View source for Cosmology

{{Short description|Scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe}}
{{hatnote group|
{{Other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Cosmetology}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} 
[[File:The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Hubble eXtreme Deep Field]] (XDF) was completed in September 2012 and shows the farthest [[galaxies]] ever photographed at that time. Except for the few stars in the foreground (which are bright and easily recognizable because only they have [[diffraction spikes]]), every speck of light in the composite photo is an individual galaxy, some of them as old as 13.2 billion years; the observable universe is estimated to contain more than 2 trillion galaxies.<ref>{{cite web |date=13 October 2016 |editor=Hille |editor-first=Karl |title=Hubble Reveals Observable Universe Contains 10 Times More Galaxies Than Previously Thought |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/hubble-reveals-observable-universe-contains-10-times-more-galaxies-than-previously-thought |access-date=17 October 2016 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>]]

'''Cosmology''' ({{etymology|grc|{{wikt-lang|grc|κόσμος}} (cosmos)|the universe, the world||{{wikt-lang|grc|λογία}} (logia)|study of}}) is a branch of [[physics]] and [[metaphysics]] dealing with the [[nature]] of the [[universe]], the [[cosmos]]. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in [[Thomas Blount (lexicographer)|Thomas Blount]]'s ''Glossographia'', with the meaning of "a speaking of the world".<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Cosmology (Routledge Revivals): Historical, Philosophical, and Scientific Foundations of Modern Cosmology |first1=Norriss S. |last1=Hetherington |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-67766-6 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EP9QAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116}}</ref> In 1731, [[German philosophy|German philosopher]] [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] used the term cosmology in Latin (''cosmologia'') to denote a branch of metaphysics that deals with the general nature of the physical world.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Luminet |first1=Jean-Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeDqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=The Wraparound Universe |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4398-6496-8 |page=170}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=PeDqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 Extract of page 170].</ref> [[Religious cosmology|Religious]] or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on [[Mythology|mythological]], [[Religion|religious]], and [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] literature and traditions of [[Cosmogony|creation myths]] and [[eschatology]]. In the science of [[astronomy]], cosmology is concerned with the study of the [[chronology of the universe]].

[[Physical cosmology]] is the study of the [[observable universe]]'s origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and the [[ultimate fate of the universe]], including the [[laws of science]] that govern these areas.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9988-instant-expert-cosmology.html "Introduction: Cosmology – space"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703163336/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9988-instant-expert-cosmology.html|date=3 July 2015}}. ''New Scientist''. 4 September 2006.</ref> It is investigated by scientists, including [[astronomer]]s and [[physicist]]s, as well as [[Philosophy|philosophers]], such as [[Metaphysics|metaphysicians]], [[Philosophy of physics|philosophers of physics]], and [[Philosophy of space and time|philosophers of space and time]]. Because of this shared scope with [[philosophy]], [[theory|theories]] in physical cosmology may include both [[science|scientific]] and non-scientific propositions and may depend upon assumptions that cannot be [[hypothesis|tested]]. Physical cosmology is a sub-branch of astronomy that is concerned with the universe as a whole. Modern physical cosmology is dominated by the [[Big Bang]] Theory which attempts to bring together [[observational astronomy]] and [[particle physics]];<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110811063912/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cosmology "Cosmology"], Oxford Dictionaries.</ref><ref name="NYT-20190225">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=Have Dark Forces Been Messing With the Cosmos? – Axions? Phantom energy? Astrophysicists scramble to patch a hole in the universe, rewriting cosmic history in the process. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/science/cosmos-hubble-dark-energy.html |date=25 February 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=26 February 2019 }}</ref> more specifically, a standard parameterization of the Big Bang with [[dark matter]] and [[dark energy]], known as the [[Lambda-CDM]] model.

[[Astrophysics#Theoretical astrophysics|Theoretical astrophysicist]] [[David Spergel|David N. Spergel]] has described cosmology as a "historical science" because "when we look out in space, we look back in time" due to the finite nature of the [[speed of light]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Spergel |first=David N. |author1-link=David Spergel |date=Fall 2014 |title=Cosmology Today |journal=Daedalus |volume=143 |issue=4 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1162/DAED_a_00312 |s2cid=57568214 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Disciplines==
{{Nature timeline}}
[[Physics]] and [[astrophysics]] have played central roles in shaping our understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. [[Physical cosmology]] was shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe. The universe is generally understood to have begun with the [[Big Bang]], followed almost instantaneously by [[cosmic inflation]], an [[metric expansion of space|expansion of space]] from which the universe is thought to have emerged [[Age of the universe|13.799 ± 0.021]] [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] years ago.<ref name="Planck 2015">{{cite journal|author=Planck Collaboration|title=Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters | at= Table 4 on page 31 of PDF|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|volume=594|issue=13|arxiv=1502.01589|bibcode=2016A&A...594A..13P|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201525830|url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/planck-2015-results(491d214e-7255-415e-97b5-96d8ae621eaa).html|date=1 October 2016|s2cid=119262962 }}</ref> [[Cosmogony]] studies the origin of the universe, and [[cosmography]] maps the features of the universe.

In [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', cosmology is broken down into uranology (the science of the heavens), aerology (the science of the air), geology (the science of the continents), and hydrology (the science of waters).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Detailed Explanation of the System of Human Knowledge
 |url= http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/did2222.0001.084/--detailed-explanation-of-the-system-of-human-knowledge?rgn=main;view=fulltext;q1=Geology |date=1 April 2015 | journal=Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project |access-date=1 April 2015 |last1=Diderot (Biography)
 |first1=Denis
 }}</ref>

Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of humans in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is exemplified by [[Marcus Aurelius]]'s observation that a man's place in that relationship: "He who does not know what the world is does not know where he is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is."<ref>{{Cite book | title = The thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus viii. 52 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15877/15877-h/15877-h.htm#viii._52}}</ref>

==Discoveries==
===Physical cosmology===
{{Main|Physical cosmology}}
{{See also|Observational cosmology}}

Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the universe. It also includes the study of the nature of the universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as "[[celestial mechanics]]," the study of the [[celestial sphere|heavens]]. Greek philosophers [[Aristarchus of Samos]], [[Aristotle]], and [[Ptolemy]] proposed different cosmological theories. The [[geocentric]] [[Ptolemaic system]] was the prevailing theory until the 16th century when [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], and subsequently [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]], proposed a [[heliocentric]] system. This is one of the most famous examples of [[epistemological rupture]] in physical cosmology.

[[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'', published in 1687, was the first description of the [[law of universal gravitation]]. It provided a physical mechanism for [[Kepler's laws]] and also allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the [[Copernican principle]]—that the bodies on Earth obey the same [[physical law]]s as all celestial bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.

Modern scientific cosmology is widely considered to have begun in 1917 with [[Albert Einstein]]'s publication of his final modification of [[general relativity]] in the paper "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Einstein |first=Albert |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952prel.book..175E |title=The Principle of Relativity |date=1952 |publisher=Dover |pages=175–188 |chapter=Cosmological considerations on the general theory of relativity |bibcode=1952prel.book..175E |authorlink=Albert Einstein}}</ref> (although this paper was not widely available outside of Germany until the end of [[World War&nbsp;I]]). General relativity prompted [[cosmogony|cosmogonists]] such as [[Willem de Sitter]], [[Karl Schwarzschild]], and [[Arthur Eddington]] to explore its astronomical ramifications, which enhanced the ability of [[astronomer]]s to study very distant objects. Physicists began changing the assumption that the universe was static and unchanging. In 1922, [[Alexander Friedmann]] introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter.

{{Physical cosmology}}
In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax – the [[Great Debate (astronomy)|Great Debate]] (1917 to 1922) – with early cosmologists such as [[Heber Curtis]] and [[Ernst Öpik]] determining that some [[nebula]]e seen in telescopes were separate galaxies far distant from our own.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dodelson|first=Scott|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zk5e6XsY6nsC&q=Cosmology&pg=PP2|title=Modern Cosmology|date=2003-03-30|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-051197-9|language=en}}</ref> While Heber Curtis argued for the idea that spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right as island universes, Mount Wilson astronomer [[Harlow Shapley]] championed the model of a cosmos made up of the [[Milky Way]] [[star system]] only. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the [[Great Debate (astronomy)|Great Debate]] on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U.S. [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The debate was resolved when [[Edwin Hubble]] detected [[Cepheid Variables]] in the [[Andromeda Galaxy]] in 1923 and 1924.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Falk|first=Dan|date=2009-03-18|title=Review: The Day We Found the Universe by Marcia Bartusiak|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0262407909608095|journal=New Scientist|language=en|volume=201|issue=2700|pages=45|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(09)60809-5|issn=0262-4079|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hubble|first=E. P.|authorlink= Edwin Hubble| date=1926-12-01|title=Extragalactic nebulae.|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=64|page=321|doi=10.1086/143018|bibcode=1926ApJ....64..321H|issn=0004-637X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Their distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way.<!-- and has galaxies of their own--><!--Somebody's editing mistake - check.-->

Subsequent modelling of the universe explored the possibility that the [[cosmological constant]], introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper, may result in an [[expanding universe]], depending on its value. Thus the [[Big Bang]] model was proposed by the [[Belgium|Belgian]] priest [[Georges Lemaître]] in 1927<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=G.|date=1883|title=G. DELSAULX. — Sur une propriété de la diffraction des ondes planes; Annales de la Société scientifique de Bruxelles; 1882|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/jphystap:018830020017501|journal=Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée|language=fr|volume=2|issue=1|pages=175|doi=10.1051/jphystap:018830020017501|issn=0368-3893}}</ref> which was subsequently corroborated by [[Edwin Hubble]]'s discovery of the [[redshift]] in 1929<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hubble|first=Edwin|authorlink=Edwin Hubble|title=A Relation Between Distance and Radial Velocity Among Extra-Galactic Nebulae|date=1929-03-15|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=15|issue=3|pages=168–173|doi=10.1073/pnas.15.3.168|issn=0027-8424|pmid=16577160|pmc=522427|bibcode=1929PNAS...15..168H|doi-access=free}}</ref> and later by the discovery of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] by [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]] in 1964.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Penzias|first1=A. A.|authorlink1=Arno Allan Penzias|last2=Wilson|first2=R. W.|date=1965-07-01|title=A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s.|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=142|pages=419–421|doi=10.1086/148307|bibcode=1965ApJ...142..419P|issn=0004-637X|doi-access=free}}</ref> These findings were a first step to rule out some of many [[Non-standard cosmology|alternative cosmologies]].

Since around 1990, several dramatic advances in [[observational cosmology]] have transformed cosmology from a largely speculative science into a predictive science with precise agreement between theory and observation. These advances include observations of the microwave background from the [[Cosmic Background Explorer|COBE]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Boggess|first1=N. W.|author-link1=Nancy Boggess|last2=Mather|first2=J. C.|last3=Weiss|first3=R.|last4=Bennett|first4=C. L.|last5=Cheng|first5=E. S.|last6=Dwek|first6=E.|last7=Gulkis|first7=S.|last8=Hauser|first8=M. G.|last9=Janssen|first9=M. A.|last10=Kelsall|first10=T.|last11=Meyer|first11=S. S.|date=1992-10-01|title=The COBE mission – Its design and performance two years after launch|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|volume=397|pages=420–429|doi=10.1086/171797|bibcode=1992ApJ...397..420B|issn=0004-637X|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[WMAP]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Parker, Barry R.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27069165|title=The vindication of the big bang : breakthroughs and barriers|date=1993|publisher=Plenum Press|isbn=0-306-44469-0|location=New York|oclc=27069165}}</ref> and [[Planck spacecraft|Planck]] satellites,<ref>{{Cite book|date=2018-08-12|chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3225151.3232529|series=SIGGRAPH '18|location=Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1|doi=10.1145/3225151.3232529|isbn=978-1-4503-5830-9|s2cid=51979217 |chapter=Computer Graphics Achievement Award |title=ACM SIGGRAPH 2018 Awards }}</ref> large new galaxy [[redshift survey]]s including [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey|2dfGRS]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Science|first=American Association for the Advancement of|date=2007-06-15|title=NETWATCH: Botany's Wayback Machine|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.316.5831.1547d|journal=Science|language=en|volume=316|issue=5831|pages=1547|doi=10.1126/science.316.5831.1547d|s2cid=220096361|issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey|SDSS]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paraficz|first1=D.|last2=Hjorth|first2=J.|last3=Elíasdóttir|first3=Á|date=2009-05-01|title=Results of optical monitoring of 5 SDSS double QSOs with the Nordic Optical Telescope|url=https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2009/20/aa11387-08/aa11387-08.html|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|language=en|volume=499|issue=2|pages=395–408|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/200811387|arxiv=0903.1027|bibcode=2009A&A...499..395P|issn=0004-6361|doi-access=free}}</ref> and observations of distant [[supernovae]] and [[gravitational lensing]]. These observations matched the predictions of the [[cosmic inflation]] theory, a modified [[Big Bang]] theory, and the specific version known as the [[Lambda-CDM]] model. This has led many to refer to modern times as the "golden age of cosmology".<ref>[[Alan Guth]] is reported to have made this very claim in an [[Edge.org|Edge Foundation]] interview. [http://www.edge.org/documents/day/day_guth.html EDGE], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411071615/https://www.edge.org/documents/day/day_guth.html|date=11 April 2016}}.</ref>

In 2014, the BICEP2 collaboration claimed that they had detected the imprint of [[gravitational wave]]s in the [[cosmic microwave background]]. However, this result was later found to be spurious: the supposed evidence of gravitational waves was in fact due to interstellar dust.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jun/04/gravitational-wave-discovery-dust-big-bang-inflation|title=Gravitational waves turn to dust after claims of flawed analysis|first=Ian |last=Sample|newspaper=the Guardian|date=2014-06-04}}</ref><ref name="nature-20150130">
{{cite journal
 |last=Cowen |first=Ron
 |date=30 January 2015
 |title=Gravitational waves discovery now officially dead
 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
 |doi=10.1038/nature.2015.16830
|s2cid=124938210
 }}</ref>

On 1 December 2014, at the ''Planck 2014'' meeting in [[Ferrara, Italy|Ferrara]], [[Italy]], astronomers reported that the [[universe]] is [[Age of the universe|13.8 billion years old]] and composed of 4.9% [[Matter|atomic matter]], 26.6% [[dark matter]] and 68.5% [[dark energy]].<ref name="NYT-20141201-DO">{{cite news |author1= Dennis Overbye |title=New Images Refine View of Infant Universe |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/world/new-images-refine-view-of-infant-universe.html |date=1 December 2014 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2 December 2014 |author1-link=Dennis Overbye }}</ref>

===Religious or mythological cosmology===
{{See also|Religious cosmology}}

[[Religious cosmology|Religious]] or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on [[Mythology|mythological]], [[Religion|religious]], and [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] literature and traditions of [[Creation myth|creation]] and [[eschatology]]. Creation myths are found in most religions, and are typically split into five different classifications, based on a system created by [[Mircea Eliade]] and his colleague Charles Long. 

* Types of Creation Myths based on similar motifs:
** [[Creatio ex nihilo|Creation ''ex nihilo'']] in which the creation is through the thought, word, dream or bodily secretions of a divine being.
** [[Earth diver]] creation in which a diver, usually a bird or amphibian sent by a creator, plunges to the seabed through a [[Cosmic ocean|primordial ocean]] to bring up sand or mud which develops into a terrestrial world.
** Emergence myths in which progenitors pass through a series of worlds and metamorphoses until reaching the present world.
** Creation by the dismemberment of a primordial being.
** Creation by the splitting or ordering of a primordial unity such as the cracking of a [[World egg|cosmic egg]] or a bringing order from [[Chaos (cosmogony)|chaos]].<ref name="lm3233">{{harvnb|Leonard|McClure|2004|pages=32–33}}.</ref>

===Philosophy===
[[File:Observable_universe_logarithmic_illustration.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Representation of the [[observable universe]] on a [[logarithmic scale]]. Distance from the Sun increases from center to edge. Planets and other celestial bodies were enlarged to appreciate their shapes.]]

Cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many cases was found in religion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crouch |first1=C. L. |title=Genesis 1:26-7 As a statement of humanity's divine parentage |date=8 February 2010 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |pages=1–15 |volume=61 |issue=1 |language=en|doi=10.1093/jts/flp185 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some questions about the Universe are beyond the scope of scientific inquiry but may still be interrogated through appeals to other philosophical approaches like [[dialectic]]s. Some questions that are included in extra-scientific endeavors may include:<ref name="BICEP2-2014">{{cite web |title=BICEP2 2014 Results Release |url= http://bicepkeck.org |date=17 March 2014 | website=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=18 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/planck/publications#Planck2015|title=Publications – Cosmos|website=www.cosmos.esa.int|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-08-19}}</ref>

* What is the origin of the universe? What is its first cause (if any)? Is its existence necessary? (see [[monism]], [[pantheism]], [[emanationism]] and [[creationism]])
* What are the ultimate material components of the universe? (see [[mechanism (philosophy)|mechanism]], [[dynamism (metaphysics)|dynamism]], [[hylomorphism]], [[atomism]])
* What is the ultimate reason (if any) for the existence of the universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see [[teleology]])
* Does the existence of consciousness have a role in the existence of reality? How do we know what we know about the totality of the cosmos? Does cosmological reasoning reveal metaphysical truths? (see [[epistemology]])
Charles Kahn, a historian of philosophy, attributed the origins of ancient Greek cosmology to [[Anaximander]].<ref>Charles Kahn. 1994. ''Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology''. Indianapolis: Hackett.</ref>

==Historical cosmologies==
{{Further|Timeline of cosmological theories}}
{{More citations needed|section|date=January 2016}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Author and date
! Classification
! Remarks
|-
| [[Hindu cosmology]]
| [[Rigveda]] ({{circa|1700}}–1100 [[Current Era|BCE]])
| Cyclical or oscillating, Infinite in time
| [[Prakṛti|Primal matter]] remains manifest for 311.04 trillion years and [[Mahapralaya|unmanifest]] for an equal length of time. The universe remains manifest for [[Kalpa (aeon)|4.32 billion years]] and [[Pralaya|unmanifest]] for an equal length of time. Innumerable universes exist simultaneously. These cycles have and will last forever, driven by desires.
|-
|[[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian Cosmology]]
|[[Avesta]] ({{circa|1500}}–600 BCE)
|Dualistic Cosmology
|According to Zoroastrian Cosmology, the universe is the manifestation of perpetual conflict between Existence and non-existence, Good and evil and light and darkness. the universe will remain in this state for 12000 years; at the time of resurrection, the two elements will be separated again.
|-
| [[Jain cosmology]]
| [[Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)|Jain Agamas]] (written around 500 [[Current Era|CE]] as per the teachings of [[Mahavira]] 599–527 BCE)
|  Cyclical or oscillating, eternal and finite 
|  Jain cosmology considers the ''[[loka]]'', or universe, as an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to [[Jainism]], is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom.
|-
| [[Babylonian astronomy#Cosmology|Babylonian cosmology]]
| [[Assyro-Babylonian literature|Babylonian literature]] ({{circa|2300}}–500 BCE)
| Flat Earth floating in infinite "waters of chaos"
| The Earth and the [[Heaven]]s form a unit within infinite "waters of chaos"; the Earth is flat and circular, and a solid dome (the "firmament") keeps out the outer "chaos"-ocean.
|-
| [[Eleatics|Eleatic cosmology]]
| [[Parmenides]] ({{circa|515 BCE}})
| Finite and spherical in extent
| The Universe is unchanging, uniform, perfect, necessary, timeless, and neither generated nor perishable. Void is impossible. Plurality and change are products of epistemic ignorance derived from sense experience. Temporal and spatial limits are arbitrary and relative to the Parmenidean whole. 
|-
|[[Samkhya|Samkhya Cosmic Evolution]]
|[[Kapila]] (6th century BCE), pupil [[Samkhya|Asuri]]
|Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha (Consiouness) Relation
|Prakriti (Matter) is the source of the world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because ''Prakriti'' is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands known as ''[[Guṇa|gunas]]'' (''[[Sattva]]'' (lightness or purity), ''[[Rajas]]'' (passion or activity), and ''Tamas'' (inertia or heaviness)). The cause and effect theory of Sankhya is called ''Satkaarya-vaada'' (theory of existent causes), and holds that ''nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness''—all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
|-
| [[Biblical cosmology]]
| [[Genesis creation narrative]] 
| Earth floating in infinite "waters of chaos"
|The Earth and the [[Heaven]]s form a unit within infinite "waters of chaos"; the "[[firmament]]" keeps out the outer "chaos"-ocean.
|-
| [[Anaximander#Cosmology|Anaximander's model]]
| [[Anaximander]] ({{circa|560&nbsp;BCE}})
| [[Geocentric]], cylindrical Earth, infinite in extent, finite time; first purely mechanical model
| The Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything.<ref>Aristotle, ''On the Heavens'', ii, 13.</ref> At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute; no heavenly bodies as such, only light through the holes. Three wheels, in order outwards from Earth: stars (including [[Classical planets|planets]]), [[Moon|moon]], and a large Sun.<ref>Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20–28):
: "[The Sun] is a circle twenty-eight times as big as the Earth, with the outline similar to that of a fire-filled chariot wheel, on which appears a mouth in certain places and through which it exposes its fire, as through the hole on a flute. [...] the Sun is equal to the Earth, but the circle on which it breathes and on which it's borne is twenty-seven times as big as the whole earth. [...] [The eclipse] is when the mouth from which comes the fire heat is closed. [...] [The Moon] is a circle nineteen times as big as the whole earth, all filled with fire, like that of the Sun".</ref>
|-
| [[Atomism|Atomist universe]]
| [[Anaxagoras]] (500–428&nbsp;BCE) and later [[Epicurus]]
| Infinite in extent
| The universe contains only two things: an infinite number of tiny seeds ([[atom]]s) and the void of infinite extent. All atoms are made of the same substance, but differ in size and shape. Objects are formed from atom aggregations and decay back into atoms. Incorporates [[Leucippus]]' principle of [[causality]]: "nothing happens at random; everything happens out of reason and necessity". The universe was not ruled by [[gods]].{{citation needed|reason=Ancient Greeks typically believed that nothing was random *because* there were gods – for instance, when you elected a leader by drawing straws, the person 'randomly' elected leader was the one chosen by the gods!  The random selection was intended to minimize human influence on the outcome of the election, not to eliminate the influence of mount olympus – which would have been considered impossible, by typical Greek thinkers at least.  Perhaps Anaxagoras was atypical in *that* way, as well as atypical in believing in some primitive version of the atomic theory, but methinks not.|date=January 2013}} 
|-
| [[Pythagorean astronomical system|Pythagorean universe]]
| [[Philolaus]] (d. 390 BCE)
| Existence of a "Central Fire" at the center of the Universe.
| At the center of the Universe is a central fire, around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and [[planet]]s revolve uniformly. The Sun revolves around the central fire once a year, the stars are immobile. The Earth in its motion maintains the same hidden face towards the central fire, hence it is never seen. First known non-geocentric model of the Universe.<ref>[[Carl Benjamin Boyer]] (1968), [[iarchive:AHistoryOfMathematics|''A History of Mathematics.'']] Wiley. {{ISBN|0471543977}}. p. 54.</ref>
|-
| ''[[De Mundo]]''
| [[Pseudo-Aristotle]] (d. 250 BCE or between 350 and 200 BCE)
| The Universe is a system made up of heaven and Earth and the elements which are contained in them.
| There are "five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater – namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether – make up the whole Universe."<ref name=1908DeMundo>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/demundoarisrich#page/4/mode/2up |title=De Mundo |year=1914 |author=Aristotle |editor1=Forster, E. S. |editor2= Dobson, J. F. |at=393<sup>a</sup> |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
|-
| [[Stoicism#Physics and cosmology|Stoic universe]]
| [[Stoics]] (300&nbsp;BCE&nbsp;–&nbsp;200&nbsp;CE)
| [[Island universe]]
| The [[cosmos]] is finite and surrounded by an infinite void. It is in a state of flux, and pulsates in size and undergoes periodic upheavals and conflagrations.
|-
| [[Timaeus_(dialogue)|Platonic universe]]
| [[Plato]] ({{circa|360&nbsp;BCE}})
| [[Geocentric]], complex [[cosmogony]], finite extent, implied finite time, cyclical
| Static Earth at center, surrounded by heavenly bodies which move in perfect [[celestial spheres|circles]], arranged by the will of the [[Demiurge]]<ref>"The components from which he made the soul and the way in which he made it were as follows: In between the ''Being'' that is indivisible and always changeless, and the one that is divisible and comes to be in the corporeal realm, he mixed a third, intermediate form of being, derived from the other two. Similarly, he made a mixture of the ''Same,'' and then one of the ''Different,'' in between their indivisible and their corporeal, divisible counterparts. And he took the three mixtures and mixed them together to make a uniform mixture, forcing the Different, which was hard to mix, into conformity with the Same. Now when he had mixed these two with Being, and from the three had made a single mixture, he redivided the whole mixture into as many parts as his task required, each part remaining a mixture of the Same, the Different and Being." (''Timaeus'' 35a–b), translation Donald J. Zeyl.</ref> in order: Moon, Sun, planets and [[fixed stars]].<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Tim.+36c Plato, Timaeus, 36c].</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Tim.+36d Plato, Timaeus, 36d].</ref> Complex motions repeat every [[Great Year|'perfect' year]].<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Tim.+39d Plato, Timaeus, 39d].</ref>
|-
| [[Concentric spheres|Eudoxus' model]]
| [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] ({{circa|340&nbsp;BCE}}) and later [[Callippus]]
| [[Geocentric]], first geometric-mathematical model
| The heavenly bodies move as if attached to a number of Earth-centered [[Concentric spheres|concentrical, invisible spheres]], each of them rotating around its own and different axis and at different paces.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yavetz|first1=Ido|title=On the Homocentric Spheres of Eudoxus|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|date=February 1998|volume=52|issue=3|pages=222–225|jstor=41134047|bibcode = 1998AHES...52..222Y|doi=10.1007/s004070050017|s2cid=121186044}}</ref> There are twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus emphasised that this is a purely mathematical construct of the model in the sense that the spheres of each celestial body do not exist, it just shows the possible positions of the bodies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crowe |first1=Michael |title=Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution |date=2001 |publisher=Dover |isbn=0-486-41444-2 |location=Mineola, New York |page=23}}</ref>
|-
| [[On the Heavens|Aristotelian universe]]
| [[Aristotle]] (384–322&nbsp;BCE)
| [[Geocentric]] (based on Eudoxus' model), static, steady state, finite extent, infinite time
| Static and spherical Earth is surrounded by 43 to 55 [[Concentric spheres|concentric]] [[celestial spheres]], which are material and crystalline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Easterling |first1=H. |date=1961 |title=Homocentric Spheres in De Caelo |journal=Phronesis |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=138–141 |doi=10.1163/156852861x00161 |jstor=4181694}}</ref> Universe exists unchanged throughout eternity. Contains a fifth element, called [[aether (classical element)|aether]], that was added to the four [[classical element]]s.<ref>{{ cite book |author=Lloyd, G. E. R.|date=1968|title=The critic of Plato. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought|publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-09456-6 }}</ref>
|-
| [[On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)|Aristarchean universe]]
| [[Aristarchus of Samos|Aristarchus]] ({{circa|280&nbsp;BCE}})
| [[Heliocentric]]
| Earth rotates daily on its axis and revolves annually about the Sun in a circular orbit. Sphere of fixed stars is centered about the Sun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hirshfeld|first=Alan W.|date=2004|title=The Triangles of Aristarchus|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20871578|journal=The Mathematics Teacher|volume=97|issue=4|pages=228–231|doi=10.5951/MT.97.4.0228|jstor=20871578|issn=0025-5769|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
|-
| [[Geocentric model|Ptolemaic model]]
| [[Ptolemy]] (2nd century&nbsp;CE)
| Geocentric (based on Aristotelian universe)
| Universe orbits around a stationary Earth. Planets move in circular [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycles]], each having a center that moved in a larger circular orbit (called an eccentric or a deferent) around a center-point near Earth. The use of [[equant]]s added another level of complexity and allowed astronomers to predict the positions of the planets. The most successful universe model of all time, using the criterion of longevity. The ''[[Almagest]]'' (the Great System).
|-
| [[Martianus Capella#De nuptiis|Capella's model]]
| [[Martianus Capella]] ({{circa|420}})
| Geocentric and Heliocentric
| The Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the Moon, the Sun, three planets and the stars, while [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]] circle the Sun.<ref>Bruce S. Eastwood, ''Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance'' (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 238–239.</ref>
|-
| Aryabhatan model
| [[Aryabhata]] (499)
| Geocentric or Heliocentric
| The [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotates]] and the planets move in [[elliptical orbit]]s around either the Earth or Sun; uncertain whether the model is geocentric or heliocentric due to planetary orbits given with respect to both the Earth and Sun.
|-
| [[Quranic cosmology]]
| [[Quran]] (610–632 CE)
| Flat-earth
| The universe consists of stacked flat layers, including seven levels of heaven and in some interpretations seven levels of earth (including hell)
|-
| Medieval universe
| [[Medieval philosophy|Medieval philosophers]] (500–1200)
| Finite in time
| A universe that is finite in time and has a beginning is proposed by the [[Christian philosophy|Christian philosopher]] [[John Philoponus]], who argues against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Logical arguments supporting a finite universe are developed by the [[Early Islamic philosophy|early Muslim philosopher]] [[Al-Kindi]], the [[Jewish philosophy|Jewish philosopher]] [[Saadia Gaon]], and the [[Kalam|Muslim theologian]] [[Al-Ghazali]].
|-
|[[Hindu cosmology|Non-Parallel Multiverse]] 
|[[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagvata Puran]] (800–1000)
|[[Multiverse]], Non Parallel
|Innumerable universes is comparable to the [[multiverse]] theory, except nonparallel where each universe is different and individual ''[[Jiva|jiva-atmas]]'' (embodied souls) exist in exactly one universe at a time. All universes manifest from the same matter, and so they all follow parallel time cycles, manifesting and unmanifesting at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mirabello|first=Mark|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGEoDwAAQBAJ&q=A+Traveler's+Guide+to+the+Afterlife:+Traditions+and+Beliefs+on+Death,+Dying,+and+What+Lies+Beyond|title=A Traveler's Guide to the Afterlife: Traditions and Beliefs on Death, Dying, and What Lies Beyond|date=2016-09-15|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-62055-598-9|pages=23|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[Islamic cosmology#Multiversal cosmology|Multiversal cosmology]]
| [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1149–1209)
| [[Multiverse]], multiple worlds and universes
| There exists an infinite outer space beyond the known world, and God has the power to fill the vacuum with an infinite number of universes.
|-
| Maragha models
| [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha school]] (1259–1528)
| Geocentric
| Various modifications to Ptolemaic model and Aristotelian universe, including rejection of [[equant]] and [[Deferent and epicycle|eccentrics]] at [[Maragheh observatory]], and introduction of [[Tusi-couple]] by [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Al-Tusi]]. Alternative models later proposed, including the first accurate [[Moon|lunar]] model by [[Ibn al-Shatir]], a model rejecting stationary Earth in favour of [[Earth's rotation]] by [[Ali Kuşçu]], and planetary model incorporating "circular [[inertia]]" by [[Al-Birjandi]].
|-
| Nilakanthan model
| [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] (1444–1544)
| Geocentric and heliocentric
| A universe in which the planets orbit the Sun, which orbits the Earth; similar to the later [[Tychonic system]].
|-
| [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican universe]]
| [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473–1543)
| Heliocentric with circular planetary orbits, finite extent
| First described in ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]''. The Sun is in the center of the universe, planets including Earth orbit the Sun, but the Moon orbits the Earth. The universe is limited by the sphere of the [[fixed stars]].
|-
| [[Tychonic system]]
| [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601)
| Geocentric and Heliocentric
| A universe in which the planets orbit the Sun and the Sun orbits the Earth, similar to the earlier [[Nilakantha Somayaji|Nilakanthan model]].
|-
|[[Giordano Bruno#Cosmology|Bruno's cosmology]]
| [[Giordano Bruno]] (1548–1600)
| Infinite extent, infinite time, homogeneous, isotropic, non-hierarchical
| Rejects the idea of a hierarchical universe. Earth and Sun have no special properties in comparison with the other heavenly bodies. The void between the stars is filled with [[Aether (classical element)|aether]], and matter is composed of the same [[Classical element|four elements]] (water, earth, fire, and air), and is atomistic, animistic and intelligent.
|-
|''[[De Magnete]]''
| [[William Gilbert (physician)|William Gilbert]] (1544–1603)
| Heliocentric, indefinitely extended
| [[Copernican heliocentrism]], but he rejects the idea of a limiting [[Fixed stars|sphere of the fixed stars]] for which no proof has been offered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=William |title=De Magnete |url=https://archive.org/details/williamgilbertof00gilb |translator-last=Mottelay |translator-first=P. Fleury |date=1893 |chapter=Book 6, Chapter III|publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |isbn = 0-486-26761-X|others=(Facsimile)}}</ref>
|-
|Keplerian
| [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571–1630)
| Heliocentric with elliptical planetary orbits
| Kepler's discoveries, marrying mathematics and physics, provided the foundation for the present conception of the [[Solar System]], but distant stars were still seen as objects in a thin, fixed celestial sphere.
|-
| Static Newtonian
| [[Isaac Newton]] (1642–1727)
| [[Static universe|Static]] (evolving), steady state, infinite
| Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle. Matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed. Gravitationally balanced but unstable.
|-
| [[Mechanical explanations of gravitation#Vortex|Cartesian Vortex]] universe
| [[René Descartes]] 17th century
| Static (evolving), steady state, [[infinity|infinite]]
| System of huge swirling whirlpools of aethereal or fine matter produces gravitational effects. But his vacuum was not empty; all space was filled with matter.
|-
| Hierarchical universe
| [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Johann Lambert]] 18th century
| Static (evolving), steady state, infinite
| Matter is clustered on ever larger scales of hierarchy. Matter is endlessly recycled.
|-
| [[Static universe|Einstein Universe with a cosmological constant]]
| [[Albert Einstein]] 1917
| Static (nominally). Bounded (finite)
| "Matter without motion". Contains uniformly distributed matter. Uniformly curved spherical space; based on [[Riemann sphere|Riemann's hypersphere]]. Curvature is set equal to Λ. In effect Λ is equivalent to a repulsive force which counteracts gravity. Unstable.
|-
| [[De Sitter universe]]
| [[Willem de Sitter]] 1917
| [[Metric expansion of space|Expanding]] [[shape of the universe|flat space]].
Steady state. Λ > 0
| "Motion without matter." Only apparently static. Based on Einstein's [[general relativity]]. Space expands with constant [[accelerating universe|acceleration]]. [[Scale factor (universe)|Scale factor]] increases exponentially (constant [[cosmic inflation|inflation]]).
|-
| MacMillan universe
| [[William Duncan MacMillan]] 1920s
| Static and steady state
| New matter is created from [[radiation]]; starlight perpetually recycled into new matter particles.
|-
| [[Friedmann equations|Friedmann universe]], spherical space
| [[Alexander Friedmann]] 1922
| Spherical expanding space. ''k'' = +1 ; no Λ
| Positive curvature. Curvature constant ''k'' = +1
[[Metric expansion of space|Expands]] then [[Big Crunch|recollapses]]. [[shape of the universe|Spatially closed]] (finite).
|-
| [[Friedmann equations|Friedmann universe]], hyperbolic space
| [[Alexander Friedmann]] 1924
| [[Hyperbolic space|Hyperbolic]] expanding space. ''k'' = −1 ; no Λ
| [[Shape of the universe|Negative curvature]]. Said to be infinite (but ambiguous). Unbounded. Expands forever.
|-
| [[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
| [[Paul Dirac]] 1930s
| Expanding
| Demands a large variation in ''G'', which decreases with time. Gravity weakens as universe evolves.
|-
| Friedmann zero-curvature
| Einstein and De Sitter 1932
| Expanding flat space
''k'' = 0 ; Λ = 0 Critical density
| Curvature constant ''k'' = 0. Said to be infinite (but ambiguous). "Unbounded cosmos of limited extent". Expands forever. "Simplest" of all known universes. Named after but not considered by Friedmann. Has a [[deceleration parameter|deceleration term]] ''q'' = 1/2, which means that its expansion rate slows down.
|-
| The original [[Big Bang]] (Friedmann-Lemaître)
| [[Georges Lemaître]] 1927–1929
| Expansion
Λ > 0 ; Λ > |Gravity|
| Λ is positive and has a magnitude greater than gravity. Universe has initial high-density state ("primeval atom"). Followed by a two-stage expansion. Λ is used to destabilize the universe. (Lemaître is considered the father of the Big Bang model.)
|-
| [[Oscillating universe]] (Friedmann-Einstein)
| Favored by [[Alexander Friedmann|Friedmann]] 1920s
| Expanding and contracting in cycles
| Time is endless and beginningless; thus avoids the beginning-of-time paradox. Perpetual cycles of [[Big Bang]] followed by [[Big Crunch]]. (Einstein's first choice after he rejected his 1917 model.)
|-
| Eddington universe
| [[Arthur Eddington]] 1930
| First static then expands
| Static Einstein 1917 universe with its instability disturbed into expansion mode; with relentless matter dilution becomes a De Sitter universe. Λ dominates gravity.
|-
| [[Milne universe]] of kinematic relativity
| [[Edward Arthur Milne|Edward Milne]] 1933, 1935;
[[William H. McCrea]] 1930s
| Kinematic expansion without space expansion
| Rejects general relativity and the expanding space paradigm. Gravity not included as initial assumption. Obeys cosmological principle and [[special relativity]]; consists of a finite spherical cloud of particles (or galaxies) that expands within an infinite and otherwise empty flat space. It has a center and a cosmic edge (surface of the particle cloud) that expands at light speed. Explanation of gravity was elaborate and unconvincing.
|-
| [[Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker]] class of models
| [[Howard Percy Robertson|Howard Robertson]], [[Arthur Geoffrey Walker|Arthur Walker]] 1935
| Uniformly expanding
| Class of universes that are homogeneous and isotropic. Spacetime separates into uniformly curved space and cosmic time common to all co-moving observers. The formulation system is now known as the FLRW or Robertson–Walker metrics of cosmic time and curved space.
|-
| [[Steady state theory|Steady-state]]
| [[Hermann Bondi]], [[Thomas Gold]] 1948
| Expanding, steady state, infinite
| Matter creation rate maintains constant density. Continuous creation out of nothing from nowhere. Exponential expansion. Deceleration term ''q'' = −1.
|-
| Steady-state
| [[Fred Hoyle]] 1948
| Expanding, steady state; but unstable
| Matter creation rate maintains constant density. But since matter creation rate must be exactly balanced with the space expansion rate the system is unstable.
|-
| [[Ambiplasma]]
| [[Hannes Alfvén]] 1965 [[Oskar Klein]]
| Cellular universe, expanding by means of matter–antimatter annihilation
| Based on the concept of [[plasma cosmology]]. The universe is viewed as "meta-galaxies" divided by [[Double layer (plasma)|double layers]] and thus a bubble-like nature. Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic matter-[[antimatter]] [[annihilation]]s keep the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting.
|-
| [[Brans–Dicke theory]]
| [[Carl H. Brans]], [[Robert H. Dicke]]
| Expanding
| Based on [[Mach's principle]]. ''G'' varies with time as universe expands. "But nobody is quite sure what Mach's principle actually means."{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
|-
| [[Cosmic inflation]]
| [[Alan Guth]] 1980
| [[Big Bang]] modified to solve [[horizon problem|horizon]] and [[flatness problem]]s
| Based on the concept of hot inflation. The universe is viewed as a multiple quantum flux – hence its bubble-like nature. Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic expansion kept the bubbles separated and moving apart.
|-
| [[Chaotic inflation theory|Eternal inflation]] (a multiple universe model)
| [[Andrei Linde|Andreï Linde]] 1983
| Big Bang with [[cosmic inflation]]
| [[Multiverse]] based on the concept of cold inflation, in which inflationary events occur at random each with independent initial conditions; some expand into bubble universes supposedly like the entire cosmos. Bubbles nucleate in a [[Quantum foam|spacetime foam]].
|-
| [[Cyclic model]]
| [[Paul Steinhardt]]; [[Neil Turok]] 2002
| Expanding and contracting in cycles; [[M-theory]]
| Two parallel [[orbifold]] planes or [[Membrane (M-theory)|M-branes]] collide periodically in a higher-dimensional space. With [[Quintessence (physics)|quintessence]] or [[dark energy]].
|-
| [[Cyclic model]]
| Lauris Baum; [[Paul Frampton]] 2007
| Solution of [[Richard Tolman|Tolman]]'s entropy problem
| [[Phantom energy|Phantom dark energy]] fragments universe into large number of disconnected patches. The observable patch contracts containing only dark energy with zero [[entropy]].
|}

Table notes: the term "static" simply means not expanding and not contracting. Symbol ''G'' represents Newton's [[gravitational constant]]; Λ (Lambda) is the [[cosmological constant]].

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Absolute time and space]]
* [[Big History]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Galaxy formation and evolution]]
* [[Illustris project]]
* [[Jainism and non-creationism]]
* [[Lambda-CDM model]]
* [[List of astrophysicists]]
* [[Non-standard cosmology]]
* [[Taiji (philosophy)]]
* [[Timeline of cosmological theories]]
* [[Universal rotation curve]]
* [[Warm inflation]]
* [[Big Ring]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054880 |last= Bragg |first=Melvyn |title=The Universe's Shape |date=2023 |website=bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote=Melvyn Bragg discusses shape, size and topology of the universe and examines theories about its expansion. If it is already infinite, how can it be getting any bigger? And is there really only one?}} <!-- Rees, Martin et al.: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054880 "The Universe's Shape"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sir Martin Rees, Julian Barbour and Janna Levin (''In Our Time'', 7 February 2002) https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054880 -->
* {{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/cosmology/index.htm |title=Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology |author= |date=2023 |website=history.aip.org |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote=The history of cosmology is a grand story of discovery, from ancient Greek astronomy to -space telescopes.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dodelson |first1=Scott |last2=Schmidt |first2=Fabian |date=2020 |title=Modern Cosmology 2nd Edition |trans-title= |url= |url-access= |format= |language= |location= |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0128159484 |quote=}} Download full text: {{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/487717848/Scott-Dodelson-Fabian-Schmidt-Modern-cosmology-2021-libgen-lc-pdf |title=Scott Dodelson - Fabian Schmidt - Modern Cosmology (2021) PDF |last1=Dodelson |first1=Scott |last2=Schmidt |first2=Fabian |date=2020 |website=scribd.com |publisher=Academic Press |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote= |format=PDF}}
* Charles Kahn. 1994. ''Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology''. Indianapolis: Hackett.
* {{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/genesismission/ |title=Genesis, Search for Origins. End of mission wrap up. |author= |date= |website=genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote=About 4.6 billion years ago, the solar nebula transformed into the present solar system. In order to chemically model the processes which drove that transformation, we would, ideally, like to have a sample of that original nebula to use as a baseline from which we can track changes. }} <!--l CosCosmolTT.pdf Genesis ''cosmic chemistry'' module [http://genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/educate/scimodule/Cosmogony/CosmogonyPDF/] -->
* {{cite book |last1=Leonard |first1=Scott A |last2=McClure  |first2=Michael|title=Myth and Knowing  |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-7674-1957-4 }}
* {{cite arXiv |title=Introduction to Cosmology |last=Lyth |first=David |date=12 December 1993 |eprint=astro-ph/9312022 |quote=These notes form an introduction to cosmology with special emphasis on large scale structure, the cmb anisotropy and inflation.}} Lectures given at the Summer School in High Energy Physics and Cosmology, ICTP (Trieste) 1993.) 60 pages, plus 5 Figures.
* {{cite web |url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu |title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED)  |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2023 |website=ned.ipac.caltech.edu |publisher=NASA |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote=April 2023 Release Highlights Database Updates}}
** {{cite web |url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/Library/Distances/ |title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED)  |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2020 |website=ned.ipac.caltech.edu |publisher=NASA |access-date=23 May 2023 |quote=NED-D: A Master List of Redshift-Independent Extragalactic Distances}}
* [[The Sophia Centre|Sophia Centre]]. The Sophia Centre for the Study of Cosmology in Culture, University of Wales Trinity Saint David.

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