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{{short description|Full-scale anthropomorphic test devices that simulate human bodies in vehicle crash testing}}
{{for-multi|the band|Crash Test Dummies|the series of toys|The Incredible Crash Dummies}}
[[File:CEP1710-58.jpg|thumb|Two male Hybrid III crash test dummies inside a [[Subaru Outback]].]]

A '''crash test dummy''', or simply '''dummy''', is a full-scale [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] test device (ATD) that simulates the dimensions, weight proportions and articulation of the [[human body]] during a [[traffic collision]]. Dummies are used by researchers, [[automobile]] and [[aircraft]] manufacturers to predict the injuries a person might sustain in a crash.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.roadandtrack.com/special-reports/smarter-crash-test-dummies|title=Smart Crash Test Dummies – The Latest Car Safety Tech – RoadandTrack.com|author=Nick Kurczewski|work=Road & Track|access-date=2 June 2015|date=2011-01-20}}</ref> Modern dummies are usually instrumented to record [[data]] such as [[velocity]] of impact, crushing [[force]], bending, folding, or [[torque]] of the body, and [[deceleration]] rates during a collision.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/accidents-hazardous-conditions/crash-test.htm | title=How Crash Testing Works | date=2 March 2001 }}</ref>

Prior to the development of crash test dummies, automobile companies tested using human [[Cadaver|cadavers]], animals and live volunteers.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.motorbiscuit.com/the-humble-history-of-the-crash-test-dummy/ | title=The Humble History of the Crash Test Dummy | date=4 August 2019 }}</ref> Cadavers have been used to modify different parts of a car, such as the seatbelt.<ref name=":2" /> This type of testing may provide more realistic test results than using a dummy,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marquis |first=Erin |date=2018-10-31 |title=How Dead Bodies Save Lives Every Day on the Road |url=https://jalopnik.com/how-dead-bodies-save-lives-every-day-on-the-road-1830099885 |access-date=2023-02-01 |website=[[Jalopnik]] |language=en}}</ref> but it raises ethical dilemmas<ref name="LA Times" /> because human cadavers and animals are not able to consent to research studies. Animal testing is not prevalent today.<ref name="new york" /> [[Computational mechanics|Computational models]] of the human body are increasingly being used in the industry and research to complement the use of dummies as virtual tools.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/26497281.html|title=Toyota Updates its THUMS Virtual Crash Dummy Software {{!}} Corporate {{!}} Global Newsroom|last=CORPORATION|first=TOYOTA MOTOR|website=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website|language=en|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ghbmc.com/|title=Home|website=GHBMC|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-02}}</ref>

There is a constant need for new testing because each new vehicle has a different design, and as technology changes ATDs must be developed to accurately test safety and efficacy.

== History ==

On August 31, 1869, [[Mary Ward (scientist)|Mary Ward]] became the first recorded victim of an [[automobile accident]]; the car involved was steam-powered ([[Karl Benz]] did not invent the gasoline-powered automobile until 1886). Ward, of [[Parsonstown, Ireland]], was thrown out of a motor vehicle and killed.<ref name="OHAS">{{cite web|url=http://www.offalyhistory.com/content/reading_resources/famous_people/ward_mary.htm |title=Mary Ward 1827–1869 |work=Famous Offaly People |publisher=Offaly Historical & Archaeological Society |access-date=April 25, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927051623/http://www.offalyhistory.com/content/reading_resources/famous_people/ward_mary.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref>  Thirty years later, on September 13, 1899, [[Death of Henry H. Bliss|Henry Bliss]] became [[North America]]'s first motor vehicle fatality when hit while stepping off a [[New York City]] [[tram|trolley]]. 
The need for a means of analyzing and mitigating the effects of motor vehicle accidents on humans was felt soon after commercial production of automobiles began in the late 1890s, and by the 1930s, when the automobile became a common part of daily life and the number of motor vehicle deaths were rising. Death rates had surpassed 15.6 fatalities per 100 million vehicle-miles continue to climb. (Currently, according to the [[CDC]], each year approximately 1.35 million people are killed on roadways around the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/injury/features/global-road-safety/index.html | title=Road Traffic Injuries and Deaths—A Global Problem | work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | date=14 December 2020 }}</ref>).

In 1930 cars had [[dashboard]]s of rigid metal, non-collapsible steering columns, and protruding knobs, buttons, and levers. Without seat belts, passengers in a frontal collision could be hurled against the interior of the automobile or through the [[windshield]]. The vehicle body itself was rigid, and impact forces were transmitted directly to the vehicle occupants. As late as the 1950s, [[List of automobile manufacturers|car manufacturers]] were on public record as saying that vehicle accidents simply could not be made survivable because the forces in a crash were too great.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}

===Cadaver testing===
[[File:B11510P002.jpg|thumb|Cadaver used during a frontal impact test.]]
[[Detroit]]'s [[Wayne State University]] was the first to begin serious work on collecting data on the effects of high-speed collisions on the human body. In the late 1930s there was no reliable data on how the human body responds to the sudden, violent forces acting on it in an automobile accident. Furthermore, no effective tools existed to measure such responses.
[[Biomechanics]] was a field barely in its infancy. It was therefore necessary to employ two types of test subjects in order to develop initial data sets.

The first test subjects were human [[cadaver]]s. They were used to obtain fundamental information about the human body's ability to withstand the crushing and tearing forces typically experienced in a high-speed accident. To such an end, steel [[ball bearing]]s were dropped on [[human skull|skulls]], and bodies were dumped down unused [[elevator]] shafts onto steel plates. Cadavers fitted with crude [[accelerometer]]s were strapped into automobiles and subjected to head-on collisions and vehicle rollovers.

Albert King's 1995 ''Journal of Trauma'' article, "Humanitarian Benefits of Cadaver Research on Injury Prevention", clearly states the value in human lives saved as a result of cadaver research. King's calculations indicate that as a result of design changes implemented up to 1987, cadaver research since saved 8,500 lives annually.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=King |first1=Albert I. |last2=Viano |first2=David C. |last3=Mizeres |first3=Nicholas |last4=States |first4=John D. |title=Humanitarian Benefits of Cadaver Research on Injury Prevention |journal=The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care |date=April 1995 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=564–569 |doi=10.1097/00005373-199504000-00016 |pmid=7723096 }}</ref> He notes that for every cadaver used, each year 61 people survive due to wearing [[seat belt]]s, 147 live due to [[air bag]]s, and 68 survive windshield impact.

However, work with cadavers presented almost as many problems as it resolved. Not only were there the [[morals|moral]] and [[ethics|ethical]] issues related to working with the dead, but there were also research concerns. The majority of cadavers available were older adult males who had died non-violent deaths; they did not represent a [[demography|demographic]] cross-section of accident victims. Deceased accident victims could not be employed because any data that might be collected from such experimental subjects would be compromised by the cadaver's previous injuries. Since no two cadavers are the same, and since any specific part of a cadaver could only be used once, it was extremely difficult to achieve reliable comparison data. In addition, child cadavers were not only difficult to obtain, but both legal and [[public opinion]] made them effectively unusable. Moreover, as crash testing became more routine, suitable cadavers became increasingly scarce. As a result, [[biometric]] data were limited in extent and skewed toward the older males.

Very little attention has been paid to obesity and car crash studies, and it is hard to obtain an obese dummy for the experiment. Instead, human cadavers were used. Body weight is a vital factor when it comes to automobile accidents, and body mass is distributed differently in an obese person versus a non-obese person.<ref name="cushion" /> At the University of Michigan, obese cadavers were tested and compared to non-obese cadavers, and they found that the obese cadavers had more injuries in their lower extremities. The researchers also suggested that an obese person could be protected by their fat almost causing a "cushioning effect."<ref name="cushion">{{cite journal |last1=Kent |first1=Richard W. |last2=Forman |first2=Jason L. |last3=Bostrom |first3=Ola |title=Is There Really a 'Cushion Effect'?: A Biomechanical Investigation of Crash Injury Mechanisms in the Obese |journal=Obesity |date=April 2010 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=749–753 |doi=10.1038/oby.2009.315 |pmid=19798067 |s2cid=20464616 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The use of NDTs or Neutral Density Targets were implemented inside cadavers' brains to focus on the impact and separation of the brain and skull. NDTs provided detailed observations and allowed researchers to look at a specific area of the brain after the crash stimulation. It also helped to establish and develop the Finite Element model, initially developed to measure neck injuries for three-year-olds. A real child's neck was interpreted and incorporated into the FE model. FE models of the human head have become increasingly more important to the study of head injury.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Warren N.|first=Hardy|date=2007|title=A Study of the Response of the Human Cadaver Head to Impact|pmc=2474809|journal=Stapp Car Crash|series=SAE Technical Paper Series |pmid=18278591|ref=NCBI|volume=51|pages=17–80|doi=10.4271/2007-22-0002 }}</ref>

=== Volunteer testing ===
[[File:Rocket sled track.jpg|thumb|[[John Stapp|Colonel Stapp]] riding a rocket sled at [[Edwards Air Force Base]]]]
Some researchers took it upon themselves to serve as crash test dummies. In 1954, [[United States Air Force|USAF]] Colonel [[John Stapp|John Paul Stapp]] was propelled to over 1000&nbsp;km/h on a [[rocket sled]] and stopped in 1.4 seconds.<ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/library/docfree.asp?DOCID=1G1:60302597&ctrlInfo=Round19%3AMode19a%3ADocG%3AResult&ao= 'Fastest Man on Earth,' Col. John Paul Stapp, Dies at 89]{{Dead link|date=June 2016}} (March 1, 2000). Retrieved April 18, 2006.</ref> [[Lawrence Patrick]], then a professor at Wayne State University, endured some 400 rides on a rocket sled in order to test the effects of rapid deceleration on the human body. He and his students allowed themselves to be hit in the chest with heavy metal [[pendulum]]s, impacted in the face by pneumatically driven rotary hammers, and sprayed with shattered glass to simulate window implosion.<ref>Roach, Mary (November 19, 1999). [http://www.salon.com/health/col/roac/1999/11/19/crash_test/index.html I was a human crash-test dummy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060328025602/http://www.salon.com/health/col/roac/1999/11/19/crash_test/index.html |date=March 28, 2006}}. Salon.com. Retrieved November 29, 2007.</ref> While admitting that it made him "a little sore", Patrick has said that the research he and his students conducted was seminal in developing [[mathematical model]]s against which further research could be compared. While data from live testing was valuable, human subjects could not withstand tests that exceeded a certain degree of physical injury. To gather information about the causes and prevention of injuries and fatalities would require a different kind of test subject.

=== Animal testing ===
By the mid-1950s, the bulk of the information cadaver testing could provide had been collected. It was also necessary to collect data on accident survivability, research for which cadavers were woefully inadequate. In concert with the shortage of cadavers, this need forced researchers to seek other models. A description by [[Mary Roach]] of the ''Eighth Stapp Car Crash and Field Demonstration Conference'' shows the direction in which research had begun to move. "We saw [[chimpanzee]]s riding rocket sleds, a [[bear]] on an impact swing...We observed a [[pig]], [[anesthesia|anesthetized]] and placed in a sitting position on the swing in the harness, crashed into a deep-dish steering wheel at about 10 mph."<ref>[http://archive.salon.com/health/col/roac/1999/11/19/crash_test/index1.html I was a human crash-test dummy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125034009/http://archive.salon.com/health/col/roac/1999/11/19/crash_test/index1.html |date=November 25, 2005}} (November 19, 1999).</ref>

One important research objective that could not be achieved with either cadavers or live humans was a means of reducing the injuries caused by [[impalement]] on the [[steering column]]. By 1964, over a million fatalities resulting from [[steering wheel]] impact had been recorded, a significant percentage of all fatalities; the introduction by [[General Motors]] in the early 1960s of the collapsible steering column reduced the risk of steering-wheel death by fifty percent.

Pigs were used for steering wheel impacts and other cabin collisions because they have an internal structure similar to humans, and can be easily placed correctly via sitting upright in the vehicle.<ref name="live animals"/> The ability to sit upright was an important requirement for test animals so that another common fatal injury among human victims, [[decapitation]], could be studied. Additionally, it was important for researchers to be able to determine to what extent cabin design needed to be modified to ensure optimal survival circumstances. For instance, a [[dashboard]] with too little padding or padding that was too stiff or too soft would not significantly reduce head injury over a dash with no padding at all. While knobs, levers, and buttons are essential in the operation of a vehicle, it was essential to determine which design modifications would best ensure that these elements did not tear or puncture victims in a crash. [[Rear-view mirror]] impact is a significant occurrence in a [[Traffic collision|frontal collision]]: How should a mirror be built so that it is rigid enough to perform its task, yet of low injury risk if struck?

While work with cadavers had aroused some opposition, primarily from religious institutions, it was grudgingly accepted because the dead, being dead, felt no [[pain]], and the indignity of their situations was directly related to easing the pain of the living. Animal research, on the other hand, aroused much greater passion. Animal rights groups such as the [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] (ASPCA) were vehement in their protest, and while researchers such as Patrick supported animal testing because of its ability to produce reliable, applicable data, there was nonetheless a strong ethical unease about this process. Researchers at the University of Virginia have to call the cadaver's family and tell them what they are using their loved one for, after getting consent from the family. This seems to lessen ethical dilemmas in contrast to animal testing, because there is no sufficient way to get consent to use an animal.<ref name="LA Times">{{Cite news|last1=Marshall|first1=Tyler|title=Auto Safety Crash Testing Ignites Furor : Germany: The program uses human bodies. U.S. tests using cadavers at 3 universities are disclosed.|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-11-25-mn-60691-story.html|access-date=15 February 2016|work=Los Angeles Times|date=25 November 1993}}</ref>

Although animal test data were still more easily obtained than cadaver data, the anatomical differences between animals and people and the difficulty of employing adequate internal instrumentation limited their usefulness. Animal testing is no longer practiced by any of the major automobile makers; General Motors discontinued live testing in 1993 and other manufacturers followed suit shortly thereafter.

In 1980, animals such as bears and pigs were tested in car crash simulations. This led to moral dilemmas and was not the first time that animals were used in car crashes. In 1978, The [[University of Michigan]] Highway Safety Research Institute used baboons as a substitute for human test subjects in car crashes. Although there was the objection of animal cruelty that arose, there was also the controversy of how they are similar to humans and can be used as a sufficient testing substitution for us.<ref name="live animals" /> The researchers did not end up stopping the use of baboons because of moral objections, but instead stopped because they had collected sufficient data. The moral inputs from other people and organizations were inconsistent, which caused implications when deciding to ban healthy animals from research testing. The animals were put under anesthesia, so there was no pain put upon them, but the aftereffects cannot justify this.<ref name="live animals">{{cite journal |last1=Heneson |first1=Nancy |title=Live Animals in Car Crash Studies |journal=International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems |date=1980 |volume=1 |issue=14 |pages=214–217 |url=https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/acwp_arte/19/ }}</ref> General Motors used animals for testing, and also suggested that they put the animals under anesthesia and then would kill the animals after completing the testing.<ref name="new york">{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/28/us/19000-.html | title=Animals Killed in Automotive Crash Tests | work=[[The New York Times]] | date=September 28, 1991 | access-date=26 March 2016}}</ref>

Although the University of Michigan Highway Safety Research Institute did get bad publicity, it was suggested that this is not the reason why they stopped using baboons. The University of Michigan's mission was to create safer cars for human use. In order to reach this goal, research and testing is inevitable. The cruelty and the moral dilemmas of animal testing did not trump researchers still using them as subjects. They reasoned that biomechanics data are needed for an experiment like this, which will lead to safer cars.<ref name="live animals" /> Years later, animal testing ceased and instead an instrumented dummy was created as a replacement. In 1978, animals were their only subjects that could be a reliable substitution for the human being. The disadvantage, though, to using an instrumented dummy or a human cadaver, is that the tissue is not alive and will not elicit the same response as a live animal.<ref name="live animals" /> By 1991, the use of animals in vehicle collision tests was in decline because of advances in computers and technology.<ref name="new york" /> It is difficult to use cadavers instead of animals because of human rights, and it is difficult to obtain permission from the families of the deceased. Consent for a research and testing can occur only if the person responsible for giving consent is mentally competent and comprehends the research and testing procedures fully.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chung|first1=Christine S.|last2=Lehmann|first2=Lisa Soleymani|title=Informed Consent and the Process of Cadaver Donation|journal=Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine|date=August 2002|volume=126|issue=8|pages=964–968|url=http://www.archivesofpathology.org/doi/pdf/10.1043/0003-9985(2002)126%3C0964:ICATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2|access-date=24 April 2016|doi=10.5858/2002-126-0964-ICATPO|pmid=12171497|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Dummy evolution==

There are a growing number of specialized dummies used to gather data not only for men but for women, children, the elderly and the obese; and data for rib impacts, and spinal impacts. THOR is a very advanced dummy because it uses sensors and has a humanlike spine, pelvis, and can capture neck data in 6DOF (six degrees of freedom) motion.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iATklZ715H8&list=PLQ9gzOKWIgpSS5LynFPODjmOVCVWdPgNf | title=How Crash Test Dummies Evolved to Cost $1 Million |publisher=[[CNBC]] |website=[[YouTube]] |date=2022-03-18}}</ref> Special classes of dummies called Hybrid IIIs are designed to research the effects of frontal impacts, and are less useful in assessing the effects of other types of impact, such as side impacts, rear impacts, or rollovers. Hybrid IIIs use dummies that directed towards a specific age, for example, a typical ten-year-old, six-year-old, three-year-old, and a grown man.<ref name=":0" /> The equipment that is put on, or in, dummies to gather data is also evolving and the most up-to-date equipment is embedded inside the ATD to create a more biofidelic response for more accurate data.

===Sierra Sam and VIP-50===
[[File:sam4.jpg|thumbnail|upright|150px|Sierra Sam tested [[ejection seat]]s.]]
The information gleaned from cadaver research and animal studies had already been put to some use in the construction of human [[simulacrum|simulacra]] as early as 1949, when "Sierra Sam"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://contrails.iit.edu/history/Roswell/index.html|title=Collection – History – Roswell|access-date=2 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529182257/http://contrails.iit.edu/History/Roswell/index.html|archive-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> was created by [[Samuel W. Alderson]] at his Alderson Research Labs (ARL) and Sierra Engineering Co. to test aircraft [[ejection seat]]s, aviation helmets<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110522052005/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA061799&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Evaluation of Sierra Engineering Co. Lightweight Helmet]</ref> and pilot restraint harnesses. This testing involved the use of high acceleration to {{convert|1000|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} rocket sleds, beyond the capability of human volunteers to tolerate. In the early 1950s, Alderson and Grumman produced a dummy which was used to conduct crash tests in both motor vehicles and aircraft. The original "Sierra Sam" was a 95th percentile male dummy (heavier and taller than 95% of human males).

Alderson went on to produce what it called the VIP-50 series, built specifically for [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], but which was also adopted by the [[National Bureau of Standards]]. Sierra followed up with a competitor dummy, a model it called "Sierra Stan".

===Hybrid I and II===
[[File:HS117-399.jpg|thumb|left|Two uninstrumented Hybrid II 50th percentile male dummies used as ballast in a low speed collision test.]]

General Motors, who had taken over the impetus in developing a reliable and durable dummy, found neither Sierra model satisfied its needs. GM engineers decided to combine the best features of the VIP series and Sierra Stan, and so in 1971 Hybrid I was born.
Hybrid I was what is known as a "50th [[percentile]] male" dummy. That is to say, it modeled an average male in height, mass, and proportion. In cooperation with the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE), GM shared this design with its competitors.

Since then, considerable work has gone into creating more and more sophisticated dummies. Hybrid II was introduced in 1972, with improved shoulder, spine, and knee responses, and more rigorous documentation. Hybrid II became the first dummy to comply with the American Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) for testing of automotive lap and shoulder belts. In 1973, a 50th percentile male dummy was released, and the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov |title=NHTSA|date=2019-03-13}}</ref> undertook an agreement with [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] to produce a model exceeding Hybrid II's performance in a number of specific areas.<ref>[http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2007/octqtr/pdf/49cfr572.31.pdf NHTSA 49 CFR 572.31 Subpart E—Hybrid III Test Dummy]</ref>

Though a great improvement over cadavers for standardized testing purposes, Hybrid I and Hybrid II were still very crude, and their use was limited to developing and testing [[seat belt]] designs. A dummy was needed which would allow researchers to explore injury-reduction strategies. It was this need that pushed GM researchers to develop the current Hybrid line, the Hybrid III family of crash test dummies.

===Hybrid III family===
[[File:Hybridlll.jpg|thumbnail|The original 50th percentile male Hybrid III's family expanded to include a 95th percentile male, 5th percentile female, and ten, six, and three-year-old child dummies.]]
{{main article|Hybrid III}}
Hybrid III, the 50th percentile male dummy which made its first appearance in 1976, is the familiar crash test dummy, and he is now a family man. If he could stand upright, he would be {{convert|175|cm|ftin|abbr=off}} tall and would have a [[mass]] of {{convert|77|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. He occupies the driver's seat in all the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iihs.org|title=New HLDI study: Texting laws don't reduce crashes |publisher=iihs.org |date=September 28, 2010 |access-date=21 October 2010}}</ref> {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} offset frontal crash tests. He is joined by a "big brother", the 95th percentile Hybrid III, at {{convert|188|cm|ftin|abbr=off}} and {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. [[Ms.]] Hybrid III is a 5th percentile female dummy, at a diminutive {{convert|152|cm|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Mello, Tara Baukus (December 5, 2000).[http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId=43819/pageNumber=1 The Female Dummy: No Brains, But A Real Lifesaver]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220103359/http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId%3D43819/pageNumber%3D1 |date=February 20, 2006 }}. Retrieved April 18, 2006.</ref> The three Hybrid III child dummies represent a ten-year-old, {{convert|21|kg|lb|abbr=on}} six-year-old, and a {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} three-year-old. The child models are very recent additions to the crash test dummy family; because so little hard data are available on the effects of accidents on children and such data are very difficult to obtain, these models are based in large part on [[Estimation theory|estimates]] and [[approximation]]s. The primary benefit provided by the Hybrid III is improved neck response in forward flexion and head rotation that better simulates the human.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090212015812/http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA255544&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Hybrid II and Hybrid III Dummy Neck Properties for Computer Modeling] (February 1992)</ref>

The Hybrid III dummy for three-, six- and ten-year-olds has its limitations, and does not provide the same physical outcome a human would encounter with a frontal crash. It was found that when testing the three-year-old Hybrid III dummy, it showed that frontal crashes would most likely cause cervical spine injuries. When using data from the real world, the results did not match up to the Hybrid III stimulation injuries. To get around this, THUMS was created which stands for Total Human Model of Safety.<ref name=":0" /> The model can be easily relatable to the human body anatomically especially focusing on the human spine upon impact. Clinical testing and experiments are more accurate than a dummy and more reliable case studies can be implemented with this model. The model is based on a male only, and mimics human tissues and organs. This model is accurate for males in the 50th percentile, and it can not easily relate to three-year-olds when dealing with neck and head injuries, which are responsible for 57 percent of car crash fatalities.<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |last1=Zhang |first1=Wencheng |title=Incorporation of biomechanical child cadaver neck behaviour in a child model and injury prediction in vehicle frontal crash |date=2008 |url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/7890/ }}{{page needed|date=February 2024}}</ref> Instead, the FE model can be appropriately implemented for these criteria.<ref name=":2" />

There are certain testing procedures for Hybrid IIIs to ensure that they obtain a correct humanlike neck flexure, and to ensure that they would react to a crash in a similar way that human bodies would. {{citation needed|date=April 2019}}

=== Test device for Human Occupant Restraint (THOR) ===
==== THOR-50M mid-size male ====
[[File:THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies.jpg|alt=THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies|thumb|THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies]]
THOR is an advanced crash test dummy designed to expand the Hybrid-III test dummy capabilities in assessing frontal impacts. THOR-50M, the mid-size male, was created to improve human-like anthropometry and increase the instrumentation for mitigating injury.<ref name="THOR {{!}} NHTSA">{{Cite web |title=THOR {{!}} NHTSA |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/biomechanics-trauma/thor |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.nhtsa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Although development started in the 1990s, with the latest design update by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in contract with [[Humanetics]], the first new prototypes were delivered in 2013.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://one.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Biomechanics%20&%20Trauma/NHTSA_THOR_update_2013-09-30.pdf |title=NHTSA THOR Update |last=Parent |first=Dan |date=2013-09-30 |publisher=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723225327/https://one.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Biomechanics%20&%20Trauma/NHTSA_THOR_update_2013-09-30.pdf |archive-date=2022-07-23}}</ref> Since then, Europe's New Car Assessment Program became the first agency to adopt THOR into testing protocols, replacing the Hybrid III mid-sized male in the driver's seat.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://cdn.euroncap.com/media/61124/tb-026-thor-specification-and-certification-v12.pdf |title=THOR Specification and Certification |last1=Been |first1=B |last2=Ellway |first2=J |date=2020-11-24 |volume=1 |publisher=[[Euro NCAP]] |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303040656/https://cdn.euroncap.com/media/61124/tb-026-thor-specification-and-certification-v12.pdf |archive-date=2022-03-03 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====THOR-5F small female====
The small female version of THOR is based on the technology of the male version, but has more female-like anthropometry to represent females in frontal impact testing.<ref name="THOR {{!}} NHTSA"/> 
[[File:ATD Family.png|thumb|Current family of advanced crash test dummies used today.]]
The female THOR and the lack of female test dummies has received new interest as gender equity issues have emerged citing the lack of female crash test dummies and availability of new technology in regulation testing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Democratic lawmakers push U.S. Transportation Secretary for faster changes to crash test dummy standards |url=https://www.investigatetv.com/2022/03/14/democratic-lawmakers-push-us-transportation-secretary-faster-changes-crash-test-dummy-standards/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=InvestigateTV |date=14 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> A Center for Applied Biomechanics, University of Virginia, paper published in 2019 citing the increased risk of injury in female automobile occupants which started a fresh examination into female impact testing and protection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forman |first1=Jason |last2=Poplin |first2=Gerald S. |last3=Shaw |first3=C. Greg |last4=McMurry |first4=Timothy L. |last5=Schmidt |first5=Kristin |last6=Ash |first6=Joseph |last7=Sunnevang |first7=Cecilia |title=Automobile injury trends in the contemporary fleet: Belted occupants in frontal collisions |journal=Traffic Injury Prevention |date=18 August 2019 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=607–612 |doi=10.1080/15389588.2019.1630825 |pmid=31283362 |s2cid=195844967 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The THOR dummies can accommodate 150+ channels of [[data collection]] throughout their bodies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THOR-5F |url=https://humanetics.humaneticsgroup.com/products/anthropomorphic-test-devices/frontal-impact/thor-5f |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=humanetics.humaneticsgroup.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Warrior Injury Assessment Manikin (WIAMan) ===

[[File:WIAMan Warrior Injury Assessment Manikn.jpg|thumb|U.S. Army Warrior Injury Assessment Manikin (WIAMan)]]
WIAMan is a blast test dummy designed to assess potential skeletal injuries of soldiers exposed to under-body blast (UBB). Designed jointly by the U.S. Army and [[Diversified Technical Systems]] (DTS), the project includes an anthropomorphic test device and in-dummy data acquisition and sensor solution.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.armytimes.com/news/your-army/2017/05/31/army-creates-crash-test-dummy-to-improve-vehicle-safety-for-soldiers/|title=Army creates crash test dummy to improve vehicle safety for soldiers|last=Kalinyak|first=Rachael|date=2017-08-07|work=Army Times|access-date=2018-08-28|language=en-US}}</ref> Since the project started in February 2015, two generations of WIAMan prototypes have undergone a series of lab tests and blast events in the field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aerodefensetech.com/component/content/article/adt/features/articles/27963|title=WIAMan – Tech Briefs :: Aerospace & Defense Technology|last=Group|first=Techbriefs Media|website=www.aerodefensetech.com|date=December 2017 |access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref>

With the prototype's delivery in 2018, WIAMan evaluates the effects of under-body blasts involving vehicles, and assess the risk to soldiers in ground vehicle systems. The goal of the WIAMan project is to acquire data that will improve the design of military vehicles and [[personal protective equipment]]. WIAMan and the platform created to simulate an IED explosion are undergoing continued testing.<ref name=":3" />

Test dummies of the past were intended for the auto industry and lacked the same response a human would have to explosions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?article=2965|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233319/https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?article=2965|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 2, 2018|title=WIAMan program celebrates milestone|website=www.arl.army.mil|language=en|access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref> A challenge for the Army has been to develop a crash test dummy that moves enough like a human body to get an accurate result. The Army is working to make the mannequin "biofidelic," meaning it can match human movement. At 5-feet-11-inches tall and 185 lbs., WIAMan is based on the size and movement of an average soldier.<ref name=":3" />

[[U.S. Army Research Laboratory]] and its partners at [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory|Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab]] completed biofidelity testing in 2017. The purpose of the testing was to develop a dummy capable of predicting specific injury risk to occupants in a vehicle during live-fire tests, based on human response data.<ref name=":3" />

The manikin supports up to 156 channels of data acquisition, measuring different variables a soldier may experience in a vehicle blast. WIAMan includes self-contained internal power and the world's smallest data acquisition system called [https://www.dtsweb.com/slice6-daq/ SLICE6], based on SLICE NANO architecture, eliminating the huge mass of sensor cables normally exiting dummies. The data measured within WIAMan includes forces, moments, accelerations and angular velocity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dtsweb.com/wiaman-blast-manikin/|title=Data Acquisition Systems & Sensors for Product Testing – Diversified Technical Systems, Inc.|website=dtsweb.com|date=5 February 2018 |access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref> The DEVCOM Analysis Center (DAC) processes WIAMan data via a software analysis tool called the Analysis of Manikin Data, or AMANDA. On Feb. 2, 2022, AMANDA was accredited by the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command for use in live fire test and evaluation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://soldiersystems.net/2022/05/17/army-injury-assessment-tool-receives-stamp-of-accreditation/ | title=Army Injury Assessment Tool Receives Stamp of Accreditation - Soldier Systems Daily | date=17 May 2022 }}</ref>

=== Female crash test dummies ===
Crash test dummies have been commonly based on males, even though women make up 62% of all car buyers in the USA.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michelson |first=Joan |title=7 Reasons There Are Few Women In Automotive Leadership: New Research |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmichelson2/2022/01/28/7-reasons-there-are-few-women-in-automotive-leadership--new-research/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> This leads to oversights in automotive safety and ergonomics for this demographic. In 2003, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) introduced the female Hybrid III into collision testing. This dummy was a scaled-down version of its male counterpart, representing the 5th percentile of women based on mid-1970s standards.<ref name="Bergmann">{{Cite web |last=Bergmann |first=Andy |date=2019-10-23 |title=The Crash Test Bias: How Male-Focused Testing Puts Female Drivers at Risk |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/crash-test-bias-how-male-focused-testing-puts-female-drivers-at-risk/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2002, [[Volvo]] pioneered the development of a virtual crash test dummy representing a midsized pregnant female. Collaborating with [[Chalmers University of Technology]], they also crafted a computer model of an average-sized female to advance their whiplash protection system.<ref name="Bergmann"/> Other car companies have also adopted computer models in their safety testing to simulate crashes.

In May 2023, the world's first female crash test dummy was used in a crash test at the [[Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute]] in [[Linköping]], Sweden. [[Astrid Linder|Dr. Astrid Linder]] led the team of researchers to develop the female crash test dummy which represented the height and weight of women at the 50th and 25th percentiles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Epker |first=Eva |title=Fasten Your Seatbelts: A Female Car Crash Test Dummy Represents Average Women For The First Time In 60+ Years |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/evaepker/2023/09/12/fasten-your-seatbelts-a-female-car-crash-test-dummy-represents-average-women-for-the-first-time-in-60-years/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> The model was created after crash statistics showed that female bodies are more prone to other injuries than male, such as [[Whiplash (medicine)|whiplash]]. The female dummy was developed with the help of an [[European Union|EU]] project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Balcer Bednarska |first1=Jaqueline |last2=Brantemo |first2=Axel |title=Svenska forskare visar upp världens första kvinnliga krockdocka |trans-title=Swedish scientists unveil the world's first crash test dummy |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/ost/svenska-forskare-visar-upp-varldens-forsta-kvinnliga-krockdocka |newspaper=SVT Nyheter |publisher=[[Sveriges Television]] |access-date=31 May 2023 |date=31 May 2023}}</ref>

==Testing procedure==
[[File:B09717P006.jpg|thumb|Hybrid III undergoing calibration]]
Every Hybrid III undergoes calibration prior to a crash test. Its head is removed and then dropped from {{convert|40|cm|in}} to calibrate the head instrumentation. Then the head and neck are reattached, set in motion, and stopped abruptly to check for proper neck flexure. Hybrids wear [[chamois leather]] skin; the knees are struck with a metal probe to check for proper puncture. Finally, the head and neck are attached to the body, which is attached to a test platform and struck violently in the chest by a heavy pendulum to ensure that the [[human rib cage|rib]]s bend and flex as they should.

When the dummy has been determined to be ready for testing, calibration marks are fastened to the side of the head to aid researchers when slow-motion [[film]]s are reviewed later. The dummy is then placed inside the test vehicle, set to seating position and then marked on the head and knees. Up to fifty-eight data channels located in all parts of the Hybrid III, from the head to the [[ankle]], record between 30,000 and 35,000 data items in a typical 100–150&nbsp;[[millisecond]] crash. These data are recorded in a temporary data repository in the dummy's [[chest]] and then downloaded to a [[computer]] once the test is complete.

Because the Hybrid is a standardized data collection device, any part of a particular Hybrid type is interchangeable with any other. Not only can one dummy be tested several times, but if a part should fail, it can be replaced with a new part. A fully instrumented dummy is worth about [[Euro|€]]150,000.<ref>[http://crash.citroenz.biz/how-tests-r-done.html How the Test are done] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507181833/http://crash.citroenz.biz/how-tests-r-done.html |date=2011-05-07 }} (19 March 2003). Retrieved April 18, 2006.</ref>

=== Positioning and restraints ===
[[File:V05265P096.jpg|thumb|10-year-old Hybrid III dummy in a booster seat after a frontal [[crash test]].]]
Children in the three-year-old age group are more likely to have a fatality because it is the age where positioning is crucial. In some countries, children transition from facing the rear of the car to facing the front at this age. A study was done on restraints and positioning of three-year-olds. It was concluded that being restrained and in the front seat has a lower fatality rate than children positioned in the back seat but not restrained.<ref name=":0" /> The safety results indicated that children should be placed in the back seat and restrained. It also suggests that restraints have a bigger impact on safety than seating positions.<ref name=":0" /> A lap belt used on children will not provide as much safety as it would for an adult, due to the flexibility of children. An adult seatbelt could do more harm to a child than good, which is why children should properly be utilizing the Child Restraint System instead. This system includes a booster seat and a proper belt that fits the child's criteria including age, weight and height.<ref name=":0" />

===Specialized dummies===
Hybrid IIIs are designed to research the effects of frontal impacts, and are less useful in assessing the effects of other types of impact, such as side impacts, rear impacts, or [[Vehicle rollover|rollover]]s. After head-on collisions, the most common severe injury accident is the side impact.

[[File:V06586P040.jpg|thumb|WorldSID is an advanced side impact ATD, used for EuroNCAP side impact test modes.]]

*The '''SID''' (Side Impact Dummy) family of test dummies is designed to measure rib, [[human vertebral column|spine]], and internal organ effects in side collisions. It also assesses spine and rib deceleration and compression of the chest cavity. SID is the United States government testing standard, EuroSID is used in [[Europe]] to ensure compliance with safety standards, and SID II(s) represents a 5th-percentile female. BioSID is a more sophisticated version of SID and EuroSID,{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} but is not used in a regulatory capacity. The WorldSID is a project to develop a new generation of dummy under the [[International Organization for Standardization]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCn68l9aQXfK1uFyST20ErcQ|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525160441/https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCn68l9aQXfK1uFyST20ErcQ|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 May 2020|title=SciTech Connect: Anthropometry for WorldSID, a World-Harmonized Midsize Male Side Impact Crash Dummy|author=S. Moss|website=[[YouTube]]|access-date=2 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.digitalengineering247.com/article/smarter-dummy/testing-services | title=Data Acquisition System is Key to Engineering a Smarter Dummy | date=November 2014 }}</ref>
*'''BioRID''' is a dummy designed to assess the effects of a rear impact. Its primary purpose is to research [[Whiplash (medicine)|whiplash]], and to aid designers in developing effective head and neck restraints. BioRID is more sophisticated in its spinal construction than Hybrid; 24 [[vertebra]] simulators allow BioRID to assume a much more natural seating posture, and to demonstrate the neck movement and configuration seen in rear-end collisions.

[[File:V06240P036.jpg|thumb|12-month-old CRABI dummy in a child safety restraint seat.]]

*'''CRABI''' is a child dummy used to evaluate the effectiveness of child restraint devices, including [[seat belt]]s and [[air bag]]s. There are three models of the CRABI, representing 18-month, 12-month, and 6-month-old children.
*'''FGOA''' is a first generation obese anthropometric test device which can be used to study the automotive safety challenges for obese occupants, who are believed to have higher risk of mortality in automobile collisions comparing to non-obese occupants.

[[File:B11112P009.jpg|thumb|THOR offers sophisticated instrumentation for assessing frontal-impacts]]

*'''THOR''' is currently the most advanced dummy on the market.<ref name="youtube.com"/> The successor of Hybrid III, THOR has a more human-like spine and [[human pelvis|pelvis]], and its [[face]] contains a number of sensors which allow analysis of facial impacts to an accuracy currently unobtainable with other dummies. THOR's range of sensors is also greater in quantity and sensitivity than those of Hybrid III. THOR's original manufacturer, GESAC Inc., ceased production after the slowdown of the auto industry in the late 2000s. THOR was being further developed, and two other companies were working on similar dummies; NHTSA's ultimate goal for this government-funded project was the development of a single THOR dummy, but THOR dummy development stopped. FTSS, bought by [[Humanetics]], and DentonATD both continued to produce the THOR LX and THOR FLX.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
*'''Linda''' is a virtual pregnant crash dummy developed by [[Volvo]] engineer Laura Thackray in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pregnant Crash Test Dummies {{!}} Gendered Innovations {{!}} Sweden |url=https://www.genderedinnovations.se/page/en-US/68/Pregnant_Crash_Test_Dummies#:~:text=In%202002,%20Volvo%20developed%20a,and%20improperly-belted%20pregnant%20passengers. |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=www.genderedinnovations.se}}</ref> Linda is modelled in her 36th week of pregnancy to analyze the effects of high-speed impact on the womb, placenta, and fetus.
*Animal models have been used to test the safety of dog harnesses and crates in crash conditions.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.click2houston.com/news/new-crash-tests-help-keep-dogs-safe-in-cars | title=New crash tests help keep dogs safe in cars | publisher=Click 2 Houston | date=25 November 2015 | access-date=7 July 2016 | author=Donchey, Sarah| work=KPRC }}</ref>

==Regulation==
For the purpose of U.S. regulation and [[Vehicle regulation|Global Technical Regulations]] and for clear communication in safety and seating design,<ref name="rpoint">{{cite web
 | title = NHTSA's Activities under the United Nations for Europe 1998 Global Agreement: Head Restraints, Docket NHTSA-2008-001600001
 | publisher = NHTSA
 | url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/2752327/Notice-Activities-Under-the-United-Nations-Economic-Commission-for-Europe-1998-Global-Agreement-Head-Restraints}}</ref> dummies carry specifically designated reference points, such as the [[H-point]]; these are also used, for example, in automotive design.

== Popular culture ==
* In 1986, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA), a division of the [[United States Department of Transportation]], launched a series of [[public service announcement]]s in [[magazine]]s and on [[television]] featuring two talking crash dummies named Vince (voiced by [[Jack Burns]]) (played by Tony Reitano) and Larry (voiced by [[Lorenzo Music]]) (played by Tom Harrison, later replaced by [[Whitney Rydbeck]]) who modelled [[seat belt]] safety practices through their [[slapstick]] antics, with the slogan "You Could Learn a Lot from a Dummy". By the time the campaign was retired in 1999, seat belt usage had risen from 21% to 67%.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Heather |title=How the Crash Test Dummies Revolutionized Seat Belt Safety |url=https://www.advertisingweek360.com/how-the-crash-test-dummies-revolutionized-seat-belt-safety/ |website=AW360 |date=18 May 2017 |publisher=Advertising Week |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref> Since then crash dummy characters have continued to be used in seat belt safety campaigns, especially those aimed at children.
* In the early 1990s, [[Tyco Toys]] created a line of [[action figure]]s called ''[[The Incredible Crash Dummies]]'' based on the characters from the NHTSA television advertisements. They were intended to fall apart at the touch of a button on their abdomens. Vehicles that could be crashed into walls and broken were also produced. Dummies and vehicles were easily reassembled. They prompted a half-hour television special, ''[[The Incredible Crash Dummies (film)|The Adventures of the Incredible Crash Dummies]]''. Unique for its time, the cartoon was produced entirely using 3D [[computer animation]] techniques. A comic book series and a [[The Incredible Crash Dummies (video game)|video game]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]], [[Game Boy]] and other gaming consoles were produced.
* In 2004, a series of "Crash Dummies" animated shorts were commissioned for the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX network]]. Related toys from [[Mattel]]'s [[Hot Wheels]] brand were produced.
* The television series ''[[MythBusters]]'' employed a Hybrid II model crash test dummy, "[[List of MythBusters cast members#Buster|Buster]]", for dangerous experiments. Additionally, the show utilized a number of simulaids in addition to using the hosts themselves as the test subjects if the experiment was safe enough.
* In [[Discovery Kids]] children's educational series ''[[Crash Test Danny]]'', the title character is a living crash test dummy, played by Ben Langley, who gets crushed, blown up, and pulled apart in the name of science.
* In 2014, Secret Exit Ltd. released [[Turbo Dismount]], a game where the player puts a crash test dummy in different vehicles to send them off into crashes.
* In 2020, actor [[Aamir Khan]] played a crash test dummy in a series of advertisements for Indian tire manufacturer [[CEAT Tyres]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.team-bhp.com/news/aamir-khan-ceat-tyres-new-crash-test-dummy|title=Aamir Khan: Ceat Tyres' new crash test dummy &#124; Team-BHP}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Car accident]]
* [[Chicken gun]], impact simulator to measure damages on the vehicle side.
* [[Crash test]]
* [[Crashworthiness]]
* [[Euro NCAP]]
* [[Safety car]]
* [[Mannequin]]
* [[Crash simulation]]
* [[Secchi disk]], the characteristic test-dummy [[fiducial marker]] symbol.

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2006-01-15|En-Crash_test_dummy(part1of2).ogg|En-Crash_test_dummy(part2of2).ogg|}}
{{Dual|source=Humanetics|sourcepath=https://humanetics.humaneticsgroup.com/perspectives/70-year-journey-humanetics|date= 15:16, 16 May 2022 (UTC)|otrs=yes}}
{{refbegin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090703195151/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/computing/embedded-systems/anatomy-of-a-crashtest-dummy "Anatomy of a Crash-Test Dummy"], IEEE Spectrum, October 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080515075428/http://www.ftss.com/historybook.cfm History of Crash Dummies]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/car_crash/48062.stm How the dead have helped the living]
* [http://www.salon.com/health/col/roac/1999/11/19/crash_test/ I was a human crash test dummy]
*[http://www.edmunds.com/ownership/safety/articles/43819/article.html The Female Crash Test Dummy] She May Not Have a Brain, but She Could Save Your Life
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040427025252/http://www.ncl.ac.uk/nsa/sam.html The "Sierra Sam" Story]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033541/http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId%3D105394/pageNumber%3D1 Meet 50th Percentile Hybrid III]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040821131734/http://www.computer.org/cga/cg2002/pdf/g6014.pdf?SMSESSION=NO Biomechanics and the Cyberhuman]
* [http://www.ctheory.net/text_file.asp?pick=162 It's Smart to be a Dummy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050831141643/http://www.ctheory.net/text_file.asp?pick=162 |date=2005-08-31 }}
* [http://quitehuman.wordpress.com/2007/10/08/expecting/ Pregnant crash test dummy]
* {{cite book
 | first = Mary
 | last = Roach
 | title = Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers
 | location = New York
 | publisher = W.W. Norton & Co.
 | year = 2003
 | isbn = 978-0-393-05093-6
}}
* {{cite journal
 | author = Joodaki, H.
 | title = Comparison of Kinematic Behaviour of a First Generation Obese Dummy and Obese PMHS in Frontal Sled Tests
 | journal = Proceedings of IRCOBI
 | year = 2015
 | pages = 454–466
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1288098087 Research of the Relationship of Pedestrian Injury to Collision Speed, Car-type, Impact Location and Pedestrian Sizes using Human FE model (THUMS Version 4)]
* [http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Crash-Test-Dummy.html Crash Test Dummy]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Crash Test Dummy}}
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