View source for Corynebacterium

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Corynebacterium ulcerans 01.jpg
| image_alt = "Corynebacterium ulcerans" colonies on a blood agar plate
| image_caption = ''[[Corynebacterium ulcerans]]'' colonies on a [[blood agar]] plate
| taxon = Corynebacterium
| parent_authority = Lehmann and Neumann 1907 (Approved Lists 1980)<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lehmann KB, Neumann R | title = Lehmann's Medizin, Handatlanten X. Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie und Lehrbuch der speziellen bakteriologischen Diagnostik | trans-title = Lehmann's Medicine, Handbook X. Atlas and outline of bacteriology and textbook of special bacteriological diagnostics | edition = 4th | publisher = J. F. Lehmann | location = Munchen | year = 1907}}</ref>
| authority = Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lehmann KB, Neumann R | title = Atlas und Grundriss der Bakteriologie und Lehrbuch der speziellen bakteriologischen Diagnostik | trans-title = Atlas and outline of bacteriology and textbook of special bacteriological diagnostics | edition = 1st | publisher = J.F. Lehmann | location = München | year = 1896}}</ref>
| type_species = ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]''
| type_species_authority = (Kruse 1886) Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)
| synonyms =
* ''Bacterionema'' <small>Gilmour ''et al''. 1961 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''Caseobacter'' <small>Crombach 1978 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''Turicella'' <small>Funke ''et al''. 1994</small>
| synonyms_ref =
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See text.
}}

'''''Corynebacterium''''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|ˈ|r|aɪ|n|ə|b|æ|k|ˌ|t|ɪər|i|ə|m|,_|-|ˈ|r|ɪ|n|-}}) is a [[genus]] of  [[Gram-positive bacteria]] and most are [[aerobe|aerobic]]. They are [[bacillus (shape)|bacilli]] (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, [[club (weapon)|club]]-shaped, which inspired the genus name (''[[coryneform]]'' means "club-shaped").

They are widely distributed in nature in the [[microbiota]] of [[animal]]s (including the [[human microbiota]]) and are mostly innocuous, most commonly existing in [[commensalism|commensal]] relationships with their hosts.<ref name="caspium">{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02950-0 |pmid=15143043 |title=''Corynebacterium caspium'' sp. nov., from a Caspian seal (Phoca caspica) |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=925–8 |year=2004 |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some, such as ''[[Corynebacterium glutamicum|C. glutamicum]]'', are commercially and industrially useful.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poetsch|first=A.|title=Proteomics of corynebacteria: From biotechnology workhorses to pathogens|journal=Proteomics|volume=11|issue=15|pages=3244–3255|doi=10.1002/pmic.201000786|pmid=21674800|year=2011|s2cid=44274690}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Burkovski A. |title=Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2008 |url=http://www.horizonpress.com/cory |isbn=978-1-904455-30-1}}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref><ref name="JGAM_1957">{{Cite journal |author=Kinoshita, Shukuo; Udaka, Shigezo; Shimono, Masakazu |date=1957 |title=Studies on the amino acid fermentation. Part 1. Production of L-glutamic acid by various microorganisms |journal=The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=193–205 |doi=10.2323/jgam.3.193 |doi-access=free |pmid=15965888}}</ref><ref name="Nature_1972">{{Cite journal |author=Kinoshita, Shukuo|date=1972-11-24 |title=Amino-acid Producnon by the Fermentation Process |journal=Nature |volume=240 |issue= 5378|pages=211 |doi=10.1038/240211a0 |doi-access=free |pmid= 4569416}}</ref> Others can cause human disease, including, most notably, [[diphtheria]], which is caused by ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae|C. diphtheriae]]''. Like various species of microbiota (including their relatives in the genera ''[[Arcanobacterium]]'' and ''[[Trueperella]]''), they are usually not [[pathogen]]ic, but can occasionally capitalize [[opportunistic infection|opportunistically]] on atypical access to [[tissue (biology)|tissues]] (via [[wound]]s) or [[immunodeficiency|weakened host defenses]].

== Taxonomy ==
The genus ''Corynebacterium'' was created by Lehmann and Neumann in 1896 as a [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] group to contain the bacterial rods responsible for causing diphtheria. The genus was defined based on [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] characteristics. Based on studies of [[16S rRNA]], they have been grouped into the subdivision of Gram-positive [[Eubacteria]] with high [[Guanine|G]]:[[Cytosine|C]] content, with close phylogenetic relationships to ''[[Arthrobacter]]'', ''[[Mycobacterium]]'', ''[[Nocardia]]'', and ''[[Streptomyces]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=2439888 |pmc=373105 |year=1987 |last1=Woese |first1=C. R. |title=Bacterial evolution |journal=Microbiological Reviews |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=221–71 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.51.2.221-271.1987 }}
</ref>

The term comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] κορύνη, ''{{lang|grc|korýnē}}'' 'club, mace, staff, knobby plant bud or shoot'<ref>{{LSJ|koru/nh|κορύνη|ref}}.</ref> and βακτήριον, ''{{lang|grc|baktḗrion}}'' 'little rod'.<ref>{{LSJ|bakth/rion|βακτήριον}}, {{LSJ|bakthri/a|βακτηρία|shortref}}.</ref> The term "diphtheroids" is used to represent corynebacteria that are non[[pathogenic]]; for example, ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae|C. diphtheriae]]'' would be excluded.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The term diphtheroid comes from Greek διφθέρα, ''{{lang|grc|diphthérā}}'' 'prepared hide, leather'.<ref>{{LSJ|difqe/ra|διφθέρα|shortref}}.</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|diphtheria}}</ref>

==Genomics==
Comparative analysis of corynebacterial genomes has led to the identification of several [[conserved signature indels]] (CSIs) that are unique to the genus. Two examples of CSIs are a two-amino-acid insertion in a conserved region of the enzyme [[Decaprenyl-phosphate phosphoribosyltransferase|phosphoribose diphosphate:decaprenyl-phosphate phosphoribosyltransferase]] and a three-amino-acid insertion in [[acetate kinase]], both of which are found only in ''Corynebacterium'' species. Both of these indels serve as [[Genetic marker|molecular markers]] for species of the genus ''Corynebacterium''. Additionally, 16 conserved signature proteins, which are uniquely found in ''Corynebacterium'' species, have been identified. Three of these have homologs found in the genus ''[[Dietzia]]'', which is believed to be the closest related genus to ''Corynebacterium''. In phylogenetic trees based on concatenated protein sequences or 16S rRNA, the genus ''Corynebacterium'' forms a distinct clade, within which is a distinct subclade, cluster I. The cluster is made up of the species ''C. diphtheriae, C. pseudotuberculosis, C. ulcerans, C. aurimucosum, C. glutamicum,'' and ''C. efficiens''. This cluster is distinguished by several conserved signature indels, such as a two-amino-acid insertion in LepA and a seven- or eight-amino-acid insertions in RpoC. Also, 21 conserved signature proteins are found only in members of cluster I. Another cluster has been proposed, consisting of ''C. jeikeium'' and ''C. urealyticum'', which is supported by the presence of 19 distinct conserved signature proteins which are unique to these two species.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1128/MMBR.05011-11 |pmid=22390973 |pmc=3294427 |title=Phylogenetic Framework and Molecular Signatures for the Main Clades of the Phylum Actinobacteria |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=66–112 |year=2012 |last1=Gao |first1=B. |last2=Gupta |first2=R. S. }}</ref> Corynebacteria have a high [[GC content|G+C content]] ranging from 46-74&nbsp;mol%.<ref>{{cite book |first1=K.A. |last1=Bernard |first2=G. |last2=Funke |chapter=Genus I. Corynebacterium |editor1-first=M. |editor1-last=Goodfellow |editor2-first=P. |editor2-last=Kampfer |editor3-first=H.J. |editor3-last=Busse |editor4-first=M.E. |editor4-last=Trujillo |editor5-first=K. |editor5-last=Suzuki |editor6-first=W. |editor6-last=Ludwig |editor7-first=W.B. |editor7-last=Whitman |title=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |edition=2nd |publisher=Springer |year=2012 |page=245 }}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
The principal features of the genus ''Corynebacterium'' were described by Collins and Cummins, for Coryn Taylor in 1986.<ref name=collins>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |last2=Cummins |first2=C. S. |year=1986 |chapter=Genus Corynebacterium Lehmann and Neumann 1896, 350AL |title=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |volume=2 |pages=1266–76 |editor1-first=P. H. A. |editor1-last=Sneath |editor2-first=N. S. |editor2-last=Mair |editor3-first=M. E. |editor3-last=Sharpe |editor4-first=J. G. |editor4-last=Holt |location=Baltimore |publisher=Williams & Wilkins }}</ref> They are gram-positive, [[catalase]]-positive, non-[[spore]]-forming, non-[[motility|motile]], rod-shaped bacteria that are straight or slightly curved.<ref name=glaucum>{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02394-0 |pmid=12807190 |title=''Corynebacterium glaucum'' sp. nov |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=705–9 |year=2003 |last1=Yassin |first1=A. F. |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Metachromatic granules]] are usually present representing stored phosphate regions. Their size falls between 2 and 6 [[micrometre|μm]] in length and 0.5 μm in diameter. The bacteria group together in a characteristic way, which has been described as the form of a "V", "palisades", or "Chinese characters". They may also appear [[ellipse|elliptical]]. They are [[Aerobic organism|aerobic]] or [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultatively anaerobic]], [[chemoorganotroph]]s. They are [[pleomorphism (microbiology)|pleomorphic]] through their [[Biological life cycle|lifecycles]], they occur in various lengths, and they frequently have thickenings at either end, depending on the surrounding conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.1977.tb00689.x |pmid=406255 |title=The Cell Wall Composition and Distribution of Free Mycolic Acids in Named Strains of Coryneform Bacteria and in Isolates from Various Natural Sources |journal=Journal of Applied Bacteriology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=229–52 |year=1977 |last1=Keddie |first1=R. M. |last2=Cure |first2=G. L. }}</ref>

Some corynebacteria are [[lipophilic bacteria|lipophilic]] (such as [[CDC coryneform]] groups F-1 and G, ''[[Corynebacterium accolens|C. accolens]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium afermentans|C. afermentans]]'' subsp. ''lipophilum'', ''[[Corynebacterium bovis|C. bovis]]'',<ref name=cmr/> ''[[Corynebacterium jeikeium|C. jeikeium]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium macginleyi|C. macginleyi]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium uropygiale|C. uropygiale]]'',<ref name="Braun"/> and ''[[Corynebacterium urealyticum|C. urealyticum]]''), but medically relevant corynebacteria are typically not.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bernard |first=Kathryn |date=2012 |title=The Genus Corynebacterium and Other Medically Relevant Coryneform-Like Bacteria |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JCM.00796-12 |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=3152–3158 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00796-12 |issn=0095-1137 |pmc=3457441 |pmid=22837327}}</ref> The nonlipophilic bacteria may be classified as [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentative]] (such as ''[[Corynebacterium amycolatum|C. amycolatum]]''; ''[[Corynebacterium argentoratense|C. argentoratense]]'', members of the ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae|C. diphtheriae]]'' group, ''[[Corynebacterium glucuronolyticum|C. glucuronolyticum]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium glutamicum|C. glutamicum]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium matruchotii|C. matruchotii]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium minutissimum|C. minutissimum]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium striatum|C. striatum]]'', and ''[[Corynebacterium xerosis|C. xerosis]]'') or nonfermentative (such as ''[[Corynebacterium afermentans|C. afermentans]]'' subsp. ''afermentans'', ''[[Corynebacterium auris|C. auris]]'', ''[[Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum|C. pseudodiphtheriticum]]'', and ''[[Corynebacterium propinquum|C. propinquum]]'').<ref name=cmr>{{cite journal |pmid=8993861 |pmc=172946 |year=1997 |last1=Funke |first1=G |title=Clinical microbiology of coryneform bacteria |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=125–59 |last2=von Graevenitz |first2=A |last3=Clarridge Je |first3=3rd |last4=Bernard |first4=K. A. |doi=10.1128/CMR.10.1.125 }}</ref>

=== Cell wall ===
The [[cell wall]] is distinctive, with a predominance of [[mesodiaminopimelic acid]] in the [[murein]] wall<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> and many repetitions of [[arabinogalactan]], as well as corynemycolic acid (a [[mycolic acid]] with 22 to 26 [[carbon]] atoms), bound by [[disaccharide]] bonds called [[L-Rhap|L-Rha''p'']]-(1 → 4)--D-GlcNAc-phosphate. These form a complex commonly seen in ''Corynebacterium'' species: the mycolyl-AG–peptidoglican (mAGP).<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/glycob/cwl066 |pmid=17088267 |title=Topology and mutational analysis of the single Emb arabinofuranosyltransferase of Corynebacterium glutamicum as a model of Emb proteins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis |journal=Glycobiology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=210–9 |year=2006 |last1=Seidel |first1=M. |last2=Alderwick |first2=L. J. |last3=Sahm |first3=H. |last4=Besra |first4=G. S. |last5=Eggeling |first5=L. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Unlike most corynebacteria, ''[[Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii]]'' does not contain mycolic acids.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1099/00207713-48-4-1449 |pmid=9828448 |title=Note: ''Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii'' sp. nov., a novel corynebacterium that does not contain mycolic acids |journal=International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=1449–54 |year=1998 |last1=Collins |first1=M. D. |last2=Falsen |first2=E. |last3=Akervall |first3=E. |last4=Sjoden |first4=B. |last5=Alvarez |first5=A. |display-authors=3|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Culture ===
Corynebacteria grow slowly, even on enriched media. In nutritional requirements, all need [[biotin]] to grow. Some strains also need [[thiamine]] and [[4-aminobenzoic acid|PABA]].<ref name=collins /> Some of the ''Corynebacterium'' species with sequenced genomes have between 2.5 and 3.0 million base pairs. The bacteria grow in [[Löffler's serum|Loeffler's medium]], [[blood agar]], and [[trypticase soy agar]] (TSA). They form small, grayish colonies with a granular appearance, mostly translucent, but with opaque centers, convex, with continuous borders.<ref name=glaucum /> The color tends to be yellowish-white in Loeffler's medium. In TSA, they can form grey colonies with black centers and dentated borders that either resemble flowers (''C. gravis''), continuous borders (''C. mitis''), or a mix between the two forms (''C. intermedium'').{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

== Habitat ==
''Corynebacterium'' species occur commonly in nature in soil, water, plants, and food products.<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> The non-diphtheroid ''Corynebacterium'' species can even be found in the [[mucosa]] and normal [[skin flora]] of humans and animals.<ref name=caspium /><ref name=glaucum /> Unusual habitats, such as the [[preen gland]] of [[birds]], have been recently reported for ''[[Corynebacterium uropygiale]]''.<ref name="Braun">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.syapm.2015.12.001 |pmid=26776107 |title=''Corynebacterium uropygiale'' sp. nov., isolated from the preen gland of turkeys (''Meleagris gallopavo'') |journal=Systematic and Applied Microbiology |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=88–92 |year=2016 |last1=Braun |first1=Markus Santhosh |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Stefan |last3=Danner |first3=Maria |last4=Rashid |first4=Harun-or |last5=Wink |first5=Michael }}</ref> Some species are known for their pathogenic effects in humans and other animals. Perhaps the most notable one is [[Corynebacterium diphtheriae|''C. diphtheriae'']], which acquires the capacity to produce [[diphtheria toxin]] only after interacting with a [[bacteriophage]].<ref name=costa>{{cite journal |pmid=6270058 |pmc=216174 |year=1981 |last1=Costa |first1=J. J. |title=Restriction map of corynebacteriophages beta c and beta vir and physical localization of the diphtheria tox operon |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=148 |issue=1 |pages=124–30 |last2=Michel |first2=J. L. |last3=Rappuoli |first3=R |last4=Murphy |first4=J. R. |doi=10.1128/JB.148.1.124-130.1981 }}</ref><ref name=ViralZone /> Other pathogenic species in humans include: ''[[Corynebacterium amycolatum|C. amycolatum]]'', [[Corynebacterium striatum|''C. striatum'']], [[Corynebacterium jeikeium|''C. jeikeium'']], [[Corynebacterium urealyticum|''C. urealyticum'']], and [[Corynebacterium xerosis|''C. xerosis'']];<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0213-005X(01)72578-5 |pmid=11333587 |title=Bacteriemias significativas por Corynebacterium amycolatum: Un patógeno emergente |trans-title=Significant bacteremias by Corynebacterium amycolatum: an emergent pathogen |language=es |journal=Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=103–6 |year=2001 |last1=Oteo |first1=Jesús |last2=Aracil |first2=Belén |last3=Ignacio Alós |first3=Juan |last4=Luis Gómez-Garcés |first4=Jose |s2cid=72540272 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0732-8893(97)00193-4 |pmid=9488824 |title=Prospective Study of Catalase-positive Coryneform Organisms in Clinical Specimens: Identification, Clinical Relevance, and Antibiotic Susceptibility |journal=Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=7–15 |year=1998 |last1=Lagrou |first1=K |last2=Verhaegen |first2=J |last3=Janssens |first3=M |last4=Wauters |first4=G |last5=Verbist |first5=L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.7547/87507315-85-6-338 |pmid=7602508 |title=Osteomyelitis caused by Corynebacterium jeikeium |journal=Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=338–9 |year=1995 |last1=Boc |first1=SF |last2=Martone |first2=JD }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1128/aac.23.3.506 |pmid=6847177 |pmc=184682 |title=R Plasmids in Corynebacterium xerosis Strains |journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=506–8 |year=1983 |last1=Kono |first1=M. |last2=Sasatsu |first2=M. |last3=Aoki |first3=T. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1983.tb00305.x |title=Deoxyribonucleic acid base composition of ''Corynebacterium'' diphtheriaeand other corynebacteria with cell wall type IV |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=16 |issue=2–3 |pages=291–5 |year=1983 |last1=Pitcher |first1=D.G. |doi-access=free }}</ref> all of these are important as pathogens in [[immunosuppression|immunosuppressed]] patients. Pathogenic species in other animals include [[Corynebacterium bovis|''C. bovis'']] and [[Corynebacterium renale|''C. renale'']].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=8720950 |year=1996 |last1=Hirsbrunner |first1=G |title=Nephrektomie nach chronischer, unilateraler, eitriger Pyelonephritis beim Rind |trans-title=Nephrectomy for chronic, unilateral suppurative pyleonephritis in cattle |language=de |journal=Tierarztliche Praxis |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–21 |last2=Lang |first2=J |last3=Nicolet |first3=J |last4=Steiner |first4=A }}</ref> This genus has been found to be part of the human [[salivary microbiome]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Preliminary analysis of salivary microbiome and their potential roles in oral lichen planus|first1=Kun|last1=Wang|first2=Wenxin|last2=Lu|first3=Qichao|last3=Tu|first4=Yichen|last4=Ge|first5=Jinzhi|last5=He|first6=Yu|last6=Zhou|first7=Yaping|last7=Gou|first8=Joy D Van|last8=Nostrand|first9=Yujia|last9=Qin|first10=Jiyao|last10=Li|first11=Jizhong|last11=Zhou|first12=Yan|last12=Li|first13=Liying|last13=Xiao|first14=Xuedong|last14=Zhou|display-authors=3|date=10 March 2016|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|issue=1|pages=22943|doi=10.1038/srep22943|pmid=26961389|pmc=4785528|bibcode=2016NatSR...622943W}}</ref>

==Role in disease==
{{Main|Diphtheria}}
The most notable human infection is [[diphtheria]], caused by ''C. diphtheriae''. It is an acute, contagious infection characterized by pseudomembranes of dead [[epithelial]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, [[white blood cell]]s, [[red blood cell]]s, and [[fibrin]] that form around the [[tonsil]]s and [[pharynx|back of the throat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/spanish/ency/article/001608.htm| title=Difteria: MedlinePlus enciclopedia médica|website=www.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> In developed countries, it is an uncommon illness that tends to occur in un[[vaccine|vaccinated]] individuals, especially school-aged children, [[elderly]], [[neutropenia|neutropenic]] or [[immunocompromise]]d patients, and those with prosthetic devices such as [[prosthetic heart valve]]s, [[shunt (medical)|shunts]], or [[catheter]]s. It is more common in developing countries<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1590/S0034-89101980000400005 |pmid=7268290 |title= Difteria: Situação imunitária de uma população infantil urbana de São Paulo, SP, Brasil |trans-title=Diphtheria. Immunity in an infant population in the City of S. Paulo, SP, Brazil |language=pt |journal=Revista de Saúde Pública |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=462–8 |year= 1980 |last1=Iizuka |first1=Hideyo |last2=Furuta |first2=Joana Akiko |last3=Oliveira |first3=Edison P. Tavares de |doi-access=free }}</ref> It can occasionally infect wounds, the [[vulva]], the [[conjunctiva]], and the [[middle ear]]. It can be spread [[nosocomial infection|within a hospital]].<ref name=jk>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0022172400065347 |pmid=3023480 |pmc=2083551 |title=Plasmids in group JK coryneform bacteria isolated in a single hospital |journal=Journal of Hygiene |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=255–63 |year=2009 |last1=Kerry-Williams |first1= S. M. |last2=Noble |first2=W. C. }}</ref> The virulent and toxigenic strains produce an [[exotoxin]] formed by two [[polypeptide]] chains, which is itself produced when a bacterium is [[Transformation (genetics)|transformed]] by a [[gene]] from the [[Corynebacteriophage|β]] [[prophage]].<ref name=costa /><ref name=ViralZone>SIB: [https://viralzone.expasy.org/3967 Viral exotoxin]. Expasy: ViralZone. Accessed 2 Feb 2021</ref>

Several species cause disease in animals, most notably ''C. pseudotuberculosis'', which causes the disease [[caseous lymphadenitis]], and some are also pathogenic in humans. Some attack healthy [[Host (biology)|host]]s, while others tend to attack the [[immunocompromise]]d. Effects of infection include [[granuloma]]tous [[lymphadenopathy]], [[pneumonitis]], [[pharyngitis]], skin infections, and [[endocarditis]]. Corynebacterial endocarditis is seen most frequently in patients with intravascular devices.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0213-005X(04)73041-4 |title= Guías para el tratamiento de las infecciones relacionadas con catéteres intravasculares de corta permanencia en adultos: Conferencia de consenso SEIMC-SEMICYUC |trans-title=Guidelines for the treatment of infections related to short-stay intravascular catheters in adults: consensus conference SEIMC-SEMICYUC |language=es |journal=Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=92–7 |year=2004 |last1=León |first1=Cristóbal |last2=Ariza |first2=Javier |pmid= 14756991 }}</ref> Several species of ''Corynebacterium'' can cause [[trichomycosis axillaris]].<ref>{{EMedicine|derm|601|Trichomycosis axillaris}}</ref> ''C. striatum'' may cause axillary odor.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1467-2494.2004.00255.x |pmid=18492161 |title=Isolation of a bacterial enzyme releasing axillary malodor and its use as a screening target for novel deodorant formulations1 |journal=International Journal of Cosmetic Science |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=115–22 | year=2005 |last1=Natsch |first1=A. |last2=Gfeller |first2=H. |last3=Gygax |first3=P. |last4=Schmid |first4=J. |s2cid=22554216 }}</ref> ''[[Corynebacterium minutissimum|C. minutissimum]]'' causes [[erythrasma]].

==Industrial uses==
Nonpathogenic species of ''Corynebacterium'' are used for important industrial applications, such as the production of [[amino acid]]s<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Yamada |editor1-first=K. |editor2-last=Kinoshita |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Tsunoda |editor3-first=T. |editor4-last=Aida |editor4-first=K. |year=1972 |title=The Microbial Production of Amino Acids |publisher=Wiley |location=New York }}</ref> and [[nucleotide]]s, bioconversion of [[steroid]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/bit.260220110 |pmid=7350926 |title=Steroid transformation at high substrate concentrations using immobilized ''Corynebacterium'' simplex cells |journal=Biotechnology and Bioengineering |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=119–36 |year=1980 |last1=Constantinides |first1=Alkis |s2cid=29703826 }}</ref> degradation of [[hydrocarbon]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=422512 |pmc=218359 |year=1979 |last1=Cooper |first1=D. G. |title=Analysis of corynomycolic acids and other fatty acids produced by Corynebacterium lepus grown on kerosene |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=795–801 |last2=Zajic |first2=J. E. |last3=Gracey |first3=D. E. |doi=10.1128/JB.137.2.795-801.1979 }}</ref> [[cheese]] aging,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1985.tb01591.x |title=Phenylalanine and tyrosine catabolism in some cheese coryneform bacteria |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=201–5 |year=1985 |last1=Lee |first1=Chang-Won |last2=Lucas |first2=Serge |last3=Desmazeaud |first3=Michel J. |doi-access=free }}</ref> and production of [[enzyme]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0134(20000401)39:1<68::AID-PROT7>3.0.CO;2-Y |pmid=10737928 |title=Molecular modeling of substrate binding in wild-type and mutant ''Corynebacteria'' 2,5-diketo-D-gluconate reductases |journal=Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=68–75 |year=2000 |last1=Khurana |first1=Sumit |last2=Sanli |first2=Gulsah |last3=Powers |first3=David B. |last4=Anderson |first4=Stephen |last5=Blaber |first5=Michael |display-authors=3|citeseerx=10.1.1.661.3412 |s2cid=24526523 }}</ref> Some species produce metabolites similar to [[antibiotic]]s: [[bacteriocin]]s of the corynecin-linocin type,<ref name=jk /><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1984.tb01451.x |title=Plasmid-associated bacteriocin production in a JK-type coryneform bacterium |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=25 |issue=2–3 |pages=179–82 |year=1984 |last1=Kerry-Williams |first1=S.M. |last2=Noble |first2=W.C. |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1271/bbb1961.36.2223 |title=Production of Antibacterial Compounds Analogous to Chloramphenicol by a n-Paraffin-grown Bacterium |journal=Agricultural and Biological Chemistry |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=2223–8 |year=1972 |last1=Suzuki |first1=Takeo |last2=Honda |first2=Haruo |last3=Katsumata |first3=Ryoichi |doi-access=free }}</ref> antitumor agents,<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S0065-230X(08)60090-1 |pmid=343523 |chapter=Antitumor Activity of Corynebacterium Parvum |volume=26 |pages=257–306 |year=1978 |last1=Milas |first1=Luka |last2=Scott |first2=Martin T. |isbn=978-0-12-809878-3 |editor1-first=Marvella E. |editor1-last=Ford |editor2-first=Dennis K. |editor2-last=Watson |series=Advances in Cancer Research | title = Cancer Disparities | edition = 1st}}</ref> etc. One of the most studied species is [[Corynebacterium glutamicum|''C. glutamicum'']], whose name refers to its capacity to produce [[glutamic acid]] in aerobic conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2323/jgam.13.279 |title=Taxonomical Studies on Glutamic Acid-Producing Bacteria |journal=The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=279–301 |year=1967 |last1=Abe |first1=Shigeo |last2=Takayama |first2=KEN-Ichiro |last3=Kinoshita |first3=Shukuo |doi-access=free }}</ref>

L-Lysine production is specific to ''C. glutamicum'' in which core metabolic enzymes are manipulated through genetic engineering to drive metabolic flux towards the production of NADPH from the pentose phosphate pathway, and L-4-aspartyl phosphate, the commitment step to the synthesis of L-lysine, [[lysC]], {{chem name|dapA}}, {{chem name|dapC}}, and {{chem name|dapF}}. These enzymes are up-regulated in industry through genetic engineering to ensure adequate amounts of lysine precursors are produced to increase metabolic flux. Unwanted side reactions such as threonine and asparagine production can occur if a buildup of intermediates occurs, so scientists have developed mutant strains of'' C. glutamicum'' through PCR engineering and chemical knockouts to ensure production of side-reaction enzymes are limited. Many genetic manipulations conducted in industry are by traditional cross-over methods or inhibition of transcriptional activators.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kjeldsen |first1=Kjeld Raunkjær |year=2009 |title=Optimization of an industrial L-lysine producing Corynebacterium glutamicum strain |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=Technical University of Denmark |oclc=826400572 }}{{page needed|date=January 2017}}</ref>

Expression of functionally active human [[epidermal growth factor]] has been brought about in ''C. glutamicum'',<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1472-765X.2005.01802.x |pmid=16411922 |title=Secretion of human epidermal growth factor by Corynebacterium glutamicum |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=66–70 |year=2006 |last1=Date |first1=M. |last2=Itaya |first2=H. |last3=Matsui |first3=H. |last4=Kikuchi |first4=Y. |s2cid=20867427 |doi-access=free }}</ref> thus demonstrating a potential for industrial-scale production of human proteins. Expressed proteins can be targeted for secretion through either the general [[secretory pathway]] or the [[twin-arginine translocation pathway]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00253-007-0934-8 |pmid=17453196 |title=Comparative analysis of twin-arginine (Tat)-dependent protein secretion of a heterologous model protein (GFP) in three different Gram-positive bacteria |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=633–42 |year=2007 |last1=Meissner |first1=Daniel |last2=Vollstedt |first2=Angela |last3=Van Dijl |first3=Jan Maarten |last4=Freudl |first4=Roland |s2cid=6238466 }}</ref>

Unlike gram-negative bacteria, the gram-positive ''Corynebacterium'' species lack [[lipopolysaccharide]]s that function as antigenic [[endotoxins]] in humans.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

==Species==
''Corynebacterium'' comprises the following species:<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Euzéby JP, Parte AC | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/corynebacterium | title = ''Corynebacterium'' | access-date = June 21, 2022 | publisher = [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN)}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=250px}}
* ''[[Corynebacterium accolens|C. accolens]]'' <small>Neubauer et al. 1991</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium acetoacidophilum" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium afermentans|C. afermentans]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1993</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium alimapuense|C. alimapuense]]'' <small>Claverias et al. 2019</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium alkanolyticum|C. alkanolyticum]]''" <small>Lee and Reichenbach 2006</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium ammoniagenes|C. ammoniagenes]]'' <small>(Cooke and Keith 1927) Collins 1987</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium amycolatum|C. amycolatum]]'' <small>Collins et al. 1988</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium anserum|C. anserum]]'' <small>Liu et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium appendicis|C. appendicis]]'' <small>Yassin et al. 2002</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium aquaticum" was reclassified as Leifsonia aquatica. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium aquatimens|C. aquatimens]]'' <small>Aravena-Román et al. 2012</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium aquilae|C. aquilae]]'' <small>Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium argentoratense|C. argentoratense]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1995</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium asperum|C. asperum]]''" <small>De Briel et al. 1992</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium atrinae|C. atrinae]]'' <small>Kim et al. 2015</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium atypicum|C. atypicum]]'' <small>Hall et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium aurimucosum|C. aurimucosum]]'' <small>Yassin et al. 2002</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium auris|C. auris]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1995</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium auriscanis|C. auriscanis]]'' <small>Collins et al. 2000</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium autotrophicum" was reclassified as Xanthobacter autotrophicus. -->
<!-- "Corynebacterium barkeri" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium belfantii|C. belfantii]]'' <small>Dazas et al. 2018</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium betae was reclassified as Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium beticola|C. beticola]]'' <small>Abdou 1969 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium blattellae" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium bouchesdurhonense|C. bouchesdurhonense]]''" <small>Ndongo et al. 2017</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium bouchesdurhonense|C. bouchesdurhonense]]''" <small>Lo et al. 2019</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium bovis|C. bovis]]'' <small>Bergey et al. 1923 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium callunae|C. callunae]]'' <small>(Lee and Good 1963) Yamada and Komagata 1972 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium camporealensis|C. camporealensis]]'' <small>Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 1998</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium canis|C. canis]]'' <small>Funke et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium capitovis|C. capitovis]]'' <small>Collins et al. 2001</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium casei|C. casei]]'' <small>Brennan et al. 2001</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium caspium|C. caspium]]'' <small>Collins et al. 2004</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium cervicis" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium choanae|C. choanae]]'' <small>Busse et al. 2019</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium choanis is a misspelling of Corynebacterium choanae. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium ciconiae|C. ciconiae]]'' <small>Fernández-Garayzábal et al. 2004</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium comes|C. comes]]'' <small>Schaffert et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium confusum|C. confusum]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1998</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium coyleae|C. coyleae]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1997</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium crudilactis|C. crudilactis]]'' <small>Zimmermann et al. 2016</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium cyclohexanicum" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium cystitidis|C. cystitidis]]'' <small>Yanagawa and Honda 1978 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium defluvii|C. defluvii]]''" <small>Yu et al. 2017</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium dentalis|C. dentalis]]''" <small>Benabdelkader et al. 2020</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium deserti|C. deserti]]'' <small>Zhou et al. 2012</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae|C. diphtheriae]]'' <small>(Kruse 1886) Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium doosanense|C. doosanense]]'' <small>Lee et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium durum|C. durum]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1997</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium efficiens|C. efficiens]]'' <small>Fudou et al. 2002</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium endometrii|C. endometrii]]'' <small>Ballas et al. 2020</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium enzymicum" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium epidermidicanis|C. epidermidicanis]]'' <small>Frischmann et al. 2012</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium equi was reclassified as Rhodococcus equi. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium faecale|C. faecale]]'' <small>Chen et al. 2016</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium falsenii|C. falsenii]]'' <small>Sjödén et al. 1998</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium fascians was reclassified as Rhodococcus fascians. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium felinum|C. felinum]]'' <small>Collins et al. 2001</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens was reclassified as Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium flavescens|C. flavescens]]'' <small>Barksdale et al. 1979 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium fournieri|C. fournieri]]'' <small>corrig. Diop et al. 2018</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium fournierii is a misspelling of Corynebacterium fournieri. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium frankenforstense|C. frankenforstense]]'' <small>Wiertz et al. 2013</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium freiburgense|C. freiburgense]]'' <small>Funke et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium freneyi|C. freneyi]]'' <small>Renaud et al. 2001</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium genitalium" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium gerontici|C. gerontici]]'' <small>Busse et al. 2019</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium geronticis is a misspelling of Corynebacterium gerontici. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium glaucum|C. glaucum]]'' <small>Yassin et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium glucuronolyticum|C. glucuronolyticum]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1995</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium glutamicum|C. glutamicum]]'' <small>(Kinoshita et al. 1958) Abe et al. 1967 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium glyciniphilum|C. glyciniphilum]]'' <small>(ex Kubota et al. 1972) Al-Dilaimi et al. 2015</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium glycinophilum" is a misspelling of Corynebacterium glyciniphilum. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium godavarianum was reclassified as Corynebacterium gottingense. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium gottingense|C. gottingense]]'' <small>Atasayar et al. 2017</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium granulosum" was reclassified as Cutibacterium granulosum. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium guangdongense|C. guangdongense]]'' <small>Li et al. 2016</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium hadale was reclassified as Corynebacterium gottingense. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium haemomassiliense|C. haemomassiliense]]''" <small>Boxberger et al. 2020</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium halotolerans|C. halotolerans]]'' <small>Chen et al. 2004</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium hansenii|C. hansenii]]'' <small>Renaud et al. 2007</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium heidelbergense|C. heidelbergense]]'' <small>Braun et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium hindlerae|C. hindlerae]]'' <small>Bernard et al. 2021</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium hoagii was reclassified as Rhodococcus hoagii. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium hofmannii was reclassified as Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium humireducens|C. humireducens]]'' <small>Wu et al. 2011</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium hydrocarboclastus" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium ihumii|C. ihumii]]''" <small>Padmanabhan et al. 2014</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium ilicis|C. ilicis]]'' <small>Mandel et al. 1961 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium imitans|C. imitans]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1997</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium incognitum|C. incognitum]]''" <small>Boxberger et al. 2021</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium insidiosum was reclassified as Clavibacter insidiosus. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium iranicum was reclassified as Rathayibacter iranicus. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium jeddahense|C. jeddahense]]'' <small>Edouard et al. 2017</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium jeikeium|C. jeikeium]]'' <small>Jackman et al. 1988</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium kalinowskii|C. kalinowskii]]'' <small>Schaffert et al. 2021</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium kefirresidentii|C. kefirresidentii]]''" <small>Blasche et al. 2017</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium kroppenstedtii|C. kroppenstedtii]]'' <small>Collins et al. 1998</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium kutscheri|C. kutscheri]]'' <small>(Migula 1900) Bergey et al. 1925 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium lactis|C. lactis]]'' <small>Wiertz et al. 2013</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium lactofermentum|C. lactofermentum]]''" <small>Gubler et al. 1994</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium laevaniformans" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium liangguodongii|C. jeikliangguodongiiium]]'' <small>Zhu et al. 2020</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium lilium was reclassified as Corynebacterium glutamicum. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium lipophiloflavum|C. lipophiloflavum]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1997</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium liquefaciens was reclassified as Glutamicibacter nicotianae. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium lizhenjunii|C. lizhenjunii]]'' <small>Zhou et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium lowii|C. lowii]]'' <small>Bernard et al. 2016</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium lubricantis|C. lubricantis]]'' <small>Kämpfer et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium lujinxingii|C. lujinxingii]]'' <small>Zhang et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium macginleyi|C. macginleyi]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1995</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium marinum|C. marinum]]'' <small>Du et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium maris|C. maris]]'' <small>Ben-Dov et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium massiliense|C. massiliense]]'' <small>Merhej et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium mastitidis|C. mastitidis]]'' <small>Fernandez-Garayzabal et al. 1997</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium matruchotii|C. matruchotii]]'' <small>(Mendel 1919) Collins 1983</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium mediolanum" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
<!-- "Corynebacterium melassecola" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium michiganense was reclassified as Clavibacter michiganensis. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium minutissimum|C. minutissimum]]'' <small>(ex Sarkany et al. 1962) Collins and Jones 1983</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium mooreparkense was reclassified as Corynebacterium variabile. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium mucifaciens|C. mucifaciens]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1997</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium mustelae|C. mustelae]]'' <small>Funke et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium mycetoides|C. mycetoides]]'' <small>(ex Castellani 1942) Collins 1983</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium nasicanis|C. nasicanis]]'' <small>Baumgardt et al. 2015</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium nebraskense was reclassified as Clavibacter nebraskensis. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium neomassiliense|C. neomassiliense]]''" <small>Boxberger et al. 2020</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium nephridii" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium nigricans was reclassified as Corynebacterium aurimucosum. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium nuruki|C. nuruki]]'' <small>Shin et al. 2011</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium occultum|C. occultum]]'' <small>Schaffert et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium oculi|C. oculi]]'' <small>Bernard et al. 2016</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium okanaganae" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium oortii was reclassified as Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium otitidis|C. otitidis]]'' <small>(Funke et al. 1994) Baek et al. 2018</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium pacaense|C. pacaense]]''" <small>Bellali et al. 2019</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium parakroppenstedtii|C. parakroppenstedtii]]''" <small>Luo et al. 2022</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium parvulum|C. parvulum]]''" <small>Nakamura et al. 1983</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium paurometabolum was reclassified as Tsukamurella paurometabola. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium pelargi|C. pelargi]]'' <small>Kämpfer et al. 2015</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium periplanetae" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium phocae|C. phocae]]'' <small>Pascual et al. 1998</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium phoceense|C. phoceense]]''" <small>Cresci et al. 2016</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium pilbarense|C. pilbarense]]'' <small>Aravena-Roman et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium pilosum|C. pilosum]]'' <small>Yanagawa and Honda 1978 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium poinsettiae was reclassified as Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium pollutisoli|C. pollutisoli]]'' <small>Negi et al. 2016</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium propinquum|C. propinquum]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1994</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium provencense|C. provencense]]''" <small>Ndongo et al. 2017</small>
* "''C. provencense''" <small>Lo et al. 2019</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum|C. pseudodiphtheriticum]]'' <small>Lehmann and Neumann 1896 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium pseudogenitalium" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium pseudokroppenstedtii|C. pseudokroppenstedtii]]''" <small>Luo et al. 2022</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium pseudopelargi|C. pseudopelargi]]'' <small>Busse et al. 2019</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis|C. pseudotuberculosis]]'' <small>(Buchanan 1911) Eberson 1918 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium pyogenes was reclassified as Trueperella pyogenes. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium pyruviciproducens|C. pyruviciproducens]]'' <small>Tong et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium qintianiae|C. qintianiae]]'' <small>Zhou et al. 2021</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium rathayi was reclassified as Rathayibacter rathayi. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium renale|C. renale]]'' <small>(Migula 1900) Ernst 1906 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium resistens|C. resistens]]'' <small>Otsuka et al. 2005</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium riegelii|C. riegelii]]'' <small>Funke et al. 1998</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium rouxii|C. rouxii]]'' <small>Badell et al. 2020</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium rubrum" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium sanguinis|C. sanguinis]]'' <small>Jaén-Luchoro et al. 2020</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium segmentosum|C. segmentosum]]''" <small>Collins et al. 1998</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium seminale was reclassified as Corynebacterium glucuronolyticum. -->
* "''[[Corynebacterium senegalense|C. senegalense]]''" <small>Ndiaye et al. 2019</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium sepedonicum was reclassified as Clavibacter sepedonicus. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium silvaticum|C. silvaticum]]'' <small>Dangel et al. 2020</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium simplex" was reclassified as Nocardioides simplex. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium simulans|C. simulans]]'' <small>Wattiau et al. 2000</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium singulare|C. singulare]]'' <small>Riegel et al. 1997</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium sphenisci|C. sphenisci]]'' <small>Goyache et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium spheniscorum|C. spheniscorum]]'' <small>Goyache et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium sputi|C. sputi]]'' <small>Yassin and Siering 2008</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium stationis|C. stationis]]'' <small>(ZoBell and Upham 1944) Bernard et al. 2010</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium striatum|C. striatum]]'' <small>(Chester 1901) Eberson 1918 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium suicordis|C. suicordis]]'' <small>Vela et al. 2003</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium sundsvallense|C. sundsvallense]]'' <small>Collins et al. 1999</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium suranareeae|C. suranareeae]]'' <small>Nantapong et al. 2020</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium tapiri|C. tapiri]]'' <small>Baumgardt et al. 2015</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium terpenotabidum|C. terpenotabidum]]'' <small>Takeuchi et al. 1999</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium testudinoris|C. testudinoris]]'' <small>Collins et al. 2001</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium thermoaminogenes was reclassified as Corynebacterium efficiens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium thomssenii|C. thomssenii]]'' <small>Zimmermann et al. 1998</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium timonense|C. timonense]]'' <small>Merhej et al. 2009</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium trachiae|C. trachiae]]'' <small>Kämpfer et al. 2015</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium tritici was reclassified as Rathayibacter tritici. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum|C. tuberculostearicum]]'' <small>Feurer et al. 2004</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium tumescens" was reclassified as Terrabacter tumescens. -->
<!-- Corynebacterium tuscaniae is a misspelling of Corynebacterium tuscaniense. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium tuscaniense|C. tuscaniense]]'' <small>corrig. Riegel et al. 2006</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium uberis|C. uberis]]''" <small>Kittl et al. 2022</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium ulcerans|C. ulcerans]]'' <small>(ex Gilbert and Stewart 1927) Riegel et al. 1995</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium ulceribovis|C. ulceribovis]]'' <small>Yassin 2009</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium ureafaciens" was reclassified as Paenarthrobacter ureafaciens. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium urealyticum|C. urealyticum]]'' <small>Pitcher et al. 1992</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium ureicelerivorans|C. ureicelerivorans]]'' <small>Yassin 2007</small>
* "''[[Corynebacterium urinapleomorphum|C. urinapleomorphum]]''" <small>Morand et al. 2017</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium urinapleomorphum is a misspelling of Corynebacterium urinipleomorphum. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium urinipleomorphum|C. urinipleomorphum]]'' <small>corrig. Niang et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium urogenitale|C. urogenitale]]'' <small>Ballas et al. 2020</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium uropygiale|C. uropygiale]]'' <small>Braun et al. 2016</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium uterequi|C. uterequi]]'' <small>Hoyles et al. 2013</small>
<!-- "Corynebacterium vaginale" was not included in the Approved Lists. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium variabile|C. variabile]]'' <small>corrig. (Müller 1961) Collins 1987</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium variabilis is a misspelling of Corynebacterium variabile. -->
<!-- "Corynebacterium vesiculare" was reclassified as Brevundimonas vesicularis. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium vitaeruminis|C. vitaeruminis]]'' <small>corrig. (Bechdel et al. 1928) Lanéelle et al. 1980</small>
<!-- Corynebacterium vitarumen is a misspelling of Corynebacterium vitaeruminis. -->
* ''[[Corynebacterium wankanglinii|C. wankanglinii]]'' <small>Zhang et al. 2021</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium xerosis|C. xerosis]]'' <small>(Lehmann and Neumann 1896) Lehmann and Neumann 1899 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium yudongzhengii|C. yudongzhengii]]'' <small>Zhu et al. 2020</small>
* ''[[Corynebacterium zhongnanshanii|C. zhongnanshanii]]'' <small>Zhang et al. 2021</small>
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Wikispecies|Corynebacterium}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Burkovski |editor1-first=Andreas | title = Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/cory | isbn = 978-1-904455-30-1}}
* {{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}
* [http://www.coryneregnet.de Database of Corynebacterial Transcription Factors and Regulatory Networks]
* Rollins, David M. University of Maryland: Pathogentic Microbiology: Corynebacterium [http://www.life.umd.edu/classroom/bsci424/PathogenDescriptions/Corynebacterium.htm]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Khamis | first1 = A. | last2 = Raoult | first2 = D. | last3 = Scola | first3 = B. La | year = 2004 | title = rpoB gene sequencing for identification of Corynebacterium species | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 42 | issue = 9| pages = 3925–3931 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.42.9.3925-3931.2004 | pmid = 15364970 | pmc = 516356 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Poetsch | first1 = A. | last2 = Haußmann | first2 = U. | last3 = Burkovski | first3 = A. | year = 2011 | title = Proteomics of corynebacteria: From biotechnology workhorses to pathogens | journal = Proteomics | volume = 2011 | issue = 11| pages = 3244–3255 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.201000786 | pmid = 21674800 | s2cid = 44274690 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Goldenberger | first1 = D. | display-authors = etal | year = 2014 | title = Extended characterization of Corynebacterium pyruviciproducens based on clinical strains from Canada and Switzerland | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = 9| pages = 3180–3183 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.00792-14 | pmid = 24951802 | pmc = 4313134 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hacker | first1 = E. | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Colonization of human epithelial cell lines by Corynebacterium ulcerans from human and animal sources. | journal = Microbiology | volume = 161 | issue = 8| pages = 1582–1591 | doi = 10.1099/mic.0.000121 | pmid = 26066797 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bernard | first1 = K. A. | last2 = Munro | first2 = C. | last3 = Wiebe | first3 = D. | last4 = Ongsanso | first4 = E. | year = 2002 | title = Characteristics of rare or recently described Corynebacterium species recovered from human clinical material in Canada | journal = Journal of Clinical Microbiology | volume = 40 | issue = 11| pages = 4375–4381 | doi = 10.1128/jcm.40.11.4375-4381.2002 | pmid = 12409436 | pmc = 139690 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bittel | first1 = M. | last2 = Gastiger | first2 = S. | last3 = Amin | first3 = B. | last4 = Hofmann | first4 = J. | last5 = Burkovski | first5 = A. | year = 2018 | title = Surface and Extracellular Proteome of the Emerging Pathogen Corynebacterium ulcerans | journal = Proteomes | volume = 6 | issue = 2| page = 18 | doi = 10.3390/proteomes6020018 | pmid = 29673200 | pmc = 6027474 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ventura | first1 = M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Genomics of Actinobacteria: Tracing the Evolutionary History of an Ancient Phylum | journal = Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | volume = 71 | issue = 3| pages = 495–548 | doi = 10.1128/mmbr.00005-07 | pmid = 17804669 | pmc = 2168647 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hansmeier | first1 = N. | last2 = Chao | first2 = T. C. | last3 = Kalinowski | first3 = J. | last4 = Pühler | first4 = A. | last5 = Tauch |display-authors=3| first5 = A. | year = 2006 | title = Mapping and comprehensive analysis of the extracellular and cell surface proteome of the human pathogen Corynebacterium diphtheriae | journal = Proteomics | volume = 2006 | issue = 6| pages = 2465–2476 | doi = 10.1002/pmic.200500360 | pmid = 16544277 | s2cid = 22745961 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Riegel | first1 = P. | last2 = Ruimy | first2 = R. | last3 = Christen | first3 = R. | last4 = Monteil | first4 = H. | s2cid = 9243014 | year = 1996 | title = Species identities and antimicrobial susceptibilities of Corynebacteria isolated from various clinical sources | journal = European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 8| pages = 657–662 | doi = 10.1007/bf01691153 | pmid = 8894575 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carfora | first1 = V. | display-authors = etal | year = 2018 | title = Non-toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans sequence types 325 and 339 isolated from two dogs with ulcerative lesions in Italy. [Internet] | journal = Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | volume = 30 | issue = 3| pages = 447–450 | doi = 10.1177/1040638718764786 | pmid = 29528813 | pmc = 6505817 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Nishio | first1 = Y. | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Evolutionary process of amino acid biosynthesis in Corynebacterium at the whole genome level. [Internet] | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 21 | issue = 9| pages = 1683–1691 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msh175 | pmid = 15163767 | doi-access = free }}

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[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
[[Category:Corynebacterium]]
[[Category:Gram-positive bacteria]]
[[Category:Pathogenic bacteria]]