View source for Cuisine of Hawaii

{{short description|Food and drinks from Hawaii}}
{{other uses|Hawaiian cuisine (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox cuisine
| image = Hawaiian-dishes-01.jpg
| caption = Some modern Hawaiian dishes. From top left, clockwise: [[tripe soup|tripe stew]] (''ʻōpū kū''), rice (''laiki''), ''[[Cellana|ʻopihi]] [[Poke (Hawaiian dish)|poke]]'', ''[[laulau]]'', [[squid lūʻau]], ''[[pipikaula]]'' shortribs, ''[[kālua]] puaʻa'' (kālua pig), and ''[[Poi (food)|poi]]'' in the center.
| region = [[Hawaii]]
| national_dish = [[Saimin]]
| national_drink = [[Mai tai]]
| see_also =
}}

{{American cuisine}}
The '''cuisine of Hawaii''' incorporates five distinct styles of food, reflecting the diverse [[food history]] of settlement and immigration in the [[Hawaiian Islands]], primarily originating from [[Polynesian cuisine|Polynesian]], [[North American cuisine|North American]] and [[East Asian cuisine|East Asian]] cuisines.{{Ref label|A|a|none}}

In the pre-contact period of [[Ancient Hawaii]] (300 AD–1778), [[Polynesian navigation|Polynesian voyagers]] brought plants and animals to the Islands. As [[Native Hawaiian]]s settled the area, they fished, raised [[taro]] for ''[[poi (food)|poi]]'', planted coconuts, sugarcane, sweet potatoes and yams, and cooked meat and fish in earth ovens.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Orr |first=Kathy |title=About Hawaiian Foods and Ancient Food Customs |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a3c93e0b-315b-40ab-8d98-765130f4e0dd/content |website=Hawaii.edu}}</ref>

After [[First contact (anthropology)|first contact]] in 1778, [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Cuisine of the United States|American cuisine]] arrived along with missionaries and whalers, who introduced their foods and built large [[sugarcane]] [[Sugar plantations in Hawaii|plantation]]s. [[Christian missionaries]] brought [[New England cuisine]]<ref>Laudan 1996, pp. 173-175,</ref> while whalers introduced [[salted fish]] which eventually transformed into [[lomi salmon|lomilomi salmon]].

As pineapple and sugarcane plantations grew, so did the demand for labor, bringing many immigrant groups to the Islands between 1850 and 1930. Immigrant workers brought cuisines from [[Chinese cuisine|China]], [[Korean cuisine|Korea]], [[Japanese cuisine|Japan]], the [[Philippine cuisine|Philippines]], [[Puerto Rican cuisine|Puerto Rico]] and [[Portuguese cuisine|Portugal]] after arriving in Hawaii, introducing their new foods and influencing the region.

The introduction of new ethnic foods, such as Chinese Cantonese ''[[char siu bao]]'' (''manapua''), [[Portuguese sweet bread]] and ''[[malasada]]s'', Puerto Rican ''[[Pasteles#Puerto Rico|pasteles]]'', and the Japanese ''[[bento]]'', combined with the existing indigenous, European and American foods in the plantation working environments and the local communities.

This blend of cuisines formed a "[[local food]]" style unique to Hawaii, resulting in plantation foods like the [[plate lunch]], snacks like [[Spam musubi]], and dishes like the [[loco moco]]. Shortly after [[World War II]] several well-known local restaurants opened their doors to serve "Hawaiian Food". Chefs further refined the local style and labeled it "[[Hawaii regional cuisine]]" in 1991,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gohawaii.com/experiences/culinary/regional-cuisine|title=Hawaii Regional Cuisine &#124; Go Hawaii|website=www.gohawaii.com}}</ref> a style of cooking that makes use of locally grown ingredients to blend all of Hawaii's historical influences together to form a new [[fusion cuisine]].

==History==
===Pre-contact period===
{{Main|Native Hawaiian cuisine}}{{See also|Ancient Hawaii}}
[[File:Colocasia esculenta P1190432.jpg|thumb|Taro, ''[[Colocasia esculenta]]'', was brought to Hawaii by the Polynesians]]

When [[Polynesia]]n seafarers arrived on the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in 1000–1200 AD, few edible plants existed in the new land, aside from ferns (''[[Cibotium menziesii|hāpuʻu ʻiʻi]],'' whose uncoiled fronds are eaten boiled) and fruits that grew at higher elevations. Botanists and archaeologists believe that the Polynesian voyagers introduced anywhere between 27 and more than 30 plants to the islands, known as [[canoe plants]], mainly for food.<ref name=Laudan_216>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=216}}.</ref> The most important of them was [[taro]].<ref name="ARC_2007_478">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=478}}.</ref>

For centuries taro, and the ''[[poi (food)|poi]]'' made from it, was the main [[Staple food|staple]] of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians brought [[sweet potato]]es. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World.<ref>[http://www.geol.canterbury.ac.nz/people/kari/2004%20Bassett,%20Gordon,%20et%20al.pdf "Gardening at the Edge: Documenting the Limits of Tropical Polynesian Kumara Horticulture in Southern New Zealand"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724015520/http://www.geol.canterbury.ac.nz/people/kari/2004%20Bassett,%20Gordon,%20et%20al.pdf |date=2011-07-24 }}, University of Canterbury</ref>

The [[Marquesan]]s, the first settlers from Polynesia, brought [[breadfruit]] and the [[Tahiti]]ans later introduced the [[Cooking banana|baking banana]]. These settlers from Polynesia also brought [[coconut]]s, [[candlenut]]s (known in Hawaiian as ''kukui'' nuts), and sugarcane.<ref name="ARC_2007_479">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=479}}.</ref> Later generations of these settlers however did not utilise coconuts as much as other related Polynesian groups down south.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Carey D. Miller |last=Miller |first=Carey D. |title=Food Values of Breadfruit, Taro Leaves, Coconut, and Sugar Cane |date=1929 |publisher=[[Bernice P. Bishop Museum]] |location=Honolulu, HI |page=13}}</ref> They found plenty of fish, shellfish, and [[Limu (algae)|limu]] in the new land.<ref name="Laudan_216" /> [[Flightless bird]]s were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking.<ref name="Laudan_216" />

Most [[Pacific islands]] had no meat animals except bats and lizards, so ancient Polynesians sailed the Pacific with pigs, chickens and [[Polynesian Dog|dogs]] as cargo.<ref name="Brennan135">{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|pp=135–138}}.</ref> Pigs were raised for [[animal sacrifice|religious sacrifice]], and the meat was offered at altars, some of which was consumed by priests and the rest eaten in a mass celebration.<ref name="Brennan135" />

The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes.<ref name="Adams90">{{harvnb|Adams|2006|pp=90–92}}.</ref> Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction.<ref name="Brennan139">{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=139}}.</ref>

[[File:Starr 020803-0119 Aleurites moluccana.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Kukui]]'' foliage, flowers, and nut (candlenut) was brought to Hawaii by Polynesians.]]
[[Sea salt]] was a common condiment in ancient Hawaii,<ref name="Kane_1998_53" /> and ''[[inamona]]'', a [[relish]] made of roasted, mashed ''[[kukui]]'' nutmeats, [[sea salt]] and sometimes mixed with [[Edible seaweed|seaweeds]], often accompanied the meals.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" />

At important occasions, a traditional feast, ''‘aha‘aina'', was held. When a woman was to have her first child, her husband started raising a pig for the ''‘Aha‘aina Mawaewae'' feast that was celebrated for the birth of a child. Besides the pig, [[Goatfish|mullet]], shrimp, crab, seaweeds and taro leaves were required for the feast.<ref name="choy_2003_1213">{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|pp=12–13}}.</ref>

The modern name for such feasts, ''[[lū‘au]]'', was not used until 1856, replacing the Hawaiian words ''‘aha‘aina'' and ''pā‘ina''.<ref>{{harvnb|Pukui|Elbert|1986|pp=214}}.</ref> The name ''lū‘au'' came from the name of a food always served at a ''‘aha‘aina,'' young taro tops baked with [[coconut milk]] and chicken or [[Octopus as food|octopus]].

Prior to cooking, pigs and dogs were killed by strangulation or by holding their nostrils shut, in order to conserve the animal's blood.<ref name="Schwabe_171">{{harvnb|Schwabe|1979|p=171}}.</ref> Meat was prepared by flattening out the whole eviscerated animal and broiling it over hot coals, or it was spitted on sticks.<ref name="Schwabe_171" /> Large pieces of meat, such as fowl, pigs and dogs, would be typically cooked in [[earth oven]]s, or spitted over a fire during ceremonial feasts.<ref name="Brennan35">{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|pp=3–5}}.</ref><ref name="Schwabe_171" />

Hawaiian earth ovens, known as an ''[[imu]]'', combine [[roasting]] and [[steaming]] in a method called ''[[kālua]]''. A pit is dug into the earth and lined with [[volcanic rock]]s and other rocks that do not split when heated to a high temperature, such as [[granite]].<ref name="choy_2003_16">{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=16}}.</ref> A fire is built with [[ember]]s, and when the rocks are glowing hot, the embers are removed and the foods wrapped in ''[[Cordyline fruticosa|ti]]'', ginger or banana leaves are put into the pit, covered with wet leaves, mats and a layer of earth. Water may be added through a [[bamboo]] tube to create steam.

The intense heat from the hot rocks cooked food thoroughly—the quantity of food for several days could be cooked at once, taken out and eaten as needed, and the cover replaced to keep the remainder warm.<ref name="Kane_1998_53">{{harvnb|Kane|1998|p=53}}.</ref> Sweet potatoes, taro, breadfruit and other vegetables were cooked in the ''imu'', as well as fish. [[Saltwater eel]] was salted and dried before being put into the ''imu''.<ref name="Brennan271">{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|pp=271–273}}.</ref> Chickens, pigs and [[dog meat|dogs]] were put into the ''imu'' with hot rocks inserted in the abdominal cavities.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" />

Men did all of the cooking, and food for women was cooked in a separate ''imu''; afterwards men and women ate meals separately.{{Ref label|C|c|none}} The ancient practice of cooking with the ''imu'' continues to this day, for special occasions.<ref>{{harvnb|Corum|2000|p=3}}.</ref>

===Post-contact period===
[[File:Native Hawaiian man pounding taro into poi with two children by his sides., c. 1890s.jpg|thumb|Hawaiian man pounding [[taro]] to make [[poi (food)|''poi'']]. Taro plants can be seen growing behind him]]
In 1778, Captain [[James Cook]] arrived at the island of [[Niihau]], leaving a ram goat, ewes, a boar, an English sow, and seeds for melons, pumpkins, and onions.<ref name=HRHAS4546>{{harvnb|HRHAS|1850|pp=45–46}}.</ref> In 1793, Captain [[George Vancouver]] brought the first cattle to the islands; [[Texas longhorn (cattle)|longhorns]] from California were presented to King [[Kamehameha I]].<ref name=Loomis8>{{harvnb|Loomis|2006|p=8}}.</ref><ref name=Barnes_027>{{harvnb|Barnes|1999|pp=27–28}}.</ref>

With no [[natural predator]]s, the new cattle multiplied out of control; the king hired an American man named John Parker to capture and domesticate cattle.<ref name="Barnes_027" /> Many of the cattle were butchered and beef was introduced to Hawaiian cuisine.

In 1813, [[pineapple]] was first cultivated in Honolulu by [[Don Francisco de Paula Marin]],<ref name="Paul253">{{harvnb|Paul|Chen|2003|p=253}}.</ref> a Spanish botanist and advisor to King Kamehameha I.

Although grape vines were introduced by Captain Vancouver around 1792, Marin is credited with the first Hawaiian [[vineyard]] in 1815 and planting the now rare [[Mission (grape)|Mission grape]] variety.<ref name="Miller30">{{harvnb|Miller|Bazore|Robbins|2002|p=30}}.</ref> Marin also brewed the first beer in 1812,<ref name="Adams_2007" /> and planted the first coffee crop in 1817, but his plantings failed.<ref name="Miller25">{{harvnb|Miller|Bazore|Robbins|2002|pp=25–26}}</ref> Marin, called "Manini" by the Hawaiians, experimented with planting oranges, limes, beans, cabbages, potatoes, peaches, melons, [[maize]] and lettuce.

<!-- [[Pineapple]] was brought to Hawaii from [[South America]] by the Spaniards in the early 19th century.<ref name="ARC_2007_484">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=484}}.</ref> -->
By the late 19th century, pineapple and sugarcane plantations owned and run by American settlers took over much of Hawaii's land, and these two crops became the most important sources of revenue for the Hawaiian economy.<ref name="ARC_2007_477">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=477}}.</ref>

====Ethnic foods====
As the plantations of the [[Big Five (Hawaii)|Big Five]] expanded, the demand for labor grew, so the plantation owners hired immigrant workers, which included [[Chinese immigration to Hawaii|Chinese]], [[Koreans]], [[Japanese in Hawaii|Japanese]], [[Filipinos in Hawaii|Filipinos]], and [[Portuguese immigration to Hawaii|Portuguese]]. Each [[ethnic group]] wanted its food in workplaces, and farms and grocery markets were established.

The Chinese immigrants brought [[Cantonese cuisine]], cooking the first [[stir fry]], [[sweet and sour]], and [[dim sum]] dishes in the islands,<ref name="Henderson18">{{harvnb|Henderson|1994|p=18}}.</ref> adding their herbs and spices and served with rice.<ref name="ARC_2007_477" /> Rice cultivation was often done from reuse of wet taro patches (''[[wikt:loʻi#Hawaiian|loʻi]]''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Benjamin D. |last2=Ladefoged |first2=Thegn N. |last3=Asner |first3=Gregory |title=Tracing the resilience and revitalisation of historic taro production in Waipi'o Valley, Hawai'i |journal=[[Journal of the Polynesian Society]] |date=Mar 2015 |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=99–100 |doi=10.15286/jps.124.1.83-109}}</ref> which themselves were the Hawaiians' adaptation of [[Paddy field#Austronesian expansion|paddy agriculture]] by their [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian ancestors]] outlasting ancestral knowledge of the [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia#Oryza sativa (rice)|rice grain]] gradually lost during the [[Austronesian peoples#Migration from Taiwan|expansion]] into the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book|page=262|title=Archaeology of Pacific Oceania: inhabiting a sea of islands |first1=Mike T. |last1=Carson |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-1-138-09717-9 }}</ref> Chinese rice growers imported familiar fish varieties from Asia to stock local streams and irrigation ditches.<ref name="Gabaccia066">{{harvnb|Gabaccia|2000|p=66}}.</ref>

[[Korean immigration to Hawaii]] brought [[kimchi]] and built barbecue pits to cook marinated meats. Korean-style ''[[bulgogi]]'' or boneless meat with moderately sweet garlic sauce and ''[[galbi]]'' or meat with bones and moderately sweet garlic sauce as well, and another Korean favorite ''[[bibimbab]]'' or mixed rice with seasoned vegetables, ''[[namul]]'', sweet and spicy ''[[gochujang]]'' and ''bulgogi'' topping also became an integral part of Hawaiian cuisine.<ref>Poet Paul Lee's commentary for this article, May 14, 2008</ref>

[[File:Hilo Ice Shave.JPG|thumb|145px|[[Hawaiian shave ice]], believed to have been introduced to Hawaii from Japan by Japanese immigrants who ate ''[[kakigōri]]'']]
The [[Portuguese immigration to Hawaii|Portuguese immigrants]] came to Hawaii from the [[Azores]] in the late 19th century,<ref name=Laudan134>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=134}}.</ref> introducing their foods with an emphasis on pork, tomatoes and [[chili pepper]]s, and built ''forno'', their traditional beehive oven, to make ''pão doce'', the [[Portuguese sweet bread]] and ''[[malasada]]''.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" /> [[Whaler]]s brought in salted fish, which ultimately became ''lomi-lomi'' salmon.<ref name="choy_2003_16" />

The Japanese brought ''[[bento]]'' and ''[[sashimi]]'', and, although many of their vegetable seeds would not grow in the climate of the islands, they succeeded in making [[tofu]] and [[soy sauce]].<ref name="ARC_2007_478"/> The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so their cooking relied on frying, steaming, broiling, and [[simmering]], leading to the popularization of [[tempura]] and [[noodle soup]]s in Hawaii.<ref name=Henderson18/>

By the early 20th century, the Japanese were the largest ethnic group and rice became the third-largest crop in the islands.<ref name="Laudan5">{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=5}}.</ref>

<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Descendents of Puerto Rican laborers in Hawaii.JPG|left|thumb|Descendents of Puerto Rican plantation workers in Hawaii]] -->
[[Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii]] began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups, [[casserole]]s, ''[[pasteles]]'', and [[meat turnover]]s.<ref name="Henderson18" />

[[Filipinos]] reached Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the [[Philippine adobo|''adobo'']] style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple besides rice.<ref name="Henderson18" />

[[Samoans]] arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like the ''imu'', and made ''poi'' from fruit instead of taro.<ref name="Henderson18" />

After the [[Vietnam War]] ended in 1975, immigrants from Southeast Asia arrived,<ref>{{harvnb|Corum|2000|p=194}},</ref> bringing [[lemongrass]], [[fish sauce]] and ''[[galangal]]'', popular in [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and [[Vietnamese cuisine]].<ref name="Henderson18" />

===Territorial period – statehood===
{{See also|List of restaurants in Hawaii}}
[[File:Royal Hawaiian Hotel.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Hawaiian Hotel]] was one of the first hotels built along the shores of [[Waikīkī]].]]

The first restaurant in [[Honolulu]] was opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man named Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets.<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=30}}.</ref>

In 1872, the [[Royal Hawaiian Hotel]] opened on Hotel Street, and as one of the most refined hotels in the Pacific, catering to wealthy clients. The Royal Hawaiian dining room served dishes on par with the best restaurants in Europe, with an 1874 menu offering dishes such as mullet, spring lamb, chicken with tomatoes, and [[Cabinet Pudding|cabinet pudding]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=48}}.</ref>

The massive pineapple industry of Hawaii was born when the "Pineapple King", [[James Dole]], planted pineapples on the island of [[Oahu]] in 1901.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" /> In 1922, Dole purchased the island of [[Lanai]] for a large-scale pineapple production. By 1950, his [[Hawaiian Pineapple Company]] was the largest in the world.<ref name="ARC_2007_478" />

In 1905, [[George R. Carter]], [[Territorial Governor of Hawai'i]], promoted increasing local agricultural production, saying that "there was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour, also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here."

Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grown [[guava]]s were rotting on the ground while [[agribusiness]] was planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns were not addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."<ref>{{harvnb|Adams|2006|p=10}}</ref>

Since the 1970s, pineapples have been grown more cheaply in [[Southeast Asia]], so Hawaiian agriculture has taken a diverse approach, producing a variety of crops, including [[squash (plant)|squash]], tomatoes, chili peppers and [[lettuce]].<ref name="ARC_2007_478" />

From 1978 to 1988, chefs who came to Hawaii would avoid Hawaiian-grown ingredients like their European counterparts, preferring to ship everything in from the U.S. mainland, or as far away as Australia, New Zealand, and Europe.<ref name="Henderson_1994_xvi">{{harvnb|Henderson|1994|p=xvi}}</ref>

While eating out was not as prevalent as it is now, local eateries began to establish themselves starting in the 1960s. [[Diners]] and [[drive in]]s served local ethnic foods in addition to the American fare such as Rainbow Drive-in, L&L, Liliha Bakery and Zippy's. Smaller mom-n-pop shops such as [[saimin]] houses, convenience stores were common in neighborhood serving pre-set [[bento]]s or [[a la carte]] items at an ''[[okazuya]]'' (Japanese "deli").<ref>{{cite web |title=All About Okazuya In Hawaii |url=https://onolicioushawaii.com/okazuya/ |website=Onolicious Hawaiʻi |date=3 September 2020}}</ref> Some were even mobile, affectionately known as ''[[manapua|manapua vans]]'' selling small [[dim sum]]-like treats long before [[food truck]] culture became the trend in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Allen |first1=Kevin |title=The Search for the Mysterious and Beloved Manapua Man |url=https://www.hawaiimagazine.com/the-search-for-the-mysterious-and-beloved-manapua-man/ |website=Hawaii Magazine |date=2 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aki |first1=Jacob Bryan |title=A Eulogy For Kalihi's Manapua Man: Thank You For Your Service |url=https://www.civilbeat.org/2019/10/a-eulogy-for-kalihis-manapua-man-thank-you-for-your-service/ |website=Honolulu Civil Beat |language=en |date=31 October 2019}}</ref>

Japanese-American baker [[Robert Taira]], came up with a recipe for the Hawaiian version of sweet Portuguese bread in the 1950s. Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding to [[California]] and [[South Carolina]]. By the 1980s, Taira's company, [[King's Hawaiian Bakery]], was grossing US$20&nbsp;million annually.<ref name=Laudan134/>

====Hawaii regional cuisine====
[[File:Bali Hai seared ahi.jpg|thumb|Seared [[Yellowfin tuna|''ahi'']] and ''[[wasabi]]'' ''[[beurre blanc]]'' sauce]]
Hawaii regional cuisine refers to a style of cooking and the group of chefs who developed it and advocated for it as a distinct Hawaiian [[Fusion cuisine|fusion]] style. The cuisine draws from local ingredients (including seafood, beef and tropical foods), and is a fusion of ethnic culinary influences.<ref>Hawaii Regional Cuisine 2009 Lonely Planet Kauai page 247</ref>

The cuisine style was developed in 1991<ref name="auto"/> by a group of twelve chefs: [[Sam Choy]], Philippe Padovani, Roger Dikon, Gary Strehl, [[Roy Yamaguchi]], Amy Ferguson Ota, [[Jean-Marie Josselin]], [[George Mavrothalassitis]], [[Beverly Gannon]], [[Peter Merriman]], [[Mark Ellman]] and [[Alan Wong]].<ref name="Henderson_1994_xvi" />

The development of Hawaii regional cuisine was a coordinated effort to move away from ingredients shipped over long distances and preparations that copied continental recipes even when they were not well suited to conditions in Hawaii.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=2j54VtQPJu8C&dq=Hawaii+Regional+Cuisine&pg=PA35 Oahu Restaurants and Dining with Honolulu and Waikiki] by Robert Carpenter, Cindy Carpenter page 35</ref><ref>Hawaii Restaurant Guide 2005 - Page 33 https://books.google.com/books?isbn=193175232X</ref> Rather, the group hoped to promote locally sourced ingredients in the hospitality industry while simultaneously informing the world about cuisine in Hawaii.

The goal of the group was to link local ranchers, fishermen and farmers with chefs and business in the hospitality and restaurant industry to develop Hawaii regional cuisine as a reflection of the community.

They took uninspired international and continental hotel cuisine based on imported products and recipes from the mainland and replaced them with dishes and a cuisine based on locally grown foods.<ref name="ARC_2007_479" />

This founding group of chefs worked to publish the 1994 cookbook by Janice Wald Henderson, ''The New Cuisine of Hawaii''. These chefs also sponsored a cookbook to be sold for charity.<ref name="Laudan_1996_7">{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=7}}.</ref>

==Contemporary times==
The continued popularity of Hawaii in the 21st century as a tourist destination has helped spawn Hawaiian-themed and Hawaiian cuisine restaurants in the contiguous United States such as Ono Hawaiian BBQ<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://www.onohawaiianbbq.com/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=Ono Hawaiian BBQ: Aloha in Every Bite|language=en-US}}</ref> and [[L&L Hawaiian Barbecue]]. Its popularity is also reaching Europe, with the restaurant POND Dalston opening in 2014 as first New Hawaiian Cuisine in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dalstonist.co.uk/londons-first-new-hawaiian-restaurant-is-opening-in-dalston/ |title=London's first New Hawaiian restaurant is opening in Dalston &#124; dalstonist |access-date=2014-08-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115033/http://dalstonist.co.uk/londons-first-new-hawaiian-restaurant-is-opening-in-dalston/ |archive-date=2014-08-26 }}</ref> There are also many Hawaiian-made specialties such as Lilikoi açaí bowls from places like Ono Yo on the North Shore of Oahu. 
There are also branded items such as [[Mauna Loa macadamia nuts]]. Sugarcane producer [[Alexander & Baldwin]] continues to operate and has diversified into other businesses.

[[Dole Food Company]] is based in Hawaii and still has a pineapple operation on Oahu. [[Maui Land & Pineapple Company]] ceased production in 2009. Some of its assets and employees are involved in the Haliʻimaile Pineapple Company startup and Kapalua Farms organic pineapple operation was taken over by Ulupono Sustainable Agriculture Development with backing from [[Pierre Omidyar]]. Beer producer [[Kona Brewing Company]] and the [[Volcano Winery]] are active.

Local eateries include the [[Zippy's]] chain. [[Foodland Hawaii]] is a grocery chain. There are also distinctive and historic business operations such as [[Kanemitsu Bakery]], Helena's Hawaiian Food,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Helena's Hawaiian Food {{!}} Serving great Hawaiian food since 1946!|url=https://www.helenashawaiianfood.com/index.html|access-date=2021-03-24|website=www.helenashawaiianfood.com}}</ref> Common Ground Kauai,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home|url=https://commongroundkauai.com/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=commongroundkauai.com|language=en}}</ref> [[Anna Miller's]], Nisshodo Candy Store,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nisshodo Candy Store|url=http://index.html/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=index.html|language=en}}</ref> [[Maui Tacos]] and Waiʻoli Tea Room & Bakery at [[Salvation Army Waiʻoli Tea Room]].

Roy Yamaguchi's [[Roy's]] and various cookbooks promoting Hawaiian regional cuisine have also helped popularize Hawaiian cuisine and Hawaiian fusion cuisine.

== Ingredients ==
===Vegetables, fruits and nuts===
[[File:Pandanus tectorius fruit.jpg|thumb|right|''Hala'', the fruit of the ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]'' tree]]
* [[Taro]] (''Colocasia esculenta'')—a popular and ancient plant that has been harvested for at least 30,000 years by indigenous people in [[New Guinea]].<ref name=Brennan252>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|pp=252–267}}.</ref> There are hundreds of varieties of taro, and the [[corm]] of the [[wetland]] variety makes the best ''[[poi (food)|poi]]'',<ref name=ARC_2007_478 /> as well as taro starch or flour. The dry-land variety has a crispy texture and is used for making taro chips. The smaller American variety is used for [[stew|stewed dishes]].<ref name=ARC_2007_478 />
* [[Breadfruit]] (''Artocarpus altilis'')
* [[Sweet potato]]es
* [[Candle nut]] (''Aleurites moluccana'') or ''kukui''—roasted kernels traditionally used as candles, main ingredient in the ancient Hawaiian condiment, '''inamona''
* [[Coconut]] (''Cocos nucifera'')
* [[Polynesian arrowroot]] (''Tacca leontopetaloides'') or ''pia'' plant—cooked arrowroot is mixed with papaya, banana, or pumpkin in baked desserts; ''[[haupia]]'', a Hawaiian coconut cream pudding, uses it as a thickener.
* ''Ti'' (''[[Cordyline fruticosa]]'')—after distillation came to Hawaii, the root of the ''ti'' was turned into liquor called ''[[okolehao|ʻōkolehao]]''. The leaves are used as a wrapper for food cooked in the ''[[imu]]'' earth oven, such as ''[[laulau]]''.
* [[Winged bean]] (''Psophocarpus tetragonolobus'')
* [[Jicama]]

===Spam===
[[File:Spam musubi dllu.jpg|thumb|[[Spam musubi|Spam ''musubi'']], a fusion of Japanese [[onigiri]] using fried [[Spam (food)|Spam]]. Spam was brought to Hawaii during World War II and popularized on the islands, with spam musubi appearing in the 1980s]]

The [[Hormel]] company's canned meat product [[Spam (food)|Spam]] has been highly popular in Hawaii for decades. Per capita, Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behind [[Guam]].<ref name=Adams58/> Originally brought to Hawaii by American servicemen in their [[United States military ration|rations]],<ref name=Kulick>{{harvnb|Kulick|Meneley|2005|p=187}}.</ref> Spam became an important source of protein for locals after fishing around the islands was prohibited during [[World War II]].<ref name=ARC_2007_479/> In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five&nbsp;million cans of Spam.<ref name=Adams58>{{harvnb|Adams|2006|pp=58–59}}.</ref>

Spam is used in local dishes in a variety of ways, most commonly fried and served with rice. For breakfast, fried eggs are often served with spam.<ref name=Adams58/> Spam can also be wrapped in ''ti'' and roasted, skewered and [[Deep frying|deep fried]],<ref name=ARC_2007_479/> or [[stir-fried|stir fried]] with cabbage.<ref name=Adams58/>

It is added to ''[[saimin]] '' and [[fried rice]], mashed with tofu, or served with cold ''[[sōmen]]'' or baked [[macaroni and cheese]].

It is also used in [[chutney]] for ''[[Pu pu platter#Hawaiian origin and etymology|pupus]]'', in sandwiches with [[mayonnaise]], or baked with guava jelly.<ref name=Adams58/> [[Spam musubi]], a slice of fried Spam upon a bed of rice wrapped with a strip of ''[[nori]]'', is a popular snack in Hawaii which found its way onto island sushi menus in the 1980s.<ref name=Adams58/>

===Beef===
In the 19th century, John Parker brought over Mexican cowboys to train the Hawaiians in [[cattle ranching]].<ref name=Barnes_027/> The Hawaiian cowboys of [[Kamuela]] and [[Kula, Hawaii|Kula]] came to be called ''[[paniolo]]s''.

Cattle ranching grew rapidly for the next 100 years. In 1960, half of the land in Hawaii was devoted to ranching for beef export, but by 1990 the number had shrunk to 25&nbsp;percent.<ref name="Miller_83">{{harvnb|Miller|Latham|Flynn|1998|p=83}}.</ref> The ''paniolos'' chewed ''[[pipikaula]]'' ("beef rope"), a salted and dried beef that resembles [[beef jerky]].<ref name="Adams_98"/> ''Pipikaula'' would usually be [[broil]]ed before serving.<ref>{{harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=63}}.</ref> With the influence of Asian cooking, beef strips are commonly marinated in [[soy sauce]].<ref name="Adams_98"/>

When beef is dried in the sun, a screened box is traditionally used to keep the meat from dust and flies. Dried meat could often be found as a relish or appetizer at a ''lū‘au''.<ref name="Adams_98">{{harvnb|Adams|2006|p=98}}.</ref>

===Fish and seafood===
{{see also|List of Hawaiian seafood}}
[[File:Poke bowl Maui Hawaii (45689701672).jpg|thumb|[[Poke (Hawaii)|Poke]] bowl, Maui, Hawaii]]
[[File:Tako Poke.jpg|thumb|175px|Tako (octopus) [[Poke (Hawaii)|poke]] with tomatoes, green onion, [[maui onion]], soy sauce, sesame oil, sea salt, chili pepper]]

[[Tuna]] is the most important fish in Hawaiian cuisine.<ref name="ARC_2007_480">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=480}}.</ref> Varieties include the [[skipjack tuna]] (''aku''), the [[yellowfin tuna]] (''ahi''), and the [[albacore tuna]] (''tombo'').

''Ahi'' in particular has a long history, since ancient Hawaiians used it on long ocean voyages because it is well preserved when salted and dried.<ref name=Laudan265_276>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|pp=265–276}}.</ref> A large portion of the local tuna fishery goes to Japan to be sold for [[sashimi]].<ref name="ARC_2007_480" /> Tuna is eaten as sashimi in Hawaii as well, but is also grilled or [[sautéed]], or made into [[Poke (Hawaii)|poke]].

The [[marlin|Pacific blue marlin]] (''kajiki'') is [[barbecue]]d or grilled at high temperatures, but for a relatively short period of time to avoid overcooking due to its very low fat content.<ref name="ARC_2007_480" /> The [[swordfish|broadbill swordfish]] (''shutome''), popular and shipped all over the mainland United States, is high in fat and its [[steak]]s may be grilled, broiled, or used in [[Stir frying|stir-fries]]. The [[grouper]]s (''hapuu'') are most often steamed. The [[red snapper (fish)|red snapper]] (''onaga'') is steamed, [[poaching (cooking)|poached]], or baked. The [[pink snapper]] (''opakapaka'') has a higher fat, and is steamed or baked, served with a light sauce. The [[wahoo]] (''ono'') is grilled or sautéed, and the [[dolphin fish]] (''mahimahi'') is usually cut into steaks and fried or grilled. The [[Monodactylidae|moonfish]] (''opah'') is used for broiling, [[smoking (cooking)|smoking]], or making sashimi. <!--[[Mussel]]s-->

[[Poke (Hawaii)|Poke]] is a local cuisine that originally involved preserving raw fish or other seafood such as octopus with [[sea salt]] and rubbing it (''lomi'') with seasonings or cutting it into small pieces. Seasonings made of seaweed, [[kukui nut]], and sea salt were traditionally used for the Hawaiian poke.

Since [[First contact (anthropology)|first contact]] with Western and Asian cultures, [[scallion]]s, chili peppers, and soy sauce have become common additions to it.<ref name="WG_2007">{{harvnb|Piianaia|2007|loc=[http://www.waimeagazette.com/sept97_poke.htm Waimea Gazette]}}</ref>

Poke is different from [[sashimi]], since the former is usually rough-cut and piled onto a plate, and can be made with less expensive pieces of fish.<ref name="ARC_2007_485">{{harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=485}}.</ref>

<!--Poke is a relatively recent food tradition rather than a practice based in traditions of ancient Hawaii.<ref name=Long116>{{harvnb|Long|2003|pp=116}}.</ref> ''Hawaiian Dictionary'' defines it as "to slice, cut crosswise into pieces, as fish or wood; to press out as the meat of an ''opihi'' shell",<ref>{{harvnb|Pukui|Elbert|1986|pp=311}}.</ref> and does not have references to poke as a fish dish. In account of Hawaiian uses of fish and the first ethnic cookbooks, there is no mention of poke as a fish dish.<ref>{{harvnb|Lauden|1996|pp=147}}.</ref> The Hawaiian liking for raw fish appears to be a recent phenomenon, since such custom is absent from many anthropological accounts of the Hawaii islands.<ref name=Long116/>-->
During the early 1970s, poke became an [[appetizer]] to have with beer or to bring to a party.<ref name=Long116>{{harvnb|Long|2003|pp=116}}.</ref>

===Spices===
Showing the island's Asian influence, common Asian spices include [[five-spice powder]] from China, ''[[wasabi]]'' and [[Soy sauce|''shoyu'' (soy sauce)]] from Japan, and ''[[bagoong]]'' from the Philippines.

== Dishes ==
{{Main|List of Hawaiian dishes}}
[[File:Loco Moco.jpg|200px|thumb|A [[loco moco]] [[plate lunch]], with fried [[saimin]] and [[macaroni salad]]]]
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Chicken long rice]]—chicken stewed with ginger, green onions, and rice vermicelli/mung bean thread
* ''[[Kālua]]'' pig—[[pulled pork]], popularly cooked with cabbage
* [[Crack seed]]—Chinese-style preserved fruits
* ''[[Lau lau]]''—traditional preparation include pieces of salted black cod and pork wrapped in [[taro]] leaves and a [[Cordyline fruticosa|''ti'']] leaf, but variations may include other proteins such as fish, chicken, and/or beef
* [[Loco moco]]—hamburger steak over rice, topped with brown gravy and eggs
* [[Lomi salmon]]—cubed salt-cured salmon combined with tomatoes and [[onion]]
* ''[[Luau (food)|Luau]]''–taro leaves stewed in coconut milk/cream.
* ''[[Malasada]]''—chewy deep fried donut coated with sugar
* ''[[Manapua]]''—A ''[[cha siu bao]]'' 2-3x larger, but other popular fillings include [[lup cheong]], Okinawan sweet potatoes, chicken curry 
* [[Mochi]]—various glutinous rice desserts/candy
* [[Onigiri|''Musubi'']]-rice balls often topped with cured meats such as [[SPAM musubi|SPAM]], hot dogs, or [[Göteborg musubi|Göteborg sausage]]
* ''[[Cellana|Opihi]]''—edible [[limpets]], ''[[Cellana sandwicensis]]'' and ''[[Cellana exarata]]''
* ''[[Pasteles]]''
* [[Plate lunch]] ({{langx|haw|pā mea ʻai}})
* [[poi (food)|''Poi'']]—pureed taro corm
* [[Portuguese sweet bread]]
* ''[[Saimin]]''—[[noodle soup]] of soft wheat [[egg noodles]] served in a hot ''[[dashi]]'' garnished with [[Scallion|green onions]], ''[[kamaboko]]'', and ''[[char siu]]''.<ref>[http://www.fodors.com/news/story_4105.html Top 10 Hawaiian food to try] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031035510/https://www.fodors.com/news/top-10-hawaiian-4105 |date=2022-10-31 }} Fodor's</ref>
{{div col end}}

<gallery class="center" caption="" widths="200px" heights="170px">
File:Ahi limu poke.jpg|[[Ahi tuna]] [[Limu (algae)|limu]] (seaweed) [[ahi poke]]
File:SPAM musubi.jpg|[[Spam musubi]]
Image:Wontonsaimin.jpg|Wonton saimin
</gallery>

==Drinks==
* [[Kava]] (''Piper methysticum'') (''{{okina}}awa'') is a traditional soporific beverage of Oceania thought to have originated in [[Vanuatu]].<ref name=Brennan230>{{harvnb|Brennan|2000|pp=230–231}}.</ref> In modern times, [[kava bar]]s have experienced some popularity in Hawaii, with commercial kava plantations on Maui, Molokai, Kauai, and Oahu.

===Alcoholic beverages===
* Hawaiian tropical [[Tiki culture|tiki]] [[cocktail]]s like the [[Blue Hawaii (drink)|Blue Hawaii]] make use of [[rum]]. The rum is blended with a variety of [[tropical fruit]] juices and served with a decorative piece of fruit.<ref name=Schindler_14>{{harvnb|Schindler|Schindler|1981|p=14}}.</ref> 
* ''[[Okolehao]]'' is an old Hawaiian [[liquor]] distilled from the fermented root of the ''ti'' plant.<ref name=Schindler_14/>
* [[Hawaii wine|Hawaiian wine]] is produced mostly on the island of [[Maui]] and the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]].
* [[List of breweries in Hawaii|Hawaiian beer]] is represented by the largest [[brewpub]] in the state, [[Kona Brewing Company]]. From 1901 to 1998, "Primo" was one of the most popular Hawaiian beers, and as of 2008, has returned to production, though it is now brewed in California.
:Historically, [[craft beer]]s (microbrews) have been slow to take off in Hawaii due to a restrictive state law on brewpub sales. However, the law changed in 2003, and [[Growler (beer)|growlers]] are now available. The Maui Brewing Co.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maui Brewing Company|url=https://mauibrewingco.com/|access-date=2021-03-24|website=Maui Brewing Company|language=en-US}}</ref> is the largest Hawaiian packaged beer brewer.<ref name=Adams_2007>{{harvnb|Adams|2007|loc=[http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Nov/28/il/hawaii711280363.html The Honolulu Advertiser]}}</ref> (see also [[List of breweries in Hawaii]]).

==See also==
{{cookbook}}
* [[List of American regional and fusion cuisines]]
* [[Oceanic cuisine]]
{{Portalbar|Hawaii|Food|Wine|Beer|Drink}}

==Notes==
{{refbegin}}
'''a.''' {{Note label|A|a|none}} Food historian [[Rachel Laudan]] (1996) on four distinct types of food ''plus'' a new, ''fifth'' type known as "Hawaiian Regional Cuisine" (HRC) that began in 1991. Because HRC was so new at the time of Laudan's book, she only briefly touches upon it: "I came to understand that what people in Hawaii eat is a mixture of four distinct kinds of food, introduced at distinct periods, but now all coexisting. The first three reflect the three diasporas that have terminated in Hawaii: the great marine diaspora of the Pacific Islanders that probably reached the Hawaiian Islands sometime in the third century A.D..; the European voyages of discovery that finally came upon the Islands in the late eighteenth century; and the long migration of the Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Koreans, Filipinos, and lately, Southeast Asians, most of whom came to work on the plantations. From these diverse traditions, a fourth, an East-West-Pacific food, is now being created, known in the Islands as Local Food.<ref name=Laudan_3>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=3}}.</ref> [...] But there is another cuisine in the Islands that attracts attention, Hawaii Regional Cuisine...[it] was created by forces quite different from those that drive Local Food...although the forces creating Hawaii Regional Cuisine and Local Food were different, their current cross-fertilization can be nothing but mutually beneficial, creating a firm regional base for the cuisine of the restaurants and increasing sophistication for the cuisine of the home and the street."<ref name=Laudan_7>{{harvnb|Laudan|1996|pp=7–8}}.</ref>

'''b.''' {{Note label|B|b|none}} The early settlement history of Hawaiʻi is not completely resolved. One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the third century from the Marquesas and were followed by Tahitian settlers in 1300&nbsp;AD who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that there was an extended period of contact but not necessarily for a Tahitian invasion.<ref name=Kirch_080>{{harvnb|Kirch|2001|p=80}}.</ref>

'''c.''' {{Note label|C|c|none}} Men and women ate their meals separately to preserve the distinction between male and female ''[[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|mana]]'', which was thought to be blurred by both sexes handling the same food. In addition, some foods were forbidden to women, such as pork, certain kinds of fish and most types of bananas.<ref name="Kane_1998_53" />
{{refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Cuisine of the United States}}
{{Oceanian topic|| cuisine}}
{{cuisine}}

{{Hawaii}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Cuisine Of Hawaii}}
[[Category:Cuisine of Hawaii| ]]
[[Category:American cuisine by state|Hawaii]]