the last stretch on the Hill Cart Road.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} Ascending some {{Convert|6300|ft|m|adj=on|order=flip}}, the journey required stopping at "halting barracks", or stables for feeding or changing the horses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bengal |first=Presidency |title=Annual Report on the Administration of the Bengal Presidency for 1867–68 |year=1868 |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xn8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA125 |page=125 |quote=Material has been collected for two halting Barracks in the Darjeeling hill cart road near Sonadah, the site for which has been cleared. |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=8 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608194550/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xn8IAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA125 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1880, railway tracks were being aligned along the Hill Cart Road,{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|p=584}} and the [[East Indian Railway Company]] [[Jamalpur Locomotive Workshop]] had begun to build steam locomotives for the route.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} Miniature steam engines made by [[Sharp, Stewart and Company]] of Manchester, were employed for pulling the train on a narrow gauge of two feet.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} The train service to Darjeeling was opened in July 1881.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} After cresting at the [[Ghoom railway station]] at {{Convert|7500|ft|m|adj=on|order=flip}} above sea level, the train made a descent to Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}} Darjeeling was now within a day's travel from Calcutta.{{Sfn|Pradhan|2017|pp=145–146}}

[[File:Quadrangle St Josephs School Darjeeling.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|The quadrangle of St Joseph's College, Darjeeling, now [[St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling|St Joseph's School]], or North Point, established in 1888]]

Education became another aspect of Darjeeling's notability by the turn of the 20th century. After the [[Charter Act 1833]], which allowed unrestricted immigration, British women had begun to arrive in India in significantly more numbers than before.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=117}} Hill stations became popular summer destinations for women and children as colonial physicians recommended them for improved [[maternal health|maternal]] and [[Neonatology|infant]] health.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|pp=120–121}} The British soon began to consider hill stations promising sites for primary and secondary education.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=134}} [[St. Paul's School, Darjeeling|St Paul's]], an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] boys' school in Calcutta, was moved to Darjeeling in 1864.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=138}} The [[Catholic Church]] opened [[St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling|St Joseph's College]] for boys in Darjeeling in 1888.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=138}} For girls, the [[Loreto Convent, Darjeeling|Loreto Convent]] had already been established during Company rule; the Calcutta Christian Schools Society established the [[Mount Hermon School, Darjeeling|Queen's Hill School]] in Darjeeling in 1895.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=139}} [[Anglo-Indians]] (of mixed British and Indian ancestry) were discouraged from attending the better-known schools and Indians were almost always prohibited until after World War I.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=141}}

In 1945, as the [[British Raj]] was drawing towards a close, the Nepalese-speaking Indian Gorkha residents of Darjeeling had not been granted rights as British Indian subjects.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=9}} These residents were at the bottom of the economic ladder, and their physical appearance was now the occasional object of racism by Indians from the plains. The 1941 census had shown that the Gorkha in Darjeeling constituted 86% of the population. They made up 96% of the labour force in the tea gardens.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|pp=9–10}}{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|p=88}} Many had been recruited to fight for the British in the [[World War II|Second World War]], but the British had been reluctant to displease the governments of Nepal and the Kingdom of Sikkim whose feudal labour regimes many original migrants had sought to escape.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=9}}

===1947 onwards: independent India===
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 =
| caption1 =   [[Mount Everest|Everest]]-hero [[Tenzing Norgay|Tenzing]] (wearing plaid shirt) and [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] (centre wearing [[Nehru jacket]]), Darjeeling, Nov. 1954
| image2 = Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre (3).jpg
| caption2 = Tibetan women knitting at the [[Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre]], Darjeeling, established 1959{{Sfn | Sarker | 2017 | p=94}}
}}
After the [[partition of India]] in 1947, Darjeeling became a part of the new province of [[West Bengal]] in the [[Dominion of India]], and in 1950, of the state of West Bengal in the [[Republic of India]].{{efn|East Bengal, now Bangladesh, which lies to the south of Darjeeling and extends southwards to the [[Bay of Bengal]], was awarded to Pakistan.}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Statesman's Year-Book: Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1949 |chapter=India |editor=Steinberg, S. H. |publisher=Macmillan and Co |year=1949 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pErODQAAQBAJ |page=122 |isbn=978-0-230-27078-7 |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-date=29 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929140819/https://books.google.com/books?id=pErODQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> A British exodus from Darjeeling quickly followed.{{Sfn|Zivkovic|2014|p=9}} Their cottages were quickly purchased by the Indian upper classes from the plains who enrolled their children in the town's many schools. These actions created social and economic tensions with the Indian Gorkha population and further marginalised the latter.{{Sfn|Zivkovic|2014|p=9}} Their lack of economic development, caused by a hierarchal economic system set up by the British, continued in some respects in the immediate decades after 1947.{{Sfn|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|Deuchar|2016|pp=103&ndash;104}} The Indian nationalism that emerged seemed to highlight the unclear position of the Indian Nepalis in the newly independent nation.{{Sfn|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|Deuchar|2016|pp=103&ndash;104}} The division of India into states comprising the regions of its different spoken languages had allowed a relatively large proportion of the educated speakers of these languages to find employment in the government-owned enterprises. In the instance of the Gorkhas, the federal and state governments refused to accept their requests for their own Nepali-speaking state in the northern regions of Bengal.{{Sfn|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|Deuchar|2016|pp=103&ndash;104}} Eventually, the demands for autonomy were downsized to calls for the recognition of the Nepali language for official state business in Nepali-speaking regions of Bengal.{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|p=61}} This was accepted in the [[West Bengal Official Language Act, 1961]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Jahar |chapter=Appendix 5: The West Bengal Official Language Act, 1961 |pages=107–108 |title=Darjeeling: A Favoured Retreat |year=1989 |isbn=81-85182-15-9 |publisher=Indus Publishing Company}}</ref>

Darjeeling had a sizeable community of [[Sherpa people|Sherpas]], an ethnic group, originally from eastern Tibet whose ancestors had moved to some villages in [[Nepal]] below [[Mount Everest]]. Sherpas had come to Darjeeling in the second half of the 19th century as seasonal labourers looking for work in road-building.{{Sfn|Ortner|2020|p=30}} As mountaineering in the Himalayas had gained popularity and Nepal was closed to foreigners, many Western mountaineers and enthusiasts came to Darjeeling to plan their Himalayan expeditions.{{Sfn|Ortner|2020|p=30}} The Sherpas stood out for their exceptional physical ability as porters, their fitness eliciting visits to Darjeeling by European biochemists in the early 1900s.{{sfn|Ortner|2020|p=31}} Among the most famous Sherpas who moved to Darjeeling were [[Ang Tharkay]]{{Sfn|Ortner|2020|p=71}} and [[Tenzing Norgay]].{{Sfn|Ortner|2020|p=73}} On 29 May 1953, Tenzing and [[Edmund Hillary]] became the first two humans to stand atop Mount Everest, vaulting both to instant stardom worldwide. The prime minister of India, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], took Tenzing under his wing.{{Sfn|Ortner|2020|p=87}} Tenzing became the first field director of the [[Himalayan Mountaineering Institute]] after it was established in Darjeeling in November 1954<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Peter H. |title=The Summits of Modern Man: Mountaineering after the Enlightment |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2013 |page=256 |isbn=978-0-674-04799-0}}</ref>
[[File:GorkhalandSupport (3).jpg|thumb|right|Women supporting [[Gorkhaland]] marching with torchlights, Darjeeling, 2013]]
A trickle of immigrants from Tibet proper into Darjeeling had begun in the second half of the 19th century.{{Sfn|Grunfeld|2015|p=190}} Wealthy Tibetan aristocrats had sent their children to Darjeeling's schools, and some went on to settle in the Darjeeling area.{{Sfn|Grunfeld|2015|p=190}} After the [[annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]] in 1950–1951, many Tibetans emigrated to India, with some settling in the Darjeeling area, including the [[14th Dalai Lama]]'s older brother [[Gyalo Thondup]].{{Sfn|Goldstein|2019|p=18}} After the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]], the Dalai Lama himself fled to exile in India, and tens of thousands of Tibetan refugees poured in after him, with many finding refuge in the Darjeeling–[[Kalimpong]] area.{{Sfn|Grunfeld|2015|pp=190–192}} A [[Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre]] was established in Darjeeling in 1959.{{Sfn | Sarker | 2017 | p=94}}

In May 1975, the [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] to the north of Darjeeling was absorbed into the Republic of India through a referendum. A month thereafter, Sikkim, in which nearly two-thirds of the populace spoke Nepali, was made a state of India.{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | p = 62 }} It was not lost on the Gorkhas of the Darjeeling region that there were many more speakers of Nepali in the Gorkha districts of northern Bengal, and their calls for autonomy had borne no fruit.{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | p = 62 }} The Government of India, moreover, had been reluctant to recognise Nepali as an official language in the [[Constitution of India]].{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | p = 62 }} Slights delivered by senior Indian leadership around this issue&mdash;[[Morarji Desai]], a former prime minister calling Nepali a foreign language, and [[Vallabhbhai Patel]], a former deputy prime minister, describing the Gorkhas as disloyal and entertaining "Mongoloid prejudices"&mdash;were all remembered.{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | pp = 62&ndash;63 }} A decade later, during [[Rajiv Gandhi]]'s prime ministership, small regions in Assam to the east of Darjeeling, which had been riven by violent ethnic separatism, were granted statehood.{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | pp = 62&ndash;63 }} All these factors played into creating a militant mood among the Gorkhas for statehood and brought the [[Gorkhaland movement]] to the forefront.{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | pp = 62&ndash;63 }} It led to the founding of the [[Gorkha National Liberation Front]] (GNLF) under the leadership of [[Subhas Ghising]].{{Sfn | Dasgupta | 1999 | pp = 62&ndash;63 }} Agitation for a separate state in Darjeeling included violent protests,{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=89–90}} and fighting between the disparate militant groups.{{Sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=96}} The agitation ceased after an agreement was reached between the government and the [[Gorkha National Liberation Front]] (GNLF). It resulted in the establishment of an elected body in 1988, the [[Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council]] (DGHC), which received some autonomy to govern the district.{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=89–90}}

In 1992, the Nepali language was recognized officially at the federal level in India by inclusion in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]].{{Sfn|Gellner|2014|pp= 138–140|ps=. "Nepali [...] was accepted as the teaching language for all primary schools with a Nepali majority in Darjeeling district in 1935, as a national literary language in 1973 and as a national language of India by inclusion in Schedule Eight of the Constitution in 1992."}} Though Darjeeling became peaceful, the issue of a separate state lingered.{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|p=65}} Agitation for a new state again erupted in 2008, led by the [[Gorkha Janmukti Morcha]] (GJM).{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=94–95}} In July 2011, a pact was signed between GJM, the state and national governments which included an elected [[Gorkhaland Territorial Administration]] (GTA), with limited autonomy within the state of West Bengal. It evoked little enthusiasm on the streets.{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|p=96}} In 2013, fresh agitation broke out in Darjeeling after [[Telangana]], a region in southern India was granted statehood.{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|p=96}} Four years later, more agitation caused several months of violence, food shortages, and strikes in Darjeeling but resulted in the Morcha splitting into factions.{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|p=96}} In 2017, [[Mamata Banerjee]], the West Bengal chief minister, appointed a moderate Morcha politician to leadership in a reconstituted GTA, marginalizing and eventually ousting the founder of the movement, [[Bimal Gurung]].{{Sfn|Middleton|2021|pp=96–97}}

==Geography and geology==
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Darjeeling Hills.jpg
| caption1 = Darjeeling Hills showing Darjeeling, Kalimpong, and Kurseong, the headquarters of the three hill subdivisions
| image2 = Map of Darjeeling Municipality, Darjeeling District, West Bengal India.jpg
| caption2 =  '''Map&nbsp;1''': Darjeeling municipality, showing the ridges on which the town was settled
}}
The Darjeeling hills (formally [[Darjeeling Himalayan hill region]]) comprise parts of [[Darjeeling district]] and all of [[Kalimpong district]]; specifically, they contain: [[Darjeeling Sadar|Darjeeling Sadar subdivision]], [[Kalimpong subdivision]] and Kurseong subdivision.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=9}} Darjeeling town lies in the Sadar subdivision. It is located at an average elevation of {{Cvt|6709|ft|m|order=flip}}{{Sfn|Rahamtulla|Roy|Khasim|2020|p=157}} on the Darjeeling–Jalapahar range which runs south to north starting at [[Ghum, West Bengal|Ghum]] (Map&nbsp;1). The range is Y-shaped with its base resting at [[Katapahar]] and [[Jalapahar]] and two arms diverging north of the [[Observatory Hill, Darjeeling|Observatory Hill]]. The north-eastern arm dips swiftly and ends in the Lebong spur, while the north-western arm slopes gently, passing through North Point, and ends in the valley near the [[Tukver Tea Estate]].<ref name="urbanmanagement">{{Cite web |first=Vimal |last=Khawas |year=2003 |url=http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/khawv03e.htm |title=Urban Management in Darjeeling Himalaya: A Case Study of Darjeeling Municipality |publisher=The Mountain Forum |access-date = 1 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041020031749/http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/khawv03e.htm |archive-date=20 October 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Kangchenjunga]], the world's third-highest peak at {{Cvt|8598|m|ft}}, which lies {{Convert|74.4|km|mi}} to the north, is the most prominent mountain visible.{{Sfn|Spate|Learmonth|2017|p=476}}{{Sfn|Bernbaum|2022|p=32}}

The Darjeeling hills have been formed by accumulations of [[fold (geology)|folds]], [[thrust fault|faults]] and [[Thrust fault#Reverse faults|tangential thrust]]s caused by a [[compression (geology)|compression]] in the north–south direction as the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]] has [[subduction|subducted]] under the [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian plate]].{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} Their physical composition varies from unaltered [[sedimentary rock]]s in the southern regions to several types of [[metamorphic rock]] and some [[intrusive rock]]s in the middle and northern, suggesting upward intrusion of the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} The collective process has [[shear (geology)|sheared]], folded, crushed together, [[fracture (geology)|fractured]] and [[joint (geology)|jointed]] the rocks, reducing their strength and making them vulnerable to [[Percolation#Background|water percolating]] down their crevices and causing [[pore water pressure]] to build up.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} [[Phyllite]]s and [[schist]]s are found in the hills around Kalimpong, which lies to the east, and [[gneiss]] predominates the western regions in which Darjeeling lies.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = 1046 IndiaDarjeeling 19931231 (2).jpg
| caption1 =  Landslide, Darjeeling Siliguri Road, 1993
| image2 = Overlooking the confluence of Teesta River and Rangeet River from Lover's Point, West Bengal.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Teesta River|Teesta]], flowing south, meets the [[Rangeet River|Rangeet]] on its right
}}
Two studies (1990 and 2019) recorded that landslides were a serious concern in the area.{{Sfn |Mandal|Mondal| 2019 | pp=1–2}} Most are triggered by excessive rainfall, earthquakes, and quick erosion caused by torrents.{{Sfn |Mandal|Mondal| 2019 | pp=1–2}} They are accelerated by extensive deforestation, defective drainage, poorly built [[revetment]]s and the presence of steep slopes that have been undercut to make shelves for paths, roads, and houses.{{Sfn |Mandal|Mondal| 2019 | pp=1–2}}{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=259}} [[Debris flow]]s along existing [[gully|gullies]] can sometimes bring along large boulders and cause damage to roads; in 1968, during a catastrophic rainstorm, the {{Convert|56|km|mi}} Darjeeling–Siliguri road was cut in 92 places by debris flows.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Vinod K. |chapter=Catastrophic Landslides in Indian Sector of Himalaya |pages=191–200 |title=Understanding and Reducing Landslid Disaster Risk |volume=5 |editor1-last=Vilimek |editor1-first=Vit |editor2-last=Wang |editor2-first=Fawu |editor3-last=Strom |editor3-first=Alexander |editor4-last=Sassa |editor4-first=Kyoji |editor5-last=Bobrowsky |editor5-first=Peter T. |editor6-last=Takara |editor6-first=Kaoru |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-60318-2 |publisher=Springer}}</ref>{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=262}}

Teesta, the major river of the Darjeeling region, rises at {{Convert|6300|m|ft}} from a glacier in Sikkim, and flows south, at first meeting the [[Rangpo River|Rangpo river]] and then the [[Rangeet River|Rangeet]] before exiting the hills and eventually joining the [[Brahmaputra River]] in [[Bangladesh]].{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}}{{Sfn|Thakur|Das|Kumar|2022|pages=81–99, 85}} The [[discharge (hydrology)|flow rate]] of the Teesta is {{Convert|1500|m3|cuft}} per second during the summer monsoon;{{Sfn|Thakur|Das|Kumar|2022|pages=81–99, 85}} it had had major floods in 1950 and 1968.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}}

The continual tectonic activity of Darjeeling's ancient past can be inferred from the surrounding landscape in such features as [[terrace (geology)|terraces]] that dip in their middle as a result of earlier horizontal pressure.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} Eroded [[fault scarp]]s, or steps, observed in the landscape were caused by vertical slips in the faults below.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} [[Alluvial fan]]s at different heights signify a succession of previous rivers that dried up and spread their silt outwards as their beds were raised by the uplift.{{Sfn|Gerrard|1990|p=257}} According to the [[Bureau of Indian Standards]], Darjeeling town falls under [[Earthquake hazard zoning of India|seismic zone-IV]] (on a scale of I to V, in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes).<ref name="PIB quake">{{Cite web |title=Seismic Mapping |website=Press Information Bureau |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1740656 |date=30 July 2021 |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015402/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1740656 |url-status=live }}</ref> A study published in 2018 found that residents of Darjeeling's outer areas, which are lower-income and lower-lying, worried about catastrophic loss during an earthquake.{{Sfn|Drew|Rai|2018|p=236}} The [[April 2015 Nepal earthquake]] was felt in Darjeeling, and these residents feared that in the instance of a major earthquake, the unplanned upper-level construction could very well give way and tumble down on them.{{Sfn|Drew|Rai|2018|p=236}}

==Climate and environment==
===Climate===
Darjeeling has a temperate [[subtropical highland climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: Cwb).<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{Cite web |url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/33809/ |title=Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table |publisher=Climate-Data.org |access-date=30 September 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001173425/http://en.climate-data.org/location/33809/ |archive-date=1 October 2015}}</ref>
The average annual precipitation in Darjeeling is approximately {{Cvt|3100|mm|in}}.{{efn|It is {{Cvt|3122|mm|in}},{{Sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=55}} according to one source and {{Convert|3082|mm|in}} according to another.{{Sfn|Barry|2008|p=369}}}}  Eighty percent of the annual rainfall takes place between the months of June and September, due to the [[monsoon of South Asia]].{{Sfn|Barry|2008|p=369}}  The "June–May ratio", or the percentage by which the rain increases from May to June, is 2.6 or 260%.{{Sfn|Barry|2008|p=369}}  In contrast, just 3% of the annual rainfall takes place between December and March.{{Sfn|Barry|2008|p=369}}  Darjeeling's altitude—which is greater than some other regions of the Eastern Himalayas at the same latitude (27° N), such as the Assam hills—and its rarified air causes its [[UV radiation]] levels to be correspondingly higher.  Its mean monthly UV radiance is approximately 4500 microwatts per square cm per day during the peak months of May, June, and July.  It is 50% higher than the Assam hills to the east, whose altitude is {{Convert|170|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mandi |first=Swati Sen |title=Natural UV Radiation in Enhancing Survival Value and Quality of Plants |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-81-322-2765-6 |year=2016 |pages=9–10}}</ref>
{{Weather box
| width = auto
| location = Darjeeling, elevation {{convert|2128|m|ft|abbr=on}}, (1991–2020, extremes 1901–2020)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| collapsed = y
| Jan record high C = 19.0
| Feb record high C = 19.2
| Mar record high C = 25.1
| Apr record high C = 27.0
| May record high C = 25.7
| Jun record high C = 27.7
| Jul record high C = 28.0
| Aug record high C = 28.5
| Sep record high C = 27.5
| Oct record high C = 26.0
| Nov record high C = 25.0
| Dec record high C = 23.0
| year record high C = 28.5
<!--| Jan avg record high C  = 15.1
| Feb avg record high C  = 15.8
| Mar avg record high C  = 19.8
| Apr avg record high C  = 22.4
| May avg record high C  = 22.6
| Jun avg record high C  = 22.7
| Jul avg record high C  = 22.4
| Aug avg record high C  = 22.8
| Sep avg record high C  = 23.2
| Oct avg record high C  = 22.7
| Nov avg record high C  = 20.7
| Dec avg record high C  = 17.4
| year avg record high C = 24.4-->
<!--| Jan avg record low C  = -0.5
| Feb avg record low C  = 0.7
| Mar avg record low C  = 2.7
| Apr avg record low C  = 5.4
| May avg record low C  = 7.4
| Jun avg record low C  = 10.3
| Jul avg record low C  = 11.4
| Aug avg record low C  = 11.9
| Sep avg record low C  = 10.6
| Oct avg record low C  = 8.0
| Nov avg record low C  = 3.9
| Dec avg record low C  = 1.2
| year avg record low C = -0.1-->
| Jan record low C = -7.2
| Feb record low C = -6.4
| Mar record low C = -4.8
| Apr record low C = 0.0
| May record low C = 1.4
| Jun record low C = 6.6
| Jul record low C = 3.9
| Aug record low C = 8.0
| Sep record low C = 6.2
| Oct record low C = 3.2
| Nov record low C = -4.4
| Dec record low C = -4.6
| year record low C = -7.2
|Jan high C = 	11.1
|Feb high C = 	12.4
|Mar high C = 	15.9
|Apr high C = 	18.6
|May high C = 	19.3
|Jun high C = 	19.8
|Jul high C = 	19.5
|Aug high C = 	19.9
|Sep high C = 	19.5
|Oct high C = 	19.4
|Nov high C = 	17.2
|Dec high C = 	13.7
| year high C = 	17.3
|Jan low C = 	1.7
|Feb low C = 	3.1
|Mar low C = 	6.0
|Apr low C = 	9.0
|May low C = 	10.8
|Jun low C = 	12.8
|Jul low C = 	13.4
|Aug low C = 	13.5
|Sep low C = 	12.7
|Oct low C = 	9.9
|Nov low C = 	6.2
|Dec low C = 	3.5
| year low C = 	8.8
| rain colour = green	
| Jan rain mm = 	10.8
| Feb rain mm = 	11.4
| Mar rain mm = 	26.4
| Apr rain mm = 	89.0
| May rain mm = 	160.3
| Jun rain mm = 	419.1
| Jul rain mm = 	648.5
| Aug rain mm = 	529.8
| Sep rain mm = 	385.2
| Oct rain mm = 	78.8
| Nov rain mm = 	11.2
| Dec rain mm = 	2.8
| year rain mm = 	2373.3
| Jan rain days = 	0.9
| Feb rain days = 	1.2
| Mar rain days = 	2.6
| Apr rain days = 	6.7
| May rain days = 	10.2
| Jun rain days = 	17.9
| Jul rain days = 	23.4
| Aug rain days = 	22.0
| Sep rain days = 	16.1
| Oct rain days = 	3.9
| Nov rain days = 	0.6
| Dec rain days = 	0.7
| year rain days = 	106.1
|time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]	
| Jan humidity = 	82
| Feb humidity = 	78
| Mar humidity = 	79
| Apr humidity = 	82
| May humidity = 	90
| Jun humidity = 	94
| Jul humidity = 	95
| Aug humidity = 	94
| Sep humidity = 	92
| Oct humidity = 	84
| Nov humidity = 	78
| Dec humidity = 	80
|year humidity = 	86
| Jan sun = 167.4
| Feb sun = 139.8
| Mar sun = 145.7
| Apr sun = 147.0
| May sun = 151.9
| Jun sun = 72.0
| Jul sun = 77.5
| Aug sun = 102.3
| Sep sun = 96.0
| Oct sun = 167.4
| Nov sun = 189.0
| Dec sun = 189.1
|year sun =
| Jand sun = 5.4
| Febd sun = 5.0
| Mard sun = 4.7
| Aprd sun = 4.9
| Mayd sun = 4.9
| Jund sun = 2.4
| Juld sun = 2.5
| Augd sun = 3.3
| Sepd sun = 3.2
| Octd sun = 5.4
| Novd sun = 6.3
| Decd sun = 6.1
|yeard sun = 4.5
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240408025145/https://www.imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| archive-date = 8 April 2024
| url = https://www.imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| title = Station: Darjeeling Climatological Table 1991–2020
| work = Climatological Normals 1991–2020
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date = 9 July 2024}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2020 |url=https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |title=Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012) |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=December 2016 |page=M233 |access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref>
|source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (sun 1891–1990)<ref name = DWD>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_422950_kt.pdf |title=Klimatafel von Darjeeling, West Bengal / Indische Union |work=Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world |publisher=[[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (German Meteorological Service) |language=de |trans-title=Climate table of Darjeeling, West Bengal / Indian Union |access-date=19 March 2020 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530224015/https://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_422950_kt.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

===Environment===
{{Multiple image |direction=horizontal
|total_width=500
| image1= Average annual temperatures Darjeeling 1890 to 2010.jpg|right|thumb|
| caption1=Annual average, daily max. and min. temperature, Darjeeling, 1890 to 2010
| image2= Forest and pastures vs agricultural land Darjeeling 1900 to 2000.jpg
| caption2= Forests and pastures vs. agricultural land in and around Darjeeling, 1900 to 2000
}}
From the beginning of the twentieth century, Darjeeling's average temperature has increased by 4&nbsp;°C, which is twice the world's average,{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=165}} and the annual averages of its daily maximum and minimum temperatures have increased by greater margins.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=165}}  During the same period, relative humidity has decreased by 7%,{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=165}}  and rainfall by {{Convert|300|mm|ft}} annually.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=165}} For its water the Darjeeling municipality and the surrounding hills depend to a large extent on perennial or seasonal ''jhora'' [[spring (hydrology)|spring]]s (see [[:File:Map of Darjeeling Municipality, Darjeeling District, West Bengal India.jpg|Map&nbsp;1]]), especially during the pre-monsoon months from February to May.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=162}}  The [[Senchal Lake]]s, two artificial reservoirs built in 1910 and 1932 in a forested high-altitude area to the southeast (see [[:File:Map of Senchal Lakes, the water supply source in relation to Darjeeling.jpg|Map&nbsp;2]]),{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=372}} which are filled with water from a surrounding catchment area during the monsoon months, have a greatly reduced supply, as of 2016.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=163}}  Darjeeling's explosive population growth in the period 1961&ndash;2011, and extensive deforestation even within the protected catchment area for the lakes, have caused many springs to have vastly reduced yields during the dry months from February to May. Of the 26 springs that had once fed the lakes, 12 have been affected.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=162}} Forests and pastures have shrunk from 78% in 1900 to 38% in 2000, and cultivated land, which contributes to soil erosion, has correspondingly increased during the same time from 20% to 44%.{{Sfn|Basumajumdar|2016|p=164}} By 2006, land records in Darjeeling showed that foodgrain-producing farmland had decreased proportionally, caused by accelerated levels of urbanisation and by subsistence farming giving way to commercial cropping, especially of tea.{{Sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=108}}  In 2016, [[acid rain]], which can be caused by air pollution and can in turn damage forests, was observed in the Eastern Himalayas; the [[pH|pH value]] in Darjeeling was measured at 4.2.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Saikawa |first1=Eric |last2=Panday |first2=Arnico |last3=Kang |first3=Shichang |chapter=Air Pollution in the Hindu Kush Himalaya |title=The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People |date=25 January 2019 |editor1-last=Wester |editor1-first=Philippus |editor2-last=Mishra |editor2-first=Arabinda |editor3-last=Mukherji |editor3-first=Aditi |editor4-last=Shrestha |editor4-first=Arun Bhakta |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-319-92287-4 |page=366}}</ref> A 2022  article quoting another 2016 study reported a pH value of 5.0±0.825 in the rainwater.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Chemometric approach to evaluate the chemical behavior of rainwater at high altitude in Shaune Garang catchment, Western Himalaya |last1=Kumar |first1=Ramesh |last2=Kumar |first2=Rajesh |last3=Singh |first3=Atar |last4=Arif |first4=M Mohammad |last5=Kumar |first5=Pankaj |last6=Kumari |first6=Anupma |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2022 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=122774&ndash;122817; 122777 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-15422-0 |pmid=35896609 |pmc=9329433|bibcode=2022NatSR..1212774K }}</ref>

According to a 2014 study, the influx of the excess population in the tea plantations around Darjeeling into "marginal areas of city—on backfill, slopes, septic tanks, and jhorās (springs)—has strapped the city's colonial-era infrastructure. Despite building codes that prohibit buildings taller than three stories, the market for cheap housing in Darjeeling inspires developers to go skyward, often as many as eight stories. Hastily built apartment houses ... are falling into the jhorās and sliding down the mountainside."{{Sfn|Besky|2014|p=84}}

== Flora and fauna ==
{{Multiple image|direction=horizontal|total_width=500
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Darjeeling Botanical Garden 02.jpg
| caption1 =  The {{convert|40|acre|ha|0|adj=on|order=flip}} [[Lloyd Botanic Garden]], founded in 1878
| image2 = Ailurus fulgens.ogv
| caption2 = A [[red panda]] (''Ailurus fulgens'') in the [[Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park|Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoo]]
}}
Darjeeling is a part of the [[Eastern Himalaya]]n zoo-geographic zone.{{Sfn|Negi|1992|p=185}} Flora around Darjeeling comprises [[Shorea robusta|sal]], [[oak]], semi-evergreen, [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate]] and [[alpine plant|alpine]] forests.{{Sfn|Negi|1992|pp=28–29}} Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak lie around the city, where a wide variety of rare [[orchids]] are found. The [[Lloyd's Botanical Garden]] preserves common and rare species of plants, while the [[Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park]] specialises in conserving and breeding endangered Himalayan species.<ref name="zoo">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/10/29/stories/2009102957821300.htm |title=Himalayan Tahrs, Blue sheep for Darjeeling Zoo arrive from Japan |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=29 October 2009 |access-date = 10 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121107112906/http://www.hindu.com/2009/10/29/stories/2009102957821300.htm |archive-date = 7 November 2012}}</ref> Darjeeling and the surrounding region face [[deforestation]] due to increasing demand for wood fuel and timber, as well as air pollution from increasing vehicular traffic.<ref name="teri">{{Cite web |author=TERI |year=2001 |url=http://static.teriin.org/reports/rep17/rep17.pdf |title=Sustainable Development in the Darjeeling Hill Area |page=20 |publisher=Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. (TERI Project No.2000UT64) |access-date=1 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623100515/http://static.teriin.org/reports/rep17/rep17.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2006}}</ref>

Forests and wildlife in the district are managed and protected by the Divisional Forest Officer of the Territorial and Wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department.{{Sfn|Negi|1992|p=185}} The fauna found in Darjeeling includes several species of [[duck]]s, [[Eurasian Teal|teals]], [[plover]]s and [[gull]]s that pass Darjeeling while migrating to and from [[Tibet]].{{Sfn|Mackintosh|2009|p=2}} Small mammals found in the region include [[civet]]s (such as [[Small Indian civet|small]] and [[large Indian civet]]s, [[masked palm civet]], [[spotted linsang]] and [[binturong]]), [[mongoose]]s (such as [[Indian grey mongoose]] and [[crab-eating mongoose]]) and [[badger]]s (such as [[Burmese ferret-badger]] and [[greater hog badger]]).{{Sfn|Negi|1992|pp=43–48}} Other carnivores found in the area include [[Himalayan black bear]] and [[red panda]].{{Sfn|Negi|1992|p=46}} A conservation centre for red pandas opened at Darjeeling Zoo in 2014, building on a prior captive breeding program; this [[Species Survival Plan]] had about 25 red pandas by 2016.<ref name="panda">{{Cite web |date=27 June 2014 |title=Snow leopard, red panda get new conservation centre in Darjeeling |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/snow-leopard-red-panda-get-new-conservation-centre-in-darjeeling/ |access-date=21 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151122111421/http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/snow-leopard-red-panda-get-new-conservation-centre-in-darjeeling/ |archive-date=22 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Kumar, A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Rai, U. |author3=Roka, B. |author4=Jha, A. K. |author5=Reddy, P. A. |year=2016 |title=Genetic assessment of captive red panda (''Ailurus fulgens'') population |journal=SpringerPlus |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=1750 |doi=10.1186/s40064-016-3437-1 |pmid=27795893 |pmc=5055525 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Himalayan newt ''[[Tylototriton verrucosus|Tylotriton verrucosus]]'', one of two salamander species occurring in India, is found in wetlands in the vicinity.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1=Seglie, Daniele |author2=Roy, D. |author3=Giacoma, Cristina |author4=Mushahiddunnabi, M. |year=2003 |title=Distribution and conservation of the Himalayan newt (Tylototriton verrucosus, Urodela, Salamandridae) in the Darjeeling District, West Bengal (India) |journal=Russian Journal of Herpetology |volume=10 |pages=157–162}}</ref> The Himalayan relict dragonfly ''[[Epiophlebia laidlawi]]'', one of just four species in the family [[Epiophlebiidae]], was first described from the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Ram Devi Tachamo |last2=Narayan Shah |first2=Deep |last3=Domisch |first3=Sami |year=2012 |title=Range shifts of a relict Himalayan dragonfly in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region under climate change scenarios |url=https://worlddragonfly.org/article/13887890-2012-697399/ |journal=International Journal of Odonatology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=209–222 |doi=10.1080/13887890.2012.697399 |bibcode=2012IJOdo..15..209S |s2cid=83803104 |issn=1388-7890 |access-date=21 December 2021 |archive-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221090055/https://worlddragonfly.org/article/13887890-2012-697399/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Darjeeling}}

The Indian [[Decadal survey|decennial]] [[census]] of 2011 (the last for which there is processed data)<ref name="Mandal 2022"/> recorded the population of the Darjeeling municipality  to be 118,805 individuals.  Of these, 59,618 were females and 59,187 were males, yielding a [[sex ratio|gender ratio]] of 1007 females for every 1000 males.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}} The population density of the municipality was 15,990 individuals per km<sup>2</sup> (41,000 per square mile).{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}} The [[literacy rate]] was 93.9%&mdash;the female literacy rate was 91.3% and the male was 96.4%.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}} Among groups whose historical disadvantages have been recognized by the Constitution of India and designated for amelioration in subsequent commissions and programmes, the [[scheduled tribe]]s of Darjeeling town constituted approximately 22.4% of the population, and the [[scheduled castes]] 7.7%.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}} The [[Unemployment#Labor force participation rate|work participation rate]] was 34.4%.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}}  The number of people living in [[slum]]s was 25,026 individuals (which was 21.1% of the population).{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}} 
{{Multiple image|perrow=1;2|total_width=450
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
|image1=Darjeeling Municipality 10-yearly census data from 1881 to 2011.jpg
|caption1='''Figure&nbsp;1''': Darjeeling 10-yearly census data from 1881 to 2011{{efn|Based on the data in Mondal and Roychowdhury, 2018.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=369}}}}
| image3= Women in Traditional Dress - Darjeeling - West Bengal - India (12406166323).jpg
| caption3 =  Women in traditional dress, 2014
| image2 = Gorkha family shopping in Darjeeling.jpg
| caption2 = Males with [[Dhaka topi]] shopping, Darjeeling, 2008
<!--| image4= Labourer with a heavy load, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India, May 2009.jpg
| caption4 = Labourer, Darjeeling, 2009
| image5 = Elderly Woman with Dog - Darjeeling - West Bengal - India (12406856673).jpg
| caption5 = Woman with dog, 2014-->
}}
Darjeeling began to be an "administrative" town in independent India after being made the headquarters of [[Darjeeling district]] in 1947.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=367}}  During the period 1961–2011, the town's population increased at an accelerated rate (Figure&nbsp;1).{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=367}} An "aspirational middle class" arose, comprising families of professionals in the administration, and retail and service industries.{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=367}}

"[[Indian Gorkha]]" is a term that denotes the Nepali-speaking people of India, as distinct from the Nepali-speaking inhabitants of Nepal.{{Sfn | Middleton | Shneiderman | 2018 | loc=pp. 158–159: "Early Nepali literary stalwarts like Parasmani Pradhan used both the terms ''Nepali'' and ''Gorkha'' interchangeably... Thus early associations of the Nepalis in India... used the word "Gorkha" to denote Nepalis of Indian origin"}}  As of 2016, the population of Darjeeling was predominantly Indian Gorkha. There were also smaller numbers of [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]]s, [[Bhutia]]s, [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]]s, [[Bengali people|Bengali]]s, [[Marwari people|Marwaris]] and [[Biharis]].{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=90}}  In the 2011 census,<ref name="Mandal 2022"/> between them they practised [[Hinduism]] (66.5%), [[Buddhism]] (23.9%), [[Christianity]] (5.1%) and [[Islam]] (3.9%).{{Sfn|Mondal|Roychowdhury|2018|p=368}}  The Lepchas were considered the main indigenous community of the region; their original religion was a form of animism.{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=90}} The Nepali community was a complex mix of numerous castes and ethnic groups, with many roots in tribal and animist traditions.{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=90}} The accelerated growth of the town's population and the tightly packed living conditions in which different ethnicities mixed created syncretic cultures in Darjeeling which evolved away from their historical roots.{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=90}}

According to a 2014 study, although the demand for labour in the tea estates surrounding Darjeeling had stayed roughly constant since 1910, the population of Nepali-speaking workers and their families in the tea estates had grown throughout.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|p=84}}  As the excess population migrated up to Darjeeling in search of jobs and housing, their cause was championed by the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s; this had the effect of making a considerable number of non-Gorkha families leave their homes in Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|p=84}}

Seasonal migration out of Darjeeling has long been a local feature, especially among the lower-income groups; substantial migration among middle-class youth is a 21st-century occurrence.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}} Many educated young people in Darjeeling have begun to migrate out because the growth of jobs in the area has not kept pace with the numbers of people with [[tertiary education|tertiary degrees]].{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}} For both groups of migrants, favoured destinations fall into three groups: 
*neighbouring [[Gangtok]] in [[Sikkim]], and [[Siliguri]] in [[North Bengal]] at the base of the Darjeeling hills;
*the large bustling cities of [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]], [[Bangalore]], and [[Mumbai]]; and
*[[Kathmandu]], the capital of Nepal.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|pp=535–536}} Those looking for immediate employment commonly work in call centres, beauty parlours, and dumpling stands.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|pp=535–536}}

Those looking for eventual employment in professional careers pursue higher education.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|pp=535–536}} Both groups have experienced racism and economic and social discrimination in India's big cities, caused by their distinctive, more East Asian, physical appearance.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|pp=535–538}}

== Governance ==
[[File:Darjeeling Municipality Wards Schematic Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A schematic map of Darjeeling Municipality wards]]
[[File:Darjeeling Municipality.JPG|thumb|upright=1.0|Darjeeling Municipality building]]

The Darjeeling Municipality is one of the oldest in India, established on 1 July 1850, with ten [[Ward (electoral subdivision)|ward]]s.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}} It was governed by commissioners who were nominated until 1916, then elected until 1932, and nominated again until 1947.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}}  After India's independence that year, the commissioners continued to be appointed until 1964, when the first election was held.  It was overturned by a court injunction; further elections and continual interference by West Bengal's state government became the prevalent state of affairs.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}}  As of 2021, the municipality is governed by a board of councillors headed by a [[chairperson]] and a [[Chairperson#Vice-chairperson|vice chairperson]]. The number of wards in the municipality increased to 32 in 1988.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}} Wards represent electoral subdivisions; in 2017, 32 councillors were elected, one from each ward.<ref name="Chauhan 2017"/> The wards were reorganized and bifurcated in 2011.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}}

The area of the city (municipality) was reduced from {{Convert|10.75|km2|mi2}} to {{Convert|7.43|km2|mi2}} in 2011 after bifurcation.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}} By 2016, the municipality was surrounded by tea gardens and forestry department land and had minimal room for expansion.{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=90}}

In 2021, the city had approximately 22,000 households and 350 hotels and restaurants.{{Sfn|Chhetri|Lepcha|2021|p=319}} That same year the following statistics were collected: the municipality considered wards 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, and 25 to be the core areas; most businesses, hotels, restaurants, and educational institutions were located in these wards and they were better connected to municipal electricity and water;{{Sfn|Koner|Samanta|2021|p=9}}  wards&nbsp;10, 15, 20 and areas of ward&nbsp;30 were the most developed, whereas wards 1, 2, 13, 14, 27, 31, and 32 were the most deprived;{{Sfn|Koner|Samanta|2021|p=11}}  and the latter group of wards contained 37 slums in which 23% of the population of Darjeeling resided.{{Sfn|Koner|Samanta|2021|p=10}}

In 1988, the [[Indian Gorkha|Gorkha]]-dominated hill areas of Darjeeling district were given an autonomous form of governance under the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council (DGHC).{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=397}} In 2012, the DGHC was replaced by a similar body called the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA).{{Sfn|Lama|Rai|2016|p=397}} The elected members of GTA manage certain affairs of the hills, including education, industry and land revenue; they cannot legislate or levy taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?728097 |title=Gorkhaland Territorial Administration Agreement signed |publisher=Outlook |date=18 July 2011 |access-date=16 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719180442/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?728097 |archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref> The Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) held power in the municipality  until March 2022,<ref name="Chauhan 2017">{{Cite web |last=Chauhan |first=Chanchal |title=Darjeeling Municipality Election Results 2017: GJM keeps Darjeeling, wins 31 seats; TMC 1 |website=India.com |date=17 May 2017 |url=https://www.india.com/news/india/darjeeling-municipality-election-results-2017-live-news-updates-2139743/ |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=14 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220214184908/https://www.india.com/news/india/darjeeling-municipality-election-results-2017-live-news-updates-2139743/ |url-status=live }}</ref> when it was defeated by the newly-formed [[Indian Gorkha Janshakti Front|Hamro Party]].<ref name="IndExp bhatta">{{Cite web |last=Bhattacharya |first=Ravik |title=Explained: How Hamro Party, formed 3 months ago, won Darjeeling civic polls |website=The Indian Express |date=4 March 2022 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-hamro-party-formed-3-months-ago-won-darjeeling-civic-polls-7799232/ |access-date=13 March 2022 |ref=none |archive-date=13 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313155523/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-hamro-party-formed-3-months-ago-won-darjeeling-civic-polls-7799232/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Darjeeling is within the [[Darjeeling Assembly constituency]] that elects one [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|member]] of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] in state legislative elections every five years.<ref name="ABPLive 2022">{{Cite web |title=Darjeeling Election Results 2021 LIVE, Vote Counting, Leading, Trailing, Winners West Bengal Darjeeling Constituency Election News LIVE |website=ABP News |date=2 May 2021 |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/west-bengal-election-results-2021/wb-darjeeling-constituency-23.html |access-date=23 July 2022 |archive-date=1 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801235413/https://news.abplive.com/elections/west-bengal-election-results-2021/wb-darjeeling-constituency-23.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The town is  part of the [[Darjeeling (Lok Sabha constituency)|Darjeeling parliamentary constituency]] that elects one [[Member of Parliament (India)|member]] for the [[Lok Sabha]], the [[lower house]] of India's [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Parliament of India|Parliament]].<ref name="Standard">{{Cite web |title=Darjeeling Lok Sabha Election Results 2019: Darjeeling Election Result 2019 |website=Business Standard |url=https://www.business-standard.com/elections/lok-sabha-elections-2019/west-bengal/darjeeling-election-results-36_1372.html |access-date=23 July 2022 |archive-date=24 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724000206/https://www.business-standard.com/elections/lok-sabha-elections-2019/west-bengal/darjeeling-election-results-36_1372.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Economy ==
A 2017 study described the Darjeeling area as entirely dependent on the production of tea and the inflow of tourists to create employment.{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2017|p=96}}

=== Tea ===
[[File:Darjeeling tea processing unit (7168687423).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Tea garden workers, some waiting to turn in their pickings; others have done so]]
{{further|Darjeeling tea}}
Darjeeling tea is produced on plantations in which a few leaves{{efn|the fabled, "two leaves and a bud"}} on each [[Camellia sinensis|tea bush]] are plucked by women. During the tea bush's [[Dormancy#Plants|dormancy]] period in the short winter season, it is [[pruning|pruned]] by the women to stimulate growth the following season.  Unlike China, where the tea bush grew into a tree, the early British planters devised these means to [[monocropping|monocrop]] tea in tightly packed hedges on vast estates. In the plantation factories, men operate machines to [[fermentation|ferment]], dry, and package the normally short-lived green tea leaves.{{Sfn|Besky|2020|p=6}}

After India's independence in 1947, many of Darjeeling's governmental and economic arrangements remained unchanged.  When British planters auctioned off their estates, they were bought by Indians from the plains or corporations from elsewhere in India.{{Sfn|Shneiderman|Middleton|2018|p=10}} Darjeeling's labour force had long consisted of workers recruited from Nepal.  Mid-19th-century British [[ethnology|ethnologists]] had commended Nepalese for their step farming and other forms of settled agriculture in the Himalayan foothills. They were contrasted with Darjeeling's native population of the Lepcha at the time of British annexation,{{Sfn|Booth|2009|p=10|ps=. "Workers were needed to meet the increasing demands for Darjeeling tea, and Nepalis were considered more suitable for tea cultivation than local groups such as the Lepcha. By British estimations, Nepali people had been farming on hill terraces in the Kathmandu Valley for thousands of years, and so the cultural practices and technical skills necessary to work in tea plantations were already ingrained and would not need to be taught."}} who practised "shifting agriculture".{{Sfn|Besky|2017|p=624}} Planters believed that if allotted a house and a yard in which to grow vegetables and fruit, the Nepalis would be more inclined to stay.{{Sfn|Besky|2017|p=624}} The arrangement, which lasted during the colonial period, was formalized in independent India's Plantations Labour Act, 1951.  As of 2017, workers maintain their two or three-bedroom homes which they do not own, become attached to their upkeep, and eventually hope to retire in them when an adult child who also works on the plantation inherits the house.{{Sfn|Besky|2017|p=624}}

In 2017, the average basic daily wage (that is, without [[employee benefit]]s) of a Darjeeling tea garden worker was {{INR|144.60}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|144.6|USD|2017}}) per day.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=56}}  With benefits, it was {{INR|277.10}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|277.10|USD|2017}}) per day.{{efn|The employee benefits for Darjeeling included {{INR|14.20}}  ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|14.60|USD|2017}}) per day for foodgrains; {{INR|5.20}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|5.20|USD|2017}} in 2017) per day for dry tea, and {{INR|5.55}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|5.55|USD|2017}}) for fuel (for cooking or heating).{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=56}}}}{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=56}}{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=56}}  Comparatively, Darjeeling's tea estate workers were paid less in 2017 than tea estate workers in several [[South India|southern Indian]] states.{{efn|The same study recorded the basic 2017 daily wages (without employee benefits) for tea estate workers in the southern states of [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] to be {{INR|310}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|310|USD|2017}}) per day, {{INR|263}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|263|USD|2017}}) per day, and {{INR|241}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|241|USD|2017}}) per day respectively.}} The auction price of Darjeeling tea for 2017 was comparatively higher.{{efn|{{INR|128.54}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|128.54|USD|2017}}) per {{Convert|1|kg|lb}}; whereas it was {{INR|115.48}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|115|USD|2017}}), {{INR|99.07}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|99.07|USD|2017}}), and {{INR|93.07}} ({{INRConvert/HistoricalRate/Formatted|93.07|USD|2017}}) for Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu respectively.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=58}}}}

A 2017 study found that some 60% of the plantation labour jobs in the Darjeeling area were held by women.{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2017|p=96}}   The protection and economic development of the tea labour force was one of the motivations for India's enactment of the [[Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999]]. According to a 2017 study, "India has pursued the recognition of iconic brands, not only to create market share but also to recognise the value of the GI system to encourage development in poor, rural regions with high unemployment rates. This is consistent with the broad [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] objective to encourage trade liberalisation in developing countries to reduce poverty."{{Sfn|Taylor|Taylor|2017|p=96}}  Darjeeling tea was given GI recognition in Europe in spite of some [[European Union]] member nations objecting to the use of the indication for blended tea.{{Sfn|Marie-Vivien|2017|p=238}} It was recognized in US Geographical Indication mark, "DARJEELING, Registration No. 1,632,726."{{Sfn|Gervais|Slider|2017|p=32}}
[[File:Darjeeling Tea Cultivation Area 1951 to 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Area of cultivation of Darjeeling tea in [[hectare]]s ([[acre]]s) from 1951 to 2014]]

Tea is produced in the Darjeeling hills and farther below in two different forms.  Orthodox tea looks like the twisted and dried version of the green leaves on the bushes.{{efn|Citing 2017 data, a 2021 study recorded the number of tea estates in the Darjeeling hills to be 81, but their yields per {{Convert|1|hectare|acre}} were generally less than {{Convert|1500|kg|lb}}.}}  The Darjeeling sub-division of the Darjeeling hills had 46 tea estates in 2017, producing mostly orthodox tea.  This is commonly exported and is some of the world's most expensive.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=9}}{{Sfn|Besky|2020|pp=6&ndash;7}} In the [[crush, tear, curl]], or CTC version, which is commonly grown in the Kurseong sub-division (with 29 tea estates), and the Kalimpong (with 6),{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=9}} the tea leaves are mechanically manipulated, fired, and turned into tiny hard pellets that look like instant coffee.{{Sfn|Besky|2020|p=7}} Cheaply available, and boiled with milk and sugar, when CTC tea was introduced into the Indian market in the early 1950s, it turned India into a nation of tea drinkers.{{Sfn|Besky|2020|p=8}}

The area of cultivation of Darjeeling tea increased from 16,569 hectares (in 1951) to a high of 20,065 (in 1990) and dropped to 17,820 (in 2014) according to a 2021 study.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=28}} There were 99 tea estates in 1961; these increased until 1990 (when 102 were recorded) but dropped to 83 by 1995 and to 81 by 2014.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=29}}  The 20% drop from 1990 to 1995 was attributed in the study to India's economic liberalisation which came into force in the very early 1990s.{{Sfn|Roy|Biswas|2021|p=29}} A 2017 study similarly reported the Indian tea industry to have been adversely affected by price drops after India's economic liberalisation in the 1990s.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}}   Darjeeling tea garden owners invested their [[economic surplus|surplus]]es in more profitable industries elsewhere,{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}} causing a decline in productivity in the local tea industry.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}} The [[Tea Board of India]] estimated {{Convert|7010|t}} of Darjeeling tea was produced in 2021; this constitutes about 0.5% of total {{Convert|1343060|t}} produced in India.<ref name="teaboard.gov.in">{{Cite web |title=State/region wise and month wise tea production data for the year 2021 |author=Tea Board of India |url=https://www.teaboard.gov.in/pdf/Production_data_for_2021_and_2021_22_pdf223.pdf |access-date=23 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713223725/https://www.teaboard.gov.in/pdf/Production_data_for_2021_and_2021_22_pdf223.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2022}}</ref>

=== Tourism===

Darjeeling has two peak tourism seasons, September to November and April to May.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|p=107}}  A 2014 study suggested that domestic tourism is the foundation of the city's vacation business.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|pp=107&ndash;108}} The [[Chowrasta (Darjeeling)|Chowrasta]] is a popular shopping and gathering area where a tourist might get their picture taken dressed in colourful and rustic local clothes.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|pp=107&ndash;108}}  The tea plantations below are particularly visited by foreign tourists.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|pp=107&ndash;108}}  Old bungalows in some plantations have been converted to deluxe lodgings in which rooms rent out dearly by any global standard.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|pp=107&ndash;108}}  Some tourists hold dear the escape to a peaceful, unspoilt, and picturesque landscape evoked in [[Satyajit Ray]]'s 1962-film ''[[Kanchenjungha (film)|Kanchenjungha]]''.{{Sfn|Besky|2014|pp=107&ndash;108}}
{{Multiple image
| total_width=400
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Terraced gardens in Rock Garden, Darjeeling, India.jpg
| caption1 =  A terraced rock garden in Darjeeling
| image2 = Buddhist view.jpg
| caption2 = The Japanese [[Peace Pagoda, Darjeeling]] during rain
}}
Darjeeling had become an important tourist destination as early as 1860.{{Sfn|Lamb|1986|p=71}}  Since India's economic liberalisation in 1991, tourism in Darjeeling has become cheaper, and  Darjeeling, once considered a  luxury destination, has become accessible to [[mass tourism]].{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=535}} A 2016 study recorded the tourist influx into Darjeeling between 2009 and 2014 as ranging from a low of 243,255 individuals in the 2010–2011 season to a high of 488,675 in 2012–2013; the large majority were domestic tourists, with foreign tourists never comprising more than 35,000 annual visitors.{{Sfn|Samanta|Koner|2016|p=52}}

Darjeeling can be reached by the [[narrow-gauge railway|narrow-gauge]] [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] (DHR) which travels a route {{Cvt|88|km|mi}} long from Siliguri.{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|p=584}} Pulled by steam [[locomotive]]s, it moves at speeds of between {{Convert|20|km|mi}} and {{Convert|25|km|mi}} per hour.{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|p=584}}  Although the service was begun in the 19th century to move humans and freight efficiently, its primary clients today are tourists who are availing themselves of the opportunity to experience the [[mobilities]] of travel of a bygone era.{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|pp=585–588, 590–592}}  After an international and national campaign for its support, the railway was declared a [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage site]] by [[UNESCO]] in December 1999 at the 23rd Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee held in Morocco.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aygen |first=Zeynep |title=International Heritage and Historic Building Conservation: Saving the World's Past |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Studies in Heritage Series |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-88814-1 |page=159 |quote=The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Society was formed in 1997 in London to demonstrate both international and national concern in India about plans to close the historic Darjeeling Himalayan Railway in the early 1990s.  This led directly to the railway being inscribed by UNESCO in 1999 as a World Heritage Site.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|p=585}} In  ''Notes on Defining the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway: World Heritage Property'', Unpublished manuscript. The DHR Archive, Kurseong, 2005, K. Weise had written:

<blockquote>The railway begins on the plains of West Bengal and soon begins climbing through a remnant of lowland jungle, including stands of teak. As the railway climbs, so the flora changes and its upper sections are dominated by enormous Himalayan pines, which in misty weather give a surreal quality to the landscape. It frequently hugs the ages of hillsides with drops, often of thousands of feet, to the plains and valleys below. Towering over the entire scene is the perennially snow-covered bulk of Kanchenjungha. ... From Kurseong the railway offers frequent views of this stupendous mountain, which by Ghoom dominates the entire landscape.{{Sfn|Roy|Hannam|2013|p=554}}</blockquote>

In a 1999 study, it was thought the tourist influx into Darjeeling had been adversely affected by the political instability in the region, including agitations in the 1980s.{{Sfn|Dasgupta|1999|p=66}} According to a 2018 study, tourism in Darjeeling is limited to a small area of the town so its effect on local employment is inadequate for alleviating Darjeeling's high unemployment rate.{{Sfn|Chettri|2018|pp=151&ndash;152}} According to the author, "The majority of the employees and almost all of the top ranking officers in West Bengal Tourism Development Corporation are Bengalis; locals generally get employed as photographers, drivers, and guides."{{Sfn|Chettri|2018|pp=151&ndash;152}}

== Utilities ==
[[File:Map of Senchal Lakes, the water supply source in relation to Darjeeling.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|'''Map&nbsp;2''': A schematic map showing the [[Senchal Lake]]s in relation to Darjeeling]]
The chief [[catchment area]] for Darjeeling municipality's water is the [[Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary]], located approximately {{Convert|11|km|mi}} to the southeast, covering an area of {{Convert|37.97|km2|mi2}} and lying between {{Convert|1500|m|ft}} and {{Convert|2600|m|ft}} in altitude.{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=372}} Natural springs in the sanctuary, not all perennial, are the main source of the water supply.{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | pp=370–372}} The steep slopes of the surrounding ridges (at inclines of between 20° and 48°) can lead to high surface run-off, subsequent absorption, and collection of water in partially confined spaces.{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=370}}  Upon reaching a critical volume, this groundwater can surge out as seasonal springs.{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=370}} Water collected from 26 perennial and seasonal springs is routed through stone conduits to the [[Senchal Lake]]s (Map&nbsp;2) constructed in 1910 and 1932.  From Senchal the water is piped to the town after purification at a filtration plant in [[Jorebungalow]].{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=372}} There are a combined {{Convert|35|km|mi}} of pipes transporting water from Senchal to Darjeeling, and a further {{Convert|83|km|mi}} in the [[water distribution system]] within Darjeeling.{{Sfn | Drew | Rai | 2018 | pp=253–254}}  In the months before the monsoon during which water in the Senchal lakes is reduced, it is augmented by pumping water electrically from another reservoir located near [[Khong Khola]].{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=372}}

A 2012 report of the Darjeeling Municipality Waterworks Department stated that from the 1930s little or no maintenance had been undertaken on the water pipeline from Senchal.{{Sfn | Drew | Rai | 2018 | pp=253–254}} Engineers in the department suggested that there might be up to 35% transmission loss, and more within Darjeeling.{{Sfn | Drew | Rai | 2018 | pp=253–254}}  Once in Darjeeling, the water is distributed along the colonial pattern, first serving more expensive and sought-after uphill neighbourhoods and then the low-income downhill ones, which have more restricted access to the supply.{{Sfn | Drew | Rai | 2018 | pp=253–254}} The system was designed to serve a population of up to 20,000 individuals.  Between 1911 and 2011, there had been a six-fold increase in the population of the municipality, not including the large number of transients such as students, migrant workers, and tourists (see [[:File:Darjeeling Municipality 10-yearly census data from 1881 to 2011.jpg|Figure&nbsp;1]]).{{Sfn | Drew | Rai | 2018 | pp=253–254}} Increasing demand has led to a worsening shortfall in the water supply.{{Sfn|Koner|Samanta|2021|p=}}  As a result, many residents have to purchase water from private vendors who either supply it in water tankers or in hand-pushed carts; they sometimes collect the water from the local ''jhora'' or springs. (see [[:File:Map of Darjeeling Municipality, Darjeeling District, West Bengal India.jpg|Map&nbsp;1]]).{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=374}} Larger private businesses are involved in supplying households but do so at a substantially higher cost.{{Sfn | Mondal | Roychowdhury | 2018 | p=374}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400
| align = left
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Senchal WLS.jpg
| caption1 = [[Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary]], during a downpour, July 2011
| image2 = Darjeeling India truck delivering water May 2009.jpg
| caption2 = A water tanker delivering water in Darjeeling, May 2009
}}
As of 2020, every day 30 [[metric tonnes]] of [[solid waste]] are generated in Darjeeling, and during the peak tourist seasons, the amount goes up to 50 metric tonnes.{{Sfn|Dutta|Ghosh|Debnath|Ghosh|2020|pp=661–662}}  Bulk waste, which is chiefly produced in [[residential area]]s, markets and hotels, is deposited in common dumping areas from which it is taken in [[tractor-trailer]]s to dumping grounds.{{Sfn|Dutta|Ghosh|Debnath|Ghosh|2020|pp=661–662}} Open dumping, which is the disposal of waste in sites  not designed for waste management, is commonly practiced, and has created economic and social tensions in Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Dutta|Ghosh|Debnath|Ghosh|2020|pp=661–662}}

In 1897 Darjeeling became the first town in India to be supplied by [[hydroelectricity]], which was generated at the nearby [[Sidrapong Hydel Power Station]]; it was primarily for use in street lighting and private houses.{{efn|"Crompton helped Darjeeling to earn the distinction of possessing India's first water-turbine-driven hydroelectric generating station.  The power station was situated at Sidrapong (1897) and at the heart of this were two turbo-dynamos of 100 HP each situated between the hospital and the Kotwalla ''jhora'' (spring), about 3 miles from the town and 3,500 feet lower.  The plant was intended primarily for street lighting and private houses."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Suvobrata |title=Let there be Light: Engineering, Enreprenaurship and Electricity in Colonial Bengal, 1880–1945 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-108-83598-5 |pages=121–122}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bradnock |first=Robert W |others=Cartography by Catherine Lawrence |title=The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs |publisher=Routledge |page=73 |isbn=978-0-415-54512-9 |year=2016 |quote=India's first hydro-power plant, located near Darjiling (Darjeeling), started production in 1897.}}</ref> Today, electricity is supplied by the [[West Bengal State Electricity Board]] from other locations.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Awasthi |first1=Shambhu Ratan |last2=Pandey |first2=Shiv Vishal |title=Renewable Energy from Small & Micro Hydro Projects: Practical Aspects and Case Studies |date=24 March 2021 |pages=25–26 |publisher=TERI: The Energy and Resources Institute |isbn=978-93-8653-092-9}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Transport ==
{{Further|Transport in Darjeeling}}
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=480
| align = right
| image_style = border:none;
| title =
| image1 = Darjeeling street (8131988436).jpg
| caption1 = Walking and taxis are the two main forms of getting around.
| image2 = GTA-Battery powered taxis Darjeeling 2015.jpg
| caption2 = [[Golf cart]]-style battery-powered taxi, 2015
}}
Darjeeling has two major [[arterial road]]s: Hill Cart Road—which is a continuation of [[National Highway 110 (India)|National Highway 110]] connecting Siliguri at the base of the Darjeeling hills to Darjeeling—and Lebong Cart Road (see [[:File:Map of Darjeeling Municipality, Darjeeling District, West Bengal India.jpg|Map&nbsp;1]]).{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=490}} The average width of Darjeeling's roads in 2018 was between {{Convert|6|m|ft}} and {{Convert|7|m|ft}}.{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=491}} According to a Darjeeling Municipality report of 2008, a little over half (55%) of Darjeeling's roads were both metalled (paved with [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]], or bitumen) and motorable; the rest were too narrow to admit traffic whether concrete roads or [[dirt road|unpaved]].{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=490}} There were three parking areas that were not located on the street and 13 on-street. Illegal parking along narrow roads has created congestion for both pedestrians and wheeled transport.{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=491}}

As of 2018, Darjeeling had no public transport system of buses.{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=491}}  Less than one in 20 residents owned any form of vehicular transport, two-wheeled or four.{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=491}} For both locals and tourists motorized travel was limited to six- or eight-seater [[paratransit]] taxis that have no set routes or timetables. Passengers embark and disembark in the central shopping district of the city, making the area both congested and polluted.{{Sfn|Nag|Paul|Saha|Goswami|2018|p=491}}  In 2015, in an attempt to tackle the pollution, the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA), which governs the district, introduced three battery-powered street-legal [[golf-cart]]-taxis on a trial basis.  The taxis had cost approximately [[Rupees]] 36 [[lakh]] (or $14,670 in the 2015 exchange rate) per vehicle.<ref name=telegraph-battery-powered/> Although the vehicles were factory-designed for a battery life of {{Convert|60|km|mi}} before requiring a recharge, their batteries were found to run out in {{Convert|5|km|mi}}.  Chalking up the disparity to the challenges of Darjeeling's steep streets, and the lack of mechanics to correct the malfunction, the administration withdrew the vehicles from the streets in 2016.<ref name=telegraph-battery-powered>{{Cite news |last=Chhetri |first=Vivek |newspaper=The Telegraph |title=Battery cars go off roads: GTA lacks mechanics to repair vehicles bought for Rs 36 lakh |date=10 May 2016 |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/battery-cars-go-off-roads/cid/1524781 |access-date=13 July 2022 |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713155504/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/battery-cars-go-off-roads/cid/1524781 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Darjeeling can be reached by motorized vehicles on National Highway 110, from Siliguri, {{Cvt|77|km|mi}} away.{{Sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} Darjeeling has road connections with [[Bagdogra]], [[Gangtok]] and [[Kathmandu]] and the neighbouring towns of Kurseong and Kalimpong.{{Sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}} However, road and railway communications often get disrupted in the monsoons because of landslides.{{Sfn | Pal | Shaw | 2017 | pp=367–369}}{{Sfn | Mandal | Mondal | 2019 | p=8}} The nearest airport is [[Bagdogra Airport]], located {{Cvt|90|km|mi}} from Darjeeling.{{Sfn|de Bruyn|Bain|Venkatraman|Joshi|2008|p=578}}

== Culture ==
{{Further|Culture of Darjeeling}}
{{Multiple image |perrow=2
|total_width= 480
| image1 = Temple, Observatory Hill, Darjeeling.jpg
| caption1 = Prayer flags festoon the [[Mahakal Temple (Darjeeling)|Mahakal Temple]], built 1782|alt=A worshipper praying at a the shrine of Mahakal.. Several colourful flags on buntings are strung across poles in front of the shrine.
| image2 = St Andrews Church, Darjeeling.jpg
| caption2=[[St. Andrew's Church, Darjeeling]] (founded 1843) during a rare snowfall}}

The culture of Darjeeling is diverse and includes a variety of indigenous practices and festivals; it has a regional distinctness from the rest of India.{{Sfn | Middleton | Shneiderman | 2018 | p=8}} Mixing and intermarriage between ethnic groups have led to hybrid cultural forms and practices.{{Sfn | Middleton | Shneiderman | 2018 | p=8}}

Major festivals are [[Dashain]] ([[Vijayadashami]]), [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]] ([[Diwali]]), [[Holi]], [[Lakshmi Puja]],{{Sfn | West Bengal (India) | 1980 | p=126}} [[Maghe Sankranti]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://darjeeling.gov.in/festival/maghey-sakranti/ |title=Maghey Sankranti |publisher=Government of West Bengal |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015403/https://darjeeling.gov.in/festival/maghey-sakranti/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Losar]], [[Buddha Jayanti]], and [[Christmas]]. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is followed by some ethnic groups such as Tibetans, Lepchas, Bhutias, Sherpas, [[Hyolmo people|Yolmos]], [[Gurung people|Gurungs]], and Tamangs; their common festivals are the Tibetan new year festival Losar,{{Sfn | West Bengal (India) | 1980 | p=123}} [[Saga Dawa]] and [[Tendong Lho Rumfaat]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://garlandmag.com/article/saga-dawa-the-blessing-of-the-scriptures/ |title=Saga Dawa: The blessing of the scriptures |last=Agrawal |first=Shruti |date=27 February 2020 |access-date=5 February 2022 |publisher=Garland Magazine |archive-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205185634/https://garlandmag.com/article/saga-dawa-the-blessing-of-the-scriptures/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=darjonlinefestivals>{{Cite web |url=https://www.darjeelingonline.in/city-guide/festivals-of-darjeeling |title=Festivals of Darjeeling |publisher=Darjeeling Online |access-date=5 February 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015402/https://www.darjeelingonline.in/city-guide/festivals-of-darjeeling |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Kirati people|Kirati]] ethnic group [[Rai people|Rais]], [[Limbu people|Limbus]], [[Sunuwar people|Sunuwars]]  and [[Yakkha people|Yakkhas]] celebrate [[Udhauli]] and [[Ubhauli]] as their main festival.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ecsas2021.univie.ac.at/panels/s1eqe/ |title=Cultural Flows in the Singalila Borderlands Trans-Border Linkages in East-Nepal, Sikkim and Darjeeling |publisher=European Association for South Asian Studies |work=ECSAS 26th European Conference on South Asian Studies |date=28 July 2021 |access-date=10 March 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531181033/https://ecsas2021.univie.ac.at/panels/s1eqe/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Popular [[Hindu deities]] are [[Durga]], [[Kali]], and [[Shiva]]; other deities with both Hindu and Buddhist influences, such as [[Manjushri]] and [[Matsyendranatha|Macchindranāth]], are popular among [[Newar people]], and [[Gorakhnath]], and worshipped by Gorkhas.{{Sfn | West Bengal (India) | 1980 | p=123}} The [[Mahakal Temple, Darjeeling|Mahakal Temple]] on Observatory Hill is a pilgrimage site for Hindu and Buddhists.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/67546/mahakal-mandir-darjeeling |title=There is much more to the queen of hill stations than clock towers, post offices, toy tra\ins and tea. Welcome to the land of pious pleasure and holiness...on a height! |last=Chodon |first=Thinley |work=Outlook Traveller |date=21 June 2018 |access-date=23 April 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815131434/https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/67546/mahakal-mandir-darjeeling |url-status=live }}</ref> Followers of Tibetan Buddhism, or [[Lama]]ism, have established several ''[[gompa]]'' or [[Buddhist monasticism|monasteries]].{{Sfn | West Bengal (India) | 1980 | p=123}} [[Ghoom Monastery]] (8&nbsp;km or 5&nbsp;miles from the town), [[Bhutia Busty monastery]], and [[Mag-Dhog Yolmowa Monastery|Mag-Dhog Yolmowa]] preserve ancient Buddhist scripts. A [[Peace Pagoda, Darjeeling|Peace Pagoda]] was built in 1992 by the Japanese Buddhist organisation [[Nipponzan Myohoji]].<ref name="outlooktraveller 2018">{{Cite web |title=A Peace Pagoda Pathway: Discover The Lesser-Seen Locations Around India |work=Outlook Traveller |date=5 September 2018 |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/69012/a-peace-pagoda-pathway-discover-the-lesser-seen-locations-around-india |access-date=13 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213195156/https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/69012/a-peace-pagoda-pathway-discover-the-lesser-seen-locations-around-india |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Tibetan Refugee Self Help Centre]], Tibetan crafts like carpets, wood and leather work are displayed.

The Darjeeling Initiative, a civil society movement, holds the ten-day [[Darjeeling Carnival]]; it celebrates Darjeeling Hill's musical and cultural heritage each year usually in November.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=S.S. |last=Chattopadhyay |date=December 2003 |title=The spirit of Darjeeling |journal=Frontline |volume=20 |issue=25 |url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2025/stories/20031219000306600.htm |access-date=1 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107132238/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2025/stories/20031219000306600.htm |archive-date=7 November 2012}}</ref> A literary culture has matured in the Nepali-speaking population of the Darjeeling region; in 2013,  [[Asit Rai]], a resident and Nepali-language writer, was elected to the [[Sahitya Akademi Fellowship]], the highest honour of India's National Academy of Letters.<ref name=sahitya-akademi>{{Cite web |last=Sahitya Akademi |title=Sahitya Akademi Fellowship: Fellows |publisher=Sahitya Akademi, National Academy of Letters, India |url=https://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/fellows/sahitya_akademi_fellowship.jsp |access-date=7 July 2022 |quote=The highest honour conferred by the Akademi on a writer is by electing him as its Fellow. This honour is reserved for 'the immortals of literature' and limited to twenty-one (individuals) only at any given time. ... 2013: Sri Asit Rai (1940–2019)}}</ref>

According to a 2017 study, Western music has long been popular in Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Liechty|2017|p=147}}  In the "lively hippie music scene" in Kathmandu in the late 1960s, some of the earliest "Western pop performers" were from Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Liechty|2017|p=147}} The earliest Nepali-led hotel bands were from Darjeeling and many among them had played in hotels in Calcutta before.{{Sfn|Liechty|2017|p=147}} A 2004 study suggested that one possible reason for such leadership might have been that many Nepalis in Darjeeling had become Christians and were no longer bound by Hindu caste prejudices in which "musical performance is associated with low caste standing".{{Sfn|Liechty|2017|p=147}} By the early 1990s, a common middle-class western popular music culture was much in evidence among the young people of Kathmandu, Nepal and the Nepalese-speaking youth in Darjeeling.{{efn|The author of a 2004 study recalled that at a 1991 Kathmandu "Rock and Roll Music Festival", an accomplished band, the  "Hell Riders", from Darjeeling had star billing.{{Sfn|Liechty|2003|pp=196&ndash;197}}  The crowd became restless when the group played music that appealed to an older audience ([[The Doors]], [[The Rolling Stones]], and [[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]]), but sang along when they switched to contemporary popular groups like [[AC/DC]] and [[Bon Jovi]].{{Sfn|Liechty|2003|pp=196&ndash;197}}}}{{Sfn|Liechty|2003|pp=196&ndash;197}}

[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most popular sport in Darjeeling; the annual Gold Cup tournament was once a favourite event in the hills. An improvised form of ball made of rubber bands is often used for playing in the steep streets, and is known as [[Chungi]].<ref name="Nepali Times">{{Cite web |title=Chungi on the Chowrasta- Nepali Times |website=Nepali Times |date=1 December 2005 |url=http://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=9219#.Yg5O9E3MK3A |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531170100/http://archive.nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=9219#.Yg5O9E3MK3A |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Krishna |first=Bal |title=Darjeeling – Games We Played |website=The Darjeeling Chronicle |date=9 March 2019 |url=https://thedarjeelingchronicle.com/darjeeling-games-we-played/ |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217133744/https://thedarjeelingchronicle.com/darjeeling-games-we-played/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Colonial architecture is exemplified in Darjeeling by cottages, [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] churches,<ref name="HTbuildings">{{Cite web |title=Darjeeling's British legacy: A journey in time |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/darjeeling-s-british-legacy-a-journey-in-time/story-7hPeYh3E6MvdCISrqNDUzM.html |work=[[The Hindustan Times]] |date=11 June 2017 |access-date=12 February 2022 |archive-date=12 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212232722/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/darjeeling-s-british-legacy-a-journey-in-time/story-7hPeYh3E6MvdCISrqNDUzM.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Darjeeling Planters' Club|Planters' Club]],<ref name="The Statesman 2020">{{Cite web |title=Planters Club members want lost glory back |website=The Statesman |date=14 February 2020 |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/planters-club-members-want-lost-glory-back-1502855976.html |access-date=13 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213165754/https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/planters-club-members-want-lost-glory-back-1502855976.html |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Raj Bhavan, Darjeeling|Raj Bhawan]] and various educational institutions.<ref name="archi">{{Cite web |title=Transformation of Architectural Character of Darjeeling |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342145361 |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Suryendu |last2=Garg |first2=Pushplata |date=November 2016 |access-date=12 February 2022 |work=Urban heritage conservation of Colonial hill stations of India: A case of Darjeeling.}}</ref>{{Sfn | Bhattacharya | 2013 | p=442–461}}

===Food===
{{Multiple image |direction=vertical
|total_width= 280| image1 = Under the watchful eyes! (8169221693).jpg | caption1 = [[Momo (food)|Momos]] in a roadside stall
| image2 = Tongba at Hot Stimulating Cafe (2).jpg| caption2 = Fermented [[Tongba]]}}

The traditional dietary culture of Darjeeling has much in common with that of the Darjeeling hills, though urbanisation has affected the food habits throughout the region.  A mug of tea with milk, with or without sugar, is traditionally the first drink of the day.  [[Butter tea]], made from [[Compressed tea|compressed tea leaves]], butter, water, milk and salt is a popular delicacy.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}  The staple diet is eaten twice a day. The food in these regions is less spicy, cooked with either little or no oil,  and semi-boiled. The first meal is eaten in the morning with cooked rice, [[dal]], cooked vegetables mixed with potatoes, some fermented meat or milk products&mdash;[[Dahi (curd)|dahi]], or yoghurt; [[Mattha|mohi]], which is spicy buttermilk; and ''[[chhurpi]]'', a kind of hard cheese made from [[cow]] or [[yak]] milk&mdash;and pickles commonly called [[Dal bhat|bhat-dal-tharkari-achar]]. The second meal is dinner in the early evening, which consists of the same bhat-dal-tharkari-achar. Bhutia and Lepcha usually eat [[thukpa]] noodles in soup.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}

Traditionally, the people of the region have preferred cooked rice as the staple; however, [[roti]] made of wheat is also popular, mostly among the urban population. Cooked ground maize is sometimes eaten as staple food mostly in rural areas, where it might be eaten with mohi and [[gundruk]], a fermented vegetable.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}  [[Goyang (fermented food)|Goyang]], another fermented food, is made from the leaves of a local wild plant, abundantly available during the monsoon.  The leaves are fermented for a month and then consumed for several months afterwards.  Boiled with yak meat or beef to make a hearty thukpa soup, it is commonly prepared in Sherpa homes though seldom sold.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}

Some ethnic foods have cultural value in festivals. Celebration of festivals with the consumption of [[sel roti]], a fermented cereal-based fried doughnut-like confectionery, is a custom of the Gorkha. Dahi, a fermented milk product, is consumed as a savoury addition to daily diets.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}} It is also used by the Gorkha to make a paste with rice and food colour for applying to the foreheads of the younger members of the family by their elders during festivals and marriages. Alcoholic drinks can have a similar dual purpose; in addition to being consumed directly they are offered to gods and in the [[veneration of the dead]]. In some communities, they have been employed in [[spirit possession]] rituals.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}

Some [[Brahmin]] Gorkhas are vegetarians. [[Non-vegetarian]]s eat chicken, mutton, buffalo, and pork. Beef is taboo to a majority of the Gorkha except for Tamang and Sherpa. Newar prefers buffalo meat.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}} About two-thirds of people prepare ethnic fermented foods at home for consumption. Cooking is usually done by women. Traditionally members of the family sit together on bamboo mats in the kitchen, and meals are served by the female members of the family and then usually eaten by hand, though chopsticks made of bamboo are commonly used by the Bhutia and Tibetans. Plates are made of brass or have a thin layer of brass.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}

Popular alcoholic beverages sold in Darjeeling include ''[[tongba]]'', ''Jnaard'' (pronounced as Jaar) and ''[[chhaang]]'', variations of a local beer made from fermenting [[finger millet]].{{Sfn|Tamang|Sarkar|Hesseltine|1988|p=382}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Tibetan-English Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidas |year=1881 |isbn=978-81-208-0321-3 |edition=1987 reprint |page=341 |author=H. Ä. Jaschke |place=Delhi}}</ref>  A popular food in Darjeeling is the ''[[momo (food)|momo]]'', a steamed dumpling containing pork, beef, chicken or vegetables (cabbage or potatoes) cooked in a doughy wrapping and served with watery soup. [[Wai-Wai (food)|Wai-Wai]] is a packaged snack consisting of noodles which are eaten either dry or in soup form.{{Sfn|Thapa|Tamang|2020|pp=479–537}}

== Education ==
{{Multiple image|total_width=280|direction=vertical
|image1=Darjeeling India march for increased water supply May 10 2007.jpg
|alt2=
|caption1=Students join a march for increased water supply in Darjeeling, May 2007
|image2=Darjeeling-32-Gruppe tibetischer Schueler-1976-gje.jpg
|alt1=
|caption2=Primary school children in 1976
}}
A study conducted between 2012 and 2014 observed that the elite schools established in Darjeeling during the late 19th century for the education of British children{{efn|In the mid-to-late-1800s, missionaries had established schools, churches and welfare centres for British residents.{{Sfn|Zivkovic|2014|p=9}}}}  were offering English-medium instruction of high quality to Indian children.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}}  The [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] boys' school, [[St. Joseph's School, Darjeeling|St Joseph's]] (usually called North Point), the Anglican boarding school for boys, [[St. Paul's School, Darjeeling|St Paul's]], the co-educational [[Methodism|Methodist]] school [[Mount Hermon School, Darjeeling|Mount Hermon]], and the Catholic girls' school [[Loreto Convent, Darjeeling|Loreto Convent]] (see [[:File:Map of Darjeeling Municipality, Darjeeling District, West Bengal India.jpg|Map&nbsp;1]]) were attracting students from faraway places, including Burma and Thailand.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}}  North Point and Loreto had established colleges, [[St Joseph's College, Darjeeling|St. Joseph's College]] and [[Loreto College, Darjeeling|Loreto College]] (now [[Southfield College]]); these along with the [[Darjeeling Government College]], a co-educational college founded in 1948, made up the three colleges of Darjeeling.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}} All were affiliated to [[University of North Bengal]] in [[Siliguri]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Chhetri |first1=Vivek |title=Darjeeling MLA Amar Singh Rai is "son of soil" nominee |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/darjeeling-mla-amar-singh-rai-is-son-of-soil-nominee/cid/1686723 |access-date=30 April 2022 |work=The Telegraph |date=12 March 2019 |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430130509/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/darjeeling-mla-amar-singh-rai-is-son-of-soil-nominee/cid/1686723 |url-status=live }}</ref> The same study suggested that the private schools were no longer catering only to children of the affluent.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}} Some lower-middle-class families in Darjeeling were sending their children to North Point and Loreto, despite their high fees, in order to give them better future opportunities.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}} 

By 2014, colleges had increased the enrollment of students from rural backgrounds.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|p=534}} In fields such as engineering and computer science, the local colleges, however, were less able to offer the professional training or career placement facilities of India's growth centres, which had caused some students to leave Darjeeling after high school.{{Sfn|Brown|Scrase|Ganguly-Scrase|2017|pp=534–535}}

In the Darjeeling municipality in 2003&ndash;2004, there were 16,015 students in [[education in India#Primary education|primary schools]], 5,169 in [[Education in India#12th (senior secondary or Intermediate Course) exam|higher-secondary schools]], and 3,825 in [[Education in India#Higher education|colleges and universities]].{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|p=55}}  According to a 2013 study, few students attended college for there seemed little scope for realizing "middle-class aspirations in Darjeeling through educational credentials".{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|p=55}} It noted that the fees in the better-funded private colleges, although affordable for the upper-level government officials or successful businesspersons, were too high for the lower-middle-classes in town.{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|pp=56&ndash;57}} This put pressure on the only affordable college, the government college in the town's centre.{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|pp=56&ndash;57}}  It was lower-priced but poorly funded, with broken windows, leaking roofs, and absent teachers, causing the students to feel neglected and affecting their attendance.{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|pp=56&ndash;57}}  The teachers for their part were unable to meet the extra demands placed on them.{{Sfn|Deuchar|2013|pp=56&ndash;57}}

A 2022 study noted that among the population of Darjeeling that lives in slums (comprising 11.72% of the city's population as per the 2011 census), 13% had finished primary school but had gone no further, 45% had finished high school (grade 10) but no further, 13% had finished higher-secondary (grade 10+2), and 10% had been to college.<ref name = chhetri-slums-education>{{Cite journal |last=Chhetri |first=Bishal |title=Assessing the urban sustainability of the slum settlements in the hill resorts of India: a case study of Darjeeling town |date=3 August 2022 |doi=10.1007/s10708-022-10728-y |pages=11&ndash;12 |journal=GeoJournal |volume=88 |issue=2 |publisher=Springer Nature |s2cid=251331284}}</ref> A 2018 study reported that the water crisis in the Darjeeling town has especially affected adolescent girl students who go to government schools.{{Sfn|Koner|2018|pp=95&ndash;95}} Many do not have [[WASH|access to hygiene facilities such as toilets and bathrooms]], either in their homes or at school, particularly for [[Menstrual hygiene management#Sanitation facilities at schools|hygiene management]] during [[menstruation]]. The study found that most toilets in government schools were not usable and that no government schools had "proper sanitary facilities for girls. There is no system of water in the toilets and no arrangement for cleaning the toilets daily." It stated that many girls do not drink water during the day for fear of having to use the school toilets.{{Sfn|Koner|2018|pp=95&ndash;95}}

Most tea plantations make no more than lower primary school instruction available on site.{{Sfn|Lama|2022|p=345}} As a result, tea garden workers have typically had fewer opportunities for education.{{Sfn|Lama|2022|p=338}} As of 2022, a little over a third of the female workforce and half the male were educated up to grade&nbsp;8. The workers attributed this to their tea garden's remoteness and lack of means in the family during their childhood.{{Sfn|Lama|2022|p=338}}  Some families have raised chickens or livestock or opened a [[corner shop]] to make more money; their children have gone to nearby towns to study in private schools in which the medium of instruction is English, which is thought to offer better career opportunities.{{Sfn|Lama|2022|p=345}}  The Nepali language was accepted as a teaching language in all primary schools with a Nepali-speaking majority in the Darjeeling district in 1935.{{Sfn|Gellner|2014|pp= 138–140|ps=. "Nepali [...] was accepted as the teaching language for all primary schools with a Nepali majority in Darjeeling district in 1935, as a national literary language in 1973 and as a national language of India by inclusion in Schedule Eight of the Constitution in 1992."}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist
| colwidth = 30em
}}

=== General and cited references ===
<!-- This includes books and journals cited more than once in the article; all other are listed with ref tags.  -->

==== Books ====
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Barry |first=Roger G. |title=Mountain Weather and Climate |edition=3rd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-86295-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Basumajumdar |first=A. |chapter=Impact of Global Warming on Climate Change Regarding Water Supply in the Darjeeling Hills of the Eastern Himalaya and Change in Mountain Ecology |title=Globalization and Marginalization in Mountain Regions: Assets and Challenges in Marginal Regions |series=Perspectives on Geographical Marginality |editor1-last=Chand |editor1-first=Raghubir |editor2-last=Leimgruber |editor2-first=Walter |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-319-32648-1 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-32649-8 |year=2016 |volume=1 |pages=161–172}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bernbaum |first=Edwin |title=Sacred Mountains of the World |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-83474-2 |year=2022}}
* {{Cite book |last=Besky |first=Sarah |title=Tasting Qualities: The Past and Future of Tea |publisher=University of California Press |year=2020 |lccn=2019042808 |isbn=978-0-520-30324-9}}
*{{Cite book |last=Besky |first=Sarah |title=The Darjeeling Distinction: Labor and Justic on Fair-Trade Tea Plantations in India |series=California Studies in Food and Culture Series |publisher=University of California Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-520-27738-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Nandini |title=Routledge Handbook of the History of Colonialism in South Asia |editor1-last= Fischer-Tiné |editor1-first=Harald |editor2-last=Framke |editor2-first=Maria |chapter=Imperial Sanctuaries: The hill stations of colonial South Asia |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-138-36484-4 |doi=10.4324/9780429431012-26 |s2cid=238650973}}
*{{Cite book |last=Booth |first=Chelsea |chapter="An Ocean of Culture": Language Ideologies and the Social Life of Language in Multilingual Darjeeling, India |title=Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium About Language and Society, Austin, April 10–11, 2009 |year=2009 |publisher=Texas Linguistics Forum |volume=53 |pages=8–17}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Chhetri |first1=Bishal |last2=Lepcha |first2=Kabita |chapter=Spatial Analysis of the Intra-urban Quality of Life: A Study in the Darjeeling Town in India |pages=317–338 |year=2021 |title=Practices in Regional Science and Sustainable Regional Development: Experiences from the Global South |editor1-last=Singh |editor1-first=R. B. |editor2-last=Chatterjee |editor2-first=Soumenda |editor3-last=Mishra |editor3-first=Mukunda |editor4-last=de Lucena |editor4-first=Andrews Jose |isbn=978-981-16-2220-5 |doi=10.1007/978-981-16-2221-2 |publisher=Springer |s2cid=240497482}}
*{{Cite book |last=Chettri |first=Mona |chapter=The Rowdies of Darjeeling |pages=135–153 |year=2018 |title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments |editor1-last=Middleton |editor1-first=Townsend |editor2-last=Shneiderman |editor2-first=Sara |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-948355-6|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199483556.003.0007}}
* {{Cite book |last1=de Bruyn |first1=Pippa |last2=Bain |first2=Keith |last3=Venkatraman |first3=Nilofer |last4=Joshi |first4=Shonar |year=2008 |title=Frommer's India |publisher=Frommer's |isbn=978-0-470-16908-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMqBvtL_nI0C&q=how+to+get+to+darjeeling&pg=PA578 |access-date=2 October 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925232858/https://books.google.com/books?id=qMqBvtL_nI0C&q=how+to+get+to+darjeeling&pg=PA578 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Drew |first1=Georgina |last2=Rai |first2=Roshan P. |title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments |editor1-last=Middleton |editor1-first=Townsend |editor2-last=Shneiderman |editor2-first=Sara |chapter=Connection amidst Disconnection: Water Struggles, Social Structures, and Geographies of Exclusion in Darjeeling |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |pages=220–239 |isbn=978-0-19-948355-6|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199483556.003.0011}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Neelanjan |last2=Ghosh |first2=Anaya |last3=Debnath |first3=Biswajit |last4=Ghosh |first4=Sadhan Kumar |chapter=Climate Change in Hilly Regions of India: Issues and Challenges in Waste Management |pages=657–670 [661–662] |title=Sustainable Waste Management: Policies and Case Studies, 7th IcoSWM–ISWMAW 2017, Volume 1 |editor-last=Ghosh |editor-first=Sadhan Kumar |isbn=978-981-13-7070-0 |year=2020 |publisher=Springer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcHHwQEACAAJ |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015400/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sustainable_Waste_Management_Policies_an/tcHHwQEACAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gellner |first=David N. |chapter=Warriors, Workers, Traders and Peasants: The Nepali/Gorkhali diaspora since the nineteenth century |title=Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora |editor1-last=Chatterji |editor1-first=Joya |editor2-last=Washbrook |editor2-first=David |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-48010-9 |year=2014 |pages=136–150|doi=10.4324/9780203796528-14 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gerrard |first=John |year=1990 |title=Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr/page/256/mode/2up |oclc=20637538 }}
*{{Cite book |last1=Gervais |first1=Daniel J. |last2=Slider |first2=Matthew |chapter=The Geneva Act of the Lisbon Agreement: Controversial Negotiations and Controversial Results |pages=15–46 |publisher=Springer International Publishing AG |year=2017 |editor1-first=William van |editor1-last=Caenegem |editor2-first=Jan |editor2-last=Cleary |title=The Importance of Place: Geographical Indications as a Tool for Local and Regional Development |series=Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice 58 |isbn=978-3-319-53072-7 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-53073-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Melvyn C. |title=A History of Modern Tibet, Volume 4: In the Eye of the Storm: 1957–1959 |publisher=University of California Press |series=The Philip E. Lilienthal imprint series |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-520-27855-4 |lccn=2019001685}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grunfeld |first=A. Tom |title=The Making of Modern Tibet |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |year=2015|orig-year=1996 |isbn=978-1-56324-713-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Dane |year=1996 |title=Magic Mountains: Hill Stations and the British Raj |url=http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft396nb1sf&chunk.id=0&doc.view=printThe |page=265 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20188-0 |access-date=9 January 2016 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015401/https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft396nb1sf&chunk.id=0&doc.view=printThe |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lama |first=Smritima Diksha |chapter=Tea Plantation Workers and the Human Cost of Darjeeling Tea |title=Caste, COVID-19, and inequalities of Care: Lessons from South Asia |editor1-last=Acharya |editor1-first=Sanghmitra S. |editor2-last=Christopher |editor2-first=Stephen |year=2022 |series=People, Culture and Societies:Exploring and Documenting Diversities |pages=333–354 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-16-6916-3|doi=10.1007/978-981-16-6917-0_17}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |year=1986 |title=British India and Tibet, 1766–1910 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |edition=2nd |page=353 |isbn=978-0-7102-0872-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MY4OAAAAQAAJ |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224144830/https://books.google.com/books?id=MY4OAAAAQAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{Cite book |last=Liechty |first=Mark |title=Far Out: Countercultural Seekars and the Tourist Encounter in Nepal |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-42880-2 |lccn=2016028699 |year=2017}}
*{{Cite book |last=Liechty |first=Mark |title=Suitably Modern: Making Middle-Class Cultures in a New Consumer Society |location=Princeton and Oxford |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-691-09592-2|doi=10.1515/9780691221748}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mackintosh |first=L.J. |year=2009 |title=Birds of Darjeeling and India |publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC |edition=2nd |page=322 |isbn=978-1-116-11396-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xY6nB640PKkC |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224144829/https://books.google.com/books?id=xY6nB640PKkC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Mandal |first1=S. |last2=Mondal |first2=S. |title=Geoinformatics and Modelling of Landslide Susceptibility and Risk: An RS & GIS-based Model Building Approach in the Eastern Himalaya |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-10495-5|publisher=Springer International Publishing |series=Environmental Science and Engineering |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-10495-5 |s2cid=189971872 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqGaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=tqGaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |url-status=live }}
*{{Cite book |last=Marie-Vivien |first=Delphine |chapter=Do Geographical Indications for Handicrafts Deserve a Special Regime? Insights from Worldwide Law and Practice |publisher=Springer International Publishing AG |year=2017 |editor1-first=William van |editor1-last=Caenegem |editor2-first=Jan |editor2-last=Cleary |title=The Importance of Place: Geographical Indications as a Tool for Local and Regional Development |series=Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice 58 |volume=58 |pages=221–252 |isbn=978-3-319-53072-7 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-53073-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Middleton |first=Townsend |chapter=Borders, Difference, Recognition: On the Cause(s) of Gorkhaland |title=South Asian Borderlands: Mobility, History, Affect |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |pages=80–101 |editor1-last=Kothiyal |editor1-first=Tanuja |editor2-last=Ibrahim |editor2-first=Ibrahim |isbn=978-1-108-84451-2|doi=10.1017/9781108951500.004|s2cid=239168783 }}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Middleton |editor1-first=Townsend |editor2-last=Shneiderman |editor2-first=Sara |title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-948355-6|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199483556.001.0001}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Mondal |first1=Tarun Kumar |last2=Roychowdhury |first2=Paramita |chapter=Water Scarcity in Himalayan Hill Town: A Study of Darjeeling Municipality, India |pages=363–384 |year=2018 |title=Urban Drought:Emerging Water Challenges in Asia |series=Disaster Risk Reduction: Methods, Approaches and Practices Series |editor1-last=Ray |editor1-first=Bhaswati |editor2-last=Shaw |editor2-first=Rajib |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-10-8946-6 |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-8947-3_21 |s2cid=134349484}}
* {{Cite book |last=Negi |first=Sharad Singh |year=1992 |title=Himalayan wildlife, habitat and conservation |publisher=Indus Publishing |page=207 |isbn=978-81-85182-68-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W88pkms1dXEC |access-date=10 August 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224144831/https://books.google.com/books?id=W88pkms1dXEC |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ortner |first=Sherry B. |title=Life and Death on Mt. Everest: Sherpas and Himalayan Mountaineering |publisher=Princeton University Press|orig-year=1999 |isbn=978-0-691-00689-5 |year=2020|doi=10.1515/9780691211770}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pal |first1=I. |last2=Shaw |first2=R. |title=Disaster Risk Governance in India and Cross Cutting Issues |publisher=Springer Singapore |series=Disaster Risk Reduction |year=2017 |isbn=978-981-10-3310-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urIvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA368 |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331174615/https://books.google.com/books?id=urIvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA368 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Pradhan |first=Queenie |title=Empire in the Hills: Simla, Darjeeling, Ootacamund, and Mount Abu, 1820–1920 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-946355-8|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199463558.001.0001}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rahamtulla |first1=Mohammad |last2=Roy |first2=Ashis Kumar |last3=Khasim |first3=S. M. |chapter=Orchid Diversity in Darjeeling Himalaya, India: Present Status and Conservation |title=Orchid Biology: Recent Trends and Challenges |date=February 2020 |pages=155–188 |editor1-last=Khasim |editor1-first=Shaik Mahammad |editor2-last=Hegde |editor2-first=Sadanand Nagesh |editor3-last=Gonzalez-Arnao |editor3-first=Maria |editor4-last=Thammasiri |editor4-first=Kanchit |isbn=978-981-32-9455-4 |publisher=Springer Nature|doi=10.1007/978-981-32-9456-1_9|s2cid=214201129 }}
<!--* {{Cite book |last1=Ray |first1=B. |last2=Shaw |first2=R. |title=Urban Drought: Emerging Water Challenges in Asia |publisher=Springer Singapore |series=Disaster Risk Reduction |year=2018 |isbn=978-981-10-8947-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_CBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA372}}-->
* {{Cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Nirmal Chandra |last2=Biswas |first2=Debasish |title=Human Resource Management in the Indian Tea Industry |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-67907-1|doi=10.4324/9781003133339|s2cid=234026337 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarker |first=S.P. |title=Refugee Law in India: The Road from Ambiguity to Protection |publisher=Springer |year=2017 |isbn=978-981-10-4806-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9oYotAEACAAJ |access-date=1 August 2022 |archive-date=1 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801054343/https://books.google.com/books?id=9oYotAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Shneiderman |first1=Sara |last2=Middleton |first2=Townsend |title=Darjeeling Reconsidered: Histories, Politics, Environments |editor1-last=Middleton |editor1-first=Townsend |editor2-last=Shneiderman |editor2-first=Sara |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |chapter=Introduction: Reconsidering Darjeeling |pages=1–23 |isbn=978-0-19-948355-6|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199483556.003.0001}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Spate |first1=O. H. K |last2=Learmonth |first2=A. T. A |author1-link=Oskar Spate |title=India and Pakistan: A General and Regional Geography |series=Routledge Library Editions: British in India Series, Volume 12 |location=London and New York; originally London |publisher=Routledge; originally, Methuen and Co. Ltd |year=2017|orig-year=1967 |isbn=978-1-138-29063-1}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Susanne |last2=Taylor |first2=Madeline |chapter=The Aroma of Opportunity: The Potential of Wine Geographical Indications in the Australia-India Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement |publisher=Springer International Publishing AG |year=2017 |editor1-first=William van |editor1-last=Caenegem |editor2-first=Jan |editor2-last=Cleary |title=The Importance of Place: Geographical Indications as a Tool for Local and Regional Development |series=Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice 58 |pages=81–107 |isbn=978-3-319-53072-7 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-53073-4}} 
* {{Cite book |last1=Thakur |first1=Alok Kumar |last2=Das |first2=Aparna |last3=Kumar |first3=Manish |chapter=Vulnerability and Resilience Status of River Systems of North-Eastern India: A Special Reference to Brahmaputra |editor1-last=Mukherjee |editor1-first=Abhijit |title=Riverine Systems: Understanding the Hydrological Hydosocial and Hydro-heritage Dynamics |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-87066-9 |year=2022}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Thapa |first1=Namrata |last2=Tamang |first2=Jyoti Prakash |author2-link=Jyoti Prakash Tamang |chapter=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Beverages of Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills (Gorkhaland Territorial Administration) |pages=479–537 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Beverages of India: Science History and Culture |editor-last=Tamang |editor-first=Jyoti Prakash |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2020 |isbn=978-981-15-1485-2|doi=10.1007/978-981-15-1486-9_18|s2cid=216295554 }}
* {{Cite book |author=West Bengal (India) |title=West Bengal District Gazetteers: Darjeeling |publisher=West Bengal District Gazetteers |series=Gazetteer of India |year=1980 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.08794 |access-date=5 February 2022 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Zivkovic |first=Tanya |title=Death and Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism: In-between bodies |publisher=Routledge |series=Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism Series |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-83067-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Zurick |first1=David |last2=Pacheco |first2=Julsun |others=Basanta Shrestha & Birendra Bajracharya |year=2006 |title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya |location=Lexington |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-7384-9 |oclc=704517519}}
{{Refend}}

==== Journals ====
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Besky |first=Sarah |title=Fixity: On the inheritance and maintenance of tea plantation houses in Darjeeling, India |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=617–361 |issn=0094-0496 |doi=10.1111/amet.12561 |year=2017}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Bhattacharya |first=Nandini |title=Leisure, economy and colonial urbanism: Darjeeling, 1835–1930 |journal=Urban History |volume=40 |issue=3 |date=1 August 2013 |pages=442–461 |pmid=24273391 |doi=10.1017/S0963926813000394 |pmc=3837203}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Trent |last2=Scrase |first2=Timothy J. |last3=Ganguly-Scrase |first3=Ruchira |title=Globalised dreams, local constraints: migration and youth aspirations in an Indian regional town |journal=Children's Geographies |volume=15 |issue=5 |year=2017 |pages=531–544 |doi=10.1080/14733285.2016.1274948 |s2cid=152220638}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dasgupta |first=Atis |year=1999 |title=Ethnic Problems and Movements for Autonomy in Darjeeling |periodical=Social Scientist |volume=27 |issue=11–12 |pages=47–68 |doi=10.2307/3518047 |jstor=3518047 }}
*{{Cite thesis |last=Deuchar |first=Andrew|title=Middle class youth and education in neoliberal India [Thesis] |publisher=Australian Catholic University |doi=10.4226/66/5a963000c689e |url=https://doi.org/10.4226/66/5a963000c689e |year=2013 |type=Thesis |access-date=5 August 2022 |archive-date=15 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815015408/https://acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/item/88406/middle-class-youth-and-education-in-neoliberal-india |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Koner |first1=Kaberi |last2=Samanta |first2=Gopa |title='Where does water go'? A critical analysis of nature of water crisis in Darjeeling city, India |journal=Applied Water Science  |volume=11 |issue=12 |date=6 November 2021 |page=184 |issn=2190-5487 |doi=10.1007/s13201-021-01523-0 |bibcode=2021ApWS...11..184K |s2cid=243767248|doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Koner |first=Kabita |title=Sanitation and Hygiene of Darjeeling City: A Crisis for Women and Adolescent Girls |journal=Space and Culture, India |issn=2052-8396 |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=2018 |doi=10.20896/saci.v5i3.292 |pages=89&ndash;105|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Lama |first1=Mahendra P. |last2=Rai |first2=Roshan P. |title=Chokho Pani: An Interface Between Religion and Environment in Darjeeling |journal=Himalaya |volume=36 |issue=2 |year=2016 |url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol36/iss2/13/ |issn=1935-2212 |access-date=29 July 2022 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712041422/https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol36/iss2/13/ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Nag |first1=Dipanjan |last2=Paul |first2=Subrata Kr. |last3=Saha |first3=Swati |last4=Goswami |first4=Arkopal K. |title=Sustainability assessment for the transportation environment of Darjeeling, India |journal=Journal of Environmental Management |volume=213 |year=2018 |pages=489–502 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.01.042 |pmid=29398182 |bibcode=2018JEnvM.213..489N }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Sujama |last2=Hannam |first2=Kevin |title=Embodying the Mobilities of the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway |journal=Mobilities |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=580–593 |doi=10.1080/17450101.2012.745695 |s2cid=144614737}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Samanta |first1=Gopa |last2=Koner |first2=Kaberi |title=Urban political ecology of water in Darjeeling, India |journal=South Asian Water Studies|volume=6 |issue=1, Special Issue on Urbanization and Periurbanization: Challenges for Water Governance in South Asia |year=2016 |pages=42&ndash;57 |url=http://saciwaters.org/sawasj.php |access-date=3 August 2022 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427084347/http://saciwaters.org/sawasj.php |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Scrase |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Ganguly-Scrase |first2=Ruchira |last3=Deuchar |first3=Andrew |title=Young men, education and ethnicity in contemporary Darjeeling |journal=South Asia Research  |doi=10.1177/0262728015615487 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=98&ndash;114 |year=2016 |s2cid=151733116}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Tamang |first1=Jyoti P. |last2=Sarkar |first2=Prabir K. |last3=Hesseltine |first3=Clifford W. |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740440410 |year=1988 |title=Traditional Fermented Foods and Beverages of Darjeeling |periodical=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=375–385 |url=http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/dspace/bitstream/10113/23778/1/IND88052735.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721071349/http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/dspace/bitstream/10113/23778/1/IND88052735.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://darjeeling.gov.in/public-utility/darjeeling-municipality/ Darjeeling Municipality]

<!-- Templates -->
{{Subject bar
 |b       = 
 |commons = yes
 |d       = yes
 |n       = yes
 |q       = yes
 |s       = yes
 |species = 
 |v       = yes
 |voy     = yes
 |wikt    = yes
}}
{{Darjeeling}}
{{Darjeeling District}}
{{West Bengal topics}}
{{Temple towns in West Bengal}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Darjeeling| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Darjeeling district]]
[[Category:Hill stations in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]