View source for Contradanza

{{short description|Hispanic music and dance genre}}
{{Short description|Cuban and Spanish dance and music genre}}
{{About|the dance and its music|the band|Contradanza (band)|the aria from "Carmen"|Habanera (aria)}}
{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Contradanza
| image             = 
| caption           = 
[[Category:Dance in art]]
| other_names       = {{ubl|Contradanza criolla|Habanera}}<ref>Luisa Lacál. ''Diccionario de la música, técnico, histórico, bio-bibliográfico''. 1899, p. 221.</ref>
| stylistic_origins = {{ubl|Contredanse|[[African music]]|[[Spanish music]]}}
| cultural_origins  = Late 18th century, [[Cuba]] 
| instruments       = {{ubl|[[Piano]]|[[Violin]]|[[Flute]]|[[Clarinet]]|[[Double bass]]|[[Timpani]]|[[Güiro]]|[[Guitar]]<ref>''The Power of Woman: Ballyho Bey (The sequel to Susan Turnbull)'', by Archibald Clavering Gunter, p. 143 (1897).</ref>}}
| subgenres         = 
| fusiongenres      = 
| derivatives       = {{ubl|[[Danzón]]|[[Tango music|Tango]]|[[Maxixe (dance)|Maxixe]]|[[Milonga (music)|Milonga]]}}
| other_topics      = [[Cuban music]]}}
{{Music of Cuba}}
'''''Contradanza''''' (also called ''contradanza criolla'', ''danza'', ''danza criolla'', or '''''habanera''''') is the Spanish and Spanish-American version of the [[contradanse]], which was an internationally popular style of music and dance in the 18th century, derived from the [[Country dance|English country dance]] and adopted at the court of [[France]]. Contradanza was brought to America and there took on folkloric forms that still exist in [[Bolivia]], [[Mexico]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Panama]] and [[Ecuador]].

In [[Cuba]] during the 19th century, it became an important genre, the first written music to be rhythmically based on an [[Rhythm in Sub-Saharan Africa|African rhythm pattern]] and the first Cuban dance to gain international popularity, the progenitor of [[danzón]], [[mambo (music)|mambo]] and [[cha-cha-chá (music)|cha-cha-cha]], with a characteristic "habanera rhythm" and sung lyrics.

Outside Cuba, the Cuban contradanza became known as the ''habanera'' – the dance of [[Havana]] – and that name was adopted in Cuba itself subsequent to its international popularity in the later 19th century,{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=97}} though it was never so called by the people who created it.<ref>{{harvnb|Carpentier|2001}} cited by {{harvnb|Roberts|1979|p=6}}.</ref>

==History==
[[File:Georges bizet.jpg|thumb|upright|Bizet included a habanera in his opera ''[[Carmen]]'', derived from [[Sebastián Iradier|Yradier's]] "El Arreglito".]]

The contradanza was popular in Spain and spread throughout Spanish America during the 18th century. According to musicologist Peter Manuel, it may be impossible to resolve the question of the contradanza's origin, as it has been pointed out by Cuban musicologist Natalio Galán in humorously labeling the genre as "''anglofrancohispanoafrocubano''" (English-French-Spanish-African-Cuban).{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=56}}

The most conventional consensus in regard to the origin of this popular Cuban genre was established by novelist [[Alejo Carpentier]], in his book from 1946, ''La Música en Cuba''. In the book, he proposes a theory that signals the French contredance, supposedly introduced in Cuba by French immigrants fleeing the Haitian Revolution (1791–1803), as the prototype for the creation of the creolized Cuban contradanza.{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=52}} However, according to other important Cuban musicologists, such as Zoila Lapique and Natalio Galán, it is quite likely that the contradanza had been introduced to Havana directly from Spain, France or England several decades earlier.{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=54}}

The earliest Cuban contradanza of which a record remains is "San Pascual Bailón", which was written in 1803.{{sfn|Orovio|1981|p=118}}{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=67}} Certain characteristics would set the Cuban contradanza apart from the contredanse by the mid-19th century, notably the incorporation of the African cross-rhythm called the [[Tresillo (rhythm)|''tresillo'']].<ref>[[Ned Sublette|Sublette, Ned]] 2004. ''Cuba and its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo''. Chicago. p. 134</ref>

The habanera is also slower and as a dance more graceful in style than the older contradanza but retains the [[binary form]] of [[Suite (music)|classical dance]], being composed in two parts of 8 to 16 bars each, though often with an [[Introduction (music)|introduction]].<ref>Grenet, Emilio 1939. ''Música popular cubana''. La Habana.</ref>{{sfn|Santos|1982}} An early identifiable contradanza habanera, "La Pimienta", an anonymous song published in an 1836 collection, is the earliest known piece to use the characteristic habanera rhythm in the left hand of the piano.{{sfn|Roberts|1979|p=6}}

The contradanza, when played as dance music, was performed by an [[orquesta típica]] composed of two violins, two clarinets, a contrabass, a cornet, a trombone, an [[ophicleide]], [[Paila criolla|paila]] and a [[güiro]].{{sfn|Alén|1994|p=82}} But the habanera was sung as well as danced.

During the first half of the 19th century, the contradanza dominated the Cuban musical scene to such an extent that nearly all Cuban composers of the time, whether composing for the concert hall or the dance hall, tried their hands at the contradanza.{{sfn|Alén|1994|p=82}} Among them [[Manuel Saumell]] (1817–1870) is the most noted.{{sfn|Carpentier|2001|pp=185–193}}

The New Orleans born pianist/composer [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]] (1829–1869) wrote several pieces with the rhythm, gleaned in part from his travels through Cuba and the West Indies: "Danza" (1857), "La Gallina, Danse Cubaine" (1859), "Ojos Criollos" (1859) and "Souvenir de Porto Rico" (1857) among others.

It is thought that the Cuban style was brought by sailors to [[Spain]], where it became popular for a while before the turn of the twentieth century. The [[Basque people|Basque]] composer [[Sebastián Iradier|Sebastian Yradier]]'s "[[La Paloma]]" ("The Dove"), achieved great fame in Spain and America. The dance was adopted by all classes of society and had its moment in English and French salons.

It was so well established as a Spanish dance that [[Jules Massenet]] included one in the ballet music to his opera ''Le Cid'' (1885). [[Maurice Ravel]] wrote a ''Vocalise-Étude en forme de Habanera'', and a habanera for [[Rapsodie espagnole]] (movement III, originally a piano piece written in 1895), [[Camille Saint-Saëns]]' ''Havanaise'' for violin and orchestra is still played and recorded today, as is [[Emmanuel Chabrier]]'s ''Habanera for orchestra'' (originally for piano). [[Bernard Herrmann]]'s score for ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958) makes prominent use of the rhythm as a clue to the film's mystery.{{Image frame|content=<score>
\new RhythmicStaff {
   \clef percussion
   \time 2/4
   \repeat volta 2 { c8. c16 c8[ c] }
}
</score>|width=150|align=left|caption=Habanera rhythm[[File:Habanera rhythm clave.mid|140px]]Clave[[File:Habanera bass rhythm from Bizet's 'Carmen'.mid|140px]]''Carmen'' bass line}}

In [[Andalusia]] (especially [[Cádiz]]), [[Valencian Community|Valencia]] and [[Music of Catalonia|Catalonia]], the habanera is still popular. "La Paloma", "La bella Lola" or "El meu avi" ("My Grandfather") are well known.<ref>Berenguer González, Ramón T. [http://soundclick.com/share?songid=5499238 ''"La Comisión de San Roque" Habanera Mp3·''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051058/http://www.soundclick.com/bands/default.cfm?bandID=704566&content=songinfo&songID=5499238 |date=2016-03-04 }} ISWC: T-042192386-5 2007</ref> From Spain, the style arrived in the Philippines where it still exists as a minor art-form.<ref>[http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/dances/spanish_influence_dances.htm Spanish Influence Dances] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019060117/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Cynthia/dances/spanish_influence_dances.htm |date=2018-10-19 }}.</ref>

In the 20th century, the habanera gradually became a relic form in Cuba, especially after the success of the [[Son (music)|son]]. However, some of its compositions were transcribed and reappeared in other formats later on: [[Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes]]' ''Tú'' is still a much-loved composition.{{sfn|Carpentier|2001|p={{page needed|date=August 2021}}}} The music and dance of the ''contradanza/danza'' are no longer popular in Cuba but are occasionally featured in the performances of folklore groups.

==Rhythm==
{{Image frame|content=<score>
{
       \relative c' <<
        \new Staff <<
           \new voice {
              \clef percussion
              \time 2/4
              \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100       
              \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g4 g }
       }
          \new voice {
              \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100      
              \time 2/4
              \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { f'8.[ f16]^~ f8[ f8] } \bar ":|."
       } >>
       \new Staff <<
          \new voice {
              \clef percussion
              \time 2/4
              \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 6/8
              \scaleDurations 2/3 {
                 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100       
                 \stemDown \repeat volta 2 { g,4. g }
              }
       }
          \new voice \relative c' {
              \time 2/4
              \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = 6/8
              \scaleDurations 2/3 {
                 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 100      
                 \stemUp \repeat volta 2 { f4 f8^~ f f4 } \bar ":|."
              }
       } >>
  >> }
</score>|width=185|caption=Top: habanera rhythm ([[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]]-over-two[[File:Habanera rhythm tresillo-over-two.mid|170px]]Bottom: Vertical [[hemiola]] (three-over-two[[File:Habanera rhythm three-over-two.mid|170px]]The two alternating[[File:Habanera rhythm tresillo AND three -over-two alternating.mid|170px]]}}
The habanera rhythm's time signature is {{music|time|2|4}}. An accented upbeat in the middle of the bar lends power to the habanera rhythm, especially when it is as a bass<ref name="listenagain75">''Listen again''. Experience Music Project. Duke University Press, 2007. p. 75 {{ISBN|978-0-8223-4041-6}}</ref> [[ostinato]] in contradanzas such as "Tu madre es conga".{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=20}} [[Syncopation|Syncopated cross-rhythms]] called the ''[[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]]'' and the ''[[cinquillo]]'', basic rhythmic [[cell (music)|cells]] in Afro-Latin and [[sub-Saharan African music traditions|African]] music, began the Cuban dance's differentiation from its European form. Their unequally-grouped accents fall irregularly in a one or two bar pattern:<ref>''The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz''. Oxford University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|978-1-56159-284-5}}</ref> the rhythm superimposes duple and triple accents in [[cross-beat|cross-rhythm]] (3:2) or vertical [[hemiola]].{{sfn|Peñalosa|2009|p=41}}

This pattern is heard throughout Africa, and in many [[Music of the African diaspora|diaspora musics]],{{sfn|Peñalosa|2009|pp=41–42}} known as the ''Congo'',{{sfn|Manuel|2009|p=69}} ''tango-Congo'',<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). ''Cubano Be Cubano Bop; One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba''. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Books.</ref> and ''tango''.<ref>Mauleón (1999: 4) ''Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble''. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. {{ISBN|0-9614701-9-4}}.</ref> Thompson identifies the rhythm as the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] {{transliteration|kg|mbilu a makinu}} ("call to the dance").<ref name="listenagain75"/><ref name="thompson2006">Thompson, Robert Farris. 2006. ''Tango: the art history of love''. Vintage, p117 {{ISBN|978-1-4000-9579-7}}</ref> The syncopated rhythm may be vocalised as "boom...ba-bop-bop",<ref name="listenagain75"/> and "da, ka ka kan".<ref name="thompson2006"/> It may be sounded with the [[Ghana]]ian beaded gourd instrument ''axatse'', vocalized as: "pa ti pa pa", beginning on the second beat so that the last "pa" coincides with beat ''one'', ending on the beginning of the cycle so that the part contributes to the [[cycle (music)|cyclic]] nature of the rhythm, the "pa's" sounding the ''[[tresillo (rhythm)|tresillo]]'' by striking the gourd against the knee, and the "ti" sounding the main [[beat (music)|beat]] ''two'' by raising the gourd and striking it with the free hand.{{sfn|Peñalosa|2009|p=42}}

The cinquillo pattern is sounded on a bell in the folkloric Congolese-based [[Makuta (drum)|makuta]] as played in Havana.<ref>Coburg, Adrian (2004: 7). "2/2 Makuta" ''Percusion Afro-Cubana v. 1: Musica Folklorico.'' Bern: Coburg.</ref>

{{Block indent|<score sound="1" override_midi="Cinquillo.mid">
\new RhythmicStaff {
   \clef percussion
   \time 2/4
   \repeat volta 2 { c8 c16 c r[ c c r] }
}
</score>}}
{{Image frame|content=<score>
\new RhythmicStaff {
   \clef percussion
   \time 2/4
   \repeat volta 2 { c16 c8 c16 c8[ c] }
}
</score>|width=170|caption=A variant of the habanera rhythm.<ref>Roberts (1998:50).{{incomplete short citation|date=August 2021}}</ref>[[File:Habanera rhythm variant clave.mid]]}}

Carpentier states that the ''cinquillo'' was brought to Cuba in the songs of the black slaves and freedmen who emigrated to Santiago de Cuba from [[Haiti]] in the 1790s and that composers in western Cuba remained ignorant of its existence:

{{blockquote|In the days when a trip from Havana to Santiago was a fifteen-day adventure (or more), it was possible for two types of ''contradanza'' to coexist: one closer to the classical pattern, marked by the spirits of the minuet, which later would be reflected in the ''[[danzón]]'', by way of the ''danza''; the other, more popular, which followed its evolution begun in Haiti, thanks to the presence of the 'French Blacks' in eastern Cuba.|{{sfn|Carpentier|2001|p=150}}}}

Manuel disputes Carpentier's claim, mentioning "at least a half a dozen Havana counterparts whose existence refutes Carpentier's claim for the absence of the cinquillo in Havana contradanza".{{sfn|Manuel|2009|pp=55–56}}

== ''Danza'', tango and later developments ==

The {{music|time|6|8}} ''contradanza'' evolved into the ''clave'' (not to be confused with the [[clave (rhythm)|key pattern]] of the same name), the ''criolla'' and the ''guajira.''  From the ''contradanza'' in {{music|time|2|4}} came the ''(danza) habanera'' and the ''[[danzón]]''.{{sfn|Carpentier|2001|p=147}} According to Argeliers Léon, the word ''danza'' was merely a contraction of ''contradanza'' and there are no substantial differences between the music of the ''contradanza'' and the ''danza'',{{sfn|Léon|1974|p=8}} Both terms continued to denominate what was essentially the same thing throughout the 19th century. But although the ''contradanza'' and ''danza'' were musically identical, the dances were different.

A ''danza'' entitled "El Sungambelo", dated 1813, has the same structure as the ''contradanza'' – the four-section scheme is repeated twice, ABAB{{sfn|Santos|1982}} and the ''cinquillo'' rhythm can already be heard.
[[File:Ignacio_Cervantes.jpg|right|thumb|241x241px|[[Ignacio Cervantes]]]]
The ''danza'' dominated Cuban music in the second half of the 19th century, though not as completely as the ''contradanza'' had in the first half.  Two famous Cuban composers in particular, [[Ignacio Cervantes]] (1847–1905) and [[Ernesto Lecuona]] (1895–1963), used the ''danza'' as the basis of some of their most memorable compositions.

In [[Cuba]] the ''danza'' was supplanted by the ''[[danzón]]'' from the 1870s onwards, though the ''danza'' continued to be composed as dance music into the 1920s.  By this time, the ''[[Charanga (Cuba)|charanga]]'' had replaced the ''orquesta típica'' of the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Alén|1994|p=82|ps= – example: [http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/MP3Player.aspx?TAID=8378 "Tutankamen"] by Ricardo Reverón}}</ref> The danzón has a different but related rhythm, the ''[[baqueteo]]'', and the dance is quite different.

The Argentine ''[[Milonga (music)|milonga]]'' and ''[[Tango music|tango]]'' makes use of the ''habanera'' rhythm of a dotted quarter-note followed by three eighth-notes, with an accent on the first and third notes.<ref name="elchoclo">[http://www.todotango.com/english/las_obras/partitura.aspx?id=24 "El Choclo" sheet music] at TodoTango.</ref> As the consistent rhythmic foundation of the bass line in Argentine tango the ''habanera'' lasted for a relatively short time until a variation, noted by [[John Storm Roberts|Roberts]], began to predominate.{{sfn|Baim|2007|p=124}}

In 1883 [[Ventura Lynch]], a scholar of the dances and folklore of [[Buenos Aires]], noted the [[milonga (dance)|milonga]] dance was "so universal in the environs of the city that it is an obligatory piece at all the lower-class dances (''bailecitos de medio pelo''), and ... has also been taken up by the organ-grinders, who have arranged it so as to sound like the ''habanera'' dance. It is danced in the low life clubs&nbsp;..."<ref>Collier, Cooper, Azzi and Martin. 1995. ''Tango! The dance, the song, the story''. Thames & Hudson, London. p45 ({{ISBN|0-500-01671-2}}) citing Ventura Lynch: La provinciade Buenos Aires hasta la definicion de la cuestion Capital de la Republica. p.&nbsp;16.</ref>

The contradanza remains an essential part of the tango's music.{{sfn|Baim|2007|p=2}} For example, [[Aníbal Troilo]]'s 1951 milonga song "La trampera" (Cheating Woman) uses the same ''habanera'' heard in [[Georges Bizet|Georges Bizet's]] opera 1875 ''[[Carmen]]''.<ref name="thompson2006"/>

==African-American music==
[[File:WC Handy age 19 handyphoto10.jpg|thumb|right|150px|WC Handy (1873–1958) aged 19]]

[[African-American music]] began incorporating Cuban musical motifs in the 1800s{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}. Musicians from [[Havana]] and [[New Orleans]] would take the twice-daily ferry between those cities to perform{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}. Whether the rhythm and its variants were directly transplanted from Cuba or merely reinforced similar rhythmic tendencies already present in New Orleans is probably impossible to determine. The habanera rhythm is heard prominently in [[New Orleans]] [[second line (parades)|second line]] music, and there are examples of similar rhythms in some African-American folk music such as the foot-stamping patterns in [[ring shout]] and in post-Civil War drum and fife music.<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). ''Africa and the Blues''. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.</ref> [[John Storm Roberts]] states that the musical genre "reached the U.S. 20 years before the first rag was published".{{sfn|Roberts|1999|p=12}}

[[File:Scott Joplin 19072.jpg|thumb|150px|Scott Joplin ({{Circa|1867}}–1917)]]

For the more than quarter-century in which the [[cakewalk]], [[ragtime]], and proto-[[jazz]] were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.{{sfn|Roberts|1999|p=16}} Early New Orleans jazz bands had habaneras in their repertoire and the tresillo/habanera figure was a rhythmic staple of jazz at the turn of the 20th century. A habanera was written and published in Butte, Montana in 1908. The song was titled "Solita" and was written by Jack Hangauer.<ref>http://sandersmusic.com/bootnote.html?cut=4</ref> [[Scott Joplin]]'s "[[Solace (Joplin)|Solace]]" (1909) is considered a habanera (though it is labeled a "Mexican serenade"). "[[St. Louis Blues (song)|St. Louis Blues]]" (1914) by [[W. C. Handy]] has a habanera/tresillo bass line.  Handy noted a reaction to the habanera rhythm included in Will H. Tyler's "Maori": "I observed that there was a sudden, proud and graceful reaction to the rhythm ... White dancers, as I had observed them, took the number in stride. I began to suspect that there was something Negroid in that beat." After noting a similar reaction to the same rhythm in "La Paloma", Handy included this rhythm in his "St. Louis Blues", the instrumental copy of "Memphis Blues", the chorus of "Beale Street Blues", and other compositions.<ref>W. C. Handy, edited by [[Arna Bontemps]], foreword by Abbe Niles, ''Father of the Blues: An Autobiography''. New York: Macmillan Company (1941) pp. 99, 100. (No ISBN in this first printing.)</ref>

[[File:MortonBricktopRowCropMortonFace.jpg|thumb|right|180px| Jelly Roll Morton (1890–1941)]]

[[Jelly Roll Morton]] considered the ''tresillo/habanera'' (which he called the [[Spanish tinge]]) an essential ingredient of jazz.{{sfn|Roberts|1979|p={{page needed|date=August 2021}}}} The rhythm can be heard in the left hand on songs such as "The Crave" (1910, recorded in 1938).

{{blockquote|Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues", you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.|Morton (1938: Library of Congress Recording)<ref>Morton, "Jelly Roll" (1938: Library of Congress Recording), ''The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax''.</ref>}}

Although the exact origins of jazz syncopation may never be known, there's evidence that the habanera/tresillo was there at its conception. [[Buddy Bolden]], the first ''known'' jazz musician, is credited with creating the ''big four'', a habanera-based pattern. The big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.<ref>[[Wynton Marsalis|Marsalis, Wynton]] (2000: DVD n.1). ''Jazz''. [[PBS]].</ref> As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20010126050800/http://www.pbs.org/jazz/classroom/rhythmicinnovations.htm Jazz and Math: Rhythmic Innovations]", [[PBS]]. The Wikipedia example shown in [[half time (music)|half time]] compared to the source.</ref>

{{Block indent|<score sound="1" override_midi="Big four Buddy Bolden.mid">
    \new Staff <<
       \relative c' {
           \clef percussion
           \time 4/4   
           \repeat volta 2 { g8 \xNote a' g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }
           \repeat volta 2 { r8 \xNote a'\noBeam g, \xNote a' g, \xNote a'16. g,32 g8 <g \xNote a'> }
       }
   >>
</score>}}

== In Asian music==
Elements of the Habanera are also incorporated into popular Japanese music called [[Ryūkōka]]. It is mixed with traditional [[Min'yō]]. It was mainly through the influence of Milonga and Tango that this rhythm reached Japan.

Some examples are :
* Nihonbashi kara( にほんばし から) by Seki Taneko (せき たねこ) (1932)
* Matendo by Sato Chiyako (1929)
* Kamome Kanashiya by Yayoi tanaka
==Selected recordings==
* {{Audio|Yo Siempre Te Espéré, Habanera.ogg|}} ''Yo Siempre Te Esperé'' (Imperio Argentina, 1932)
* {{Audio|Cuando silba el viento, Habanera.ogg|}} ''Cuando silba el viento'' (Mercedes Simone, 1936)<ref>Maruja Pacheco Huergo. "Biography by Néstor Pinsón." ''Todo Tango''. Buenos Aires, Argentina. Accessed May 19, 2025. [https://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/889/Maruja-Pacheco-Huergo/]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Danzón]]
* [[Quadrille|French contredanse]]
* [[Guaracha]]
* [[Tumba francesa|La tumba francesa]]
* [[Music of Haiti]]
* [[Contra dance]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book|last=Alén|first=Olavo|year=1994|title=De lo Afrocubano a la Salsa|location=La Habana|publisher=Ediciones ARTEX}}
* {{cite book|last=Baim|first=Jo|year=2007|title=Tango: Creation of a Cultural Icon|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34885-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Carpentier|first=Alejo|author-link=Alejo Carpentier|title=Music in Cuba|editor=Timothy Brennan|translator=Alan West-Durán|location=Minneapolis|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|year=2001}}
* {{cite book|last=Léon|first=Argeliers|year=1974|chapter=De la Contradanza al Danzón|editor-last=Fernández|editor-first=María Antonia|title=Bailes Populares Cubanos|location=La Habana|publisher=Editorial Pueblo y Educación}}
* {{cite book|last=Manuel|first=Peter|year=2009|title=Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Temple University Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Orovio|first=Helio|year=1981|title=Diccionario de la Música Cubana|location=La Habana|publisher=Editorial Letras Cubanas|isbn=959-10-0048-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Peñalosa|first=David|year=2009|title=The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins|location=Redway, California|publisher=Bembe|isbn=978-1-886502-80-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Roberts|first=John Storm|author-link=John Storm Roberts|year=1979|title=The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States|location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book|last=Roberts|first=John Storm|year=1999|title=Latin Jazz|location=New York|publisher=Schirmer}}
* {{cite AV media|last=Santos|first=John|year=1982|title=The Cuban Danzón: Its Ancestors and Descendants|type=liner notes|publisher=Folkways Records|id=FW04066}}

==External links==
* [http://www.havanerus.com/ Habanera's blog from Tony Foixench].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130905225531/http://www.lordtiger.com/3habanera.html "3-Habanera and danzón"] (Cuban Music Website).
* [http://www.folkways.si.edu/albumdetails.aspx?itemid=663 The Cuban Danzon: Its Ancestors and Descendants] 1982. Various Artists. Folkways Records – FW04066
* Legran Orchestra [http://soundclick.com/share?songid=5499238 ''La Comisión de San Roque Habanera'' Mp3·] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051058/http://www.soundclick.com/bands/default.cfm?bandID=704566&content=songinfo&songID=5499238 |date=2016-03-04 }} ISWC: T-042192386-5 2007. ''Published with the permission of the owner of rights''

{{Cuban musical forms}}
{{Music in Spanish}}
{{Commons category|Contradanza}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Contradanza}}
[[Category:Contradanza| ]]
[[Category:Rhythm and meter]]