View source for Contingent work

{{Short description|Non-permanent type of employment}}
{{redirect2|Casual employment|casual work|the employment status in Commonwealth countries|casual employment (contract)}}
'''Contingent work''', '''casual work''', '''gig work''' or '''contract work''', is an [[employment]] relationship with limited [[job security]], payment on a [[piece work]] basis, typically [[Part-time job|part-time]] (typically with variable hours) that is considered non-permanent.

According to the US [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS), the nontraditional workforce includes "multiple job holders, contingent and [[Part-time job|part-time]] workers, and people in alternative work arrangements".<ref name="Futurework">{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2000/Summer/art04.pdf|title=Futurework|date=September 1999|website=Occupational Outlook Quarterly|publisher=US Bureau of Labor Statistics|page=36|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615142248/http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2000/Summer/art04.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> These workers currently represent a substantial portion of the US workforce, and "nearly four out of five employers, in establishments of all sizes and industries, use some form of nontraditional staffing". "People in alternative work arrangements" includes [[independent contractor]]s, employees of contract companies, workers who are on call, and temporary workers.<ref name="Futurework" />

==Terminology==
Contingent workers are also often called [[consultant]]s, [[freelancer]]s, [[independent contractor]]s, independent professionals, temporary contract workers, staff-augmentation workers, or [[Temporary work|temps]].<ref name="InformIT">{{cite web|url=http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=437082&seqNum=8 |access-date=30 November 2016 |title=Workforce Planning and Employment |date=19 December 2005 |website=InformIT |publisher=Pearson}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/conemp.nr0.htm |access-date=30 November 2016 |title=Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2005 |publisher=US Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=July 2005}}</ref> Contingent<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/contingentworkam00kath|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/contingentworkam00kath/page/1 1]|quote=Kathleen Christensen.|title=Contingent Work: American Employment Relations in Transition|first1=Kathleen|last1=Barker|first2=Kathleen|last2=Christensen|date=October 19, 1998|publisher=Cornell University Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=0801484057}}</ref> work jobs are widely referred to as [[McJob]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/are-we-building-a-mcjobs-economy/|title=Are we building a 'McJobs' economy?|last=McKendrick|first=Joe|website=ZDNet|language=en|access-date=2019-09-10}}</ref> This term was made popular by [[Douglas Coupland]]'s novel ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'', and stems from the notion that employment in [[McDonald's]] and other [[fast food]] and [[retail]] [[business]]es is frequently insecure.

== History ==
{{norefs|section|date=September 2024}}
===Industrial Revolution===
The concept of what is now considered to be a ''job'', where one attends work at fixed hours was rare until the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Before then, the predominant regular work was in [[agriculture]]. [[Textile]] workers would often work from home, buying raw [[cotton]] from a [[merchant]], [[spinning (textiles)|spinning]] it and [[weaving]] it into [[cloth]] at home, before selling it on.

In the 1770s, [[cotton mills]] started to appear in [[Lancashire]], [[England]], using [[Richard Arkwright]]'s [[spinning jenny]] and powered by [[water wheel]]s. Workers would often work in twelve-hour shifts, six days a week. However, they would still often be paid on a [[piece work]] basis, and [[Fine (penalty)|fines]] would be deducted from their pay for damage to [[machinery]]. Employers could [[recruitment|hire]] and [[termination of employment|fire]] largely as they pleased, and if employees had any [[grievance (labour)|grievance]] about this, there was very little that they could do about it.

===Trade union movement===
Individual workers were powerless to prevent exploitation by their employers. However, the realization that all workers generally want the same things, and the benefits of [[collective bargaining]], led to the formation of the first [[trade union]]s. As trade unions became larger, their [[sphere of influence]] increased, and started to involve [[political]] [[lobbying]], resulting in much of the [[employment law]] that is now taken for granted.

===20th century decline in manufacture===
[[Manufacture|Manufacturing]] has declined during the 20th century in the [[Western world]]. Many manufacturing organisations that employ large numbers of people have relocated their operations to [[developing nations]]. As a result, whenever they do hire staff in [[Europe]] or [[North America]], they often need to be able to fire them quickly and keep costs as low as possible, to remain [[competitive]]. As a result, some employers may look for [[loophole]]s in employment law, or ways of engaging staff that allows them to circumvent union-negotiated employment law, creating what is now known as contingent work.

== Contributing factors and trends ==

=== Benefits to organizations ===
By engaging contract workers, organizations are able to be agile and save costs.  The contingent workforce acts as a variable workforce for companies to select from to perform specific projects or complete specialized projects.<ref name="BoA">{{cite web|url=http://www.mpsgroup.com/vNews/mpsgroup/presentations/BankofAmerica/BOA_20040601.pdf|title=Banc of America Securities Conference|date=July 2004|publisher=[[MPS Group]]|page=21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009191308/http://www.mpsgroup.com/vNews/mpsgroup/presentations/BankofAmerica/BOA_20040601.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Also as organizations make efforts to be more agile and to quickly respond to change in order to be more competitive, they turn to the contingent workforce to have on-demand access to professionals and experts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/careers/content/may2007/ca20070523_580432.htm?campaign_id=rss_null|title=The Contingent Workforce|last=Goldsmith|first=Marshall|date=23 May 2007|publisher=Business Week|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519010225/http://www.businessweek.com/careers/content/may2007/ca20070523_580432.htm?campaign_id=rss_null|archive-date=19 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Organizations also see the opportunity to reduce benefits and retirement costs by engaging the contingent workforce.<ref name="BoA" />  However, there is risk involved in avoiding these costs if an employee is improperly classified as  a contingent worker. Using the contingent workforce is also cost-effective in that using contingent labor allows for adjustments to employment levels and employment costs depending on what kind of expertise and labor is need and at what time it is needed.

=== Economy ===
Trends in the contingent workforce are also impacted by the economy.  A study conducted by the MPS Group shows the relationship between the contingent labor cycle and the state of the economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpsgroup.com/vNews/mpsgroup/presentations/BankofAmerica/BOA_20040601.pdf|title=Banc of America Securities Conference|date=July 2004|publisher=[[MPS Group]]|page=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009191308/http://www.mpsgroup.com/vNews/mpsgroup/presentations/BankofAmerica/BOA_20040601.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> In an expanding economy, the demand for contingent labor is strong.  This is most likely because organizations are trying to grow with the economy, and using contingent workers allows them to work with experts when needed, without the long-term costs of hiring them.

=== Globalization ===
Among several other contributing factors, [[globalization]] has had a large impact on the growth in using contingent labor. Globalization contributes to rapid growth in industries, increased outsourcing, and a need for flexibility and agility to remain competitive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.innovativeemployeesolutions.com/knowledge/articles_04/04-article-01.html|title=Ten important issues and trends shaping human resources in 2004|last=Rice|first=Elizabeth|date=2004|publisher=Innovative Employee Solutions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060322092505/http://www.innovativeemployeesolutions.com/knowledge/articles_04/04-article-01.html|archive-date=22 March 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Knowledge-driven economy ===
A knowledge-driven economy also contributes to the growth in the use of the contingent workforce because organizations rely more on their specific and expert knowledge and expertise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.humancapitalinstitute.org/hci/tracks_contingent_workforce_management.guid|title=Contingent Workforce Management|date=2006|publisher=The Human Capital Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716015323/http://www.humancapitalinstitute.org/hci/tracks_contingent_workforce_management.guid|archive-date=16 July 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> As demand increases for highly skilled and knowledgeable people, the expertise of contract workers becomes more attractive.

=== Occupational injuries and fatalities ===
{{global|section|United States|date=September 2024}}
Contingent workers are at a high risk of being injured or killed on the job. In 2015, 829 fatal injuries (17% of all occupational fatalities) occurred among contract workers, which only represent a subset of contingent workers.<ref>https://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/cfoi_09172015.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> Studies have also shown a higher burden of non-fatal occupational injuries and illnesses among contingent workers compared to those in standard employment arrangements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Virtanen|first1=Marianna|last2=Kivimäki|first2=Mika|last3=Joensuu|first3=Matti|last4=Virtanen|first4=Pekka|last5=Elovainio|first5=Marko|last6=Vahtera|first6=Jussi|date=2005-06-01|title=Temporary employment and health: a review|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|volume=34|issue=3|pages=610–622|doi=10.1093/ije/dyi024|pmid=15737968|issn=0300-5771|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Benavides|first1=F. G.|last2=Benach|first2=J.|last3=Muntaner|first3=C.|last4=Delclos|first4=G. L.|last5=Catot|first5=N.|last6=Amable|first6=M.|date=2006-06-01|title=Associations between temporary employment and occupational injury: what are the mechanisms?|url= |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine|language=en|volume=63|issue=6|pages=416–421|doi=10.1136/oem.2005.022301|issn=1351-0711|pmc=2078100|pmid=16497853}}</ref>

There are many possible contributing factors to the high rates of injuries and illnesses among contingent workers. They are often inexperienced and assigned to hazardous jobs and tasks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Foley|first1=Michael|last2=Ruser|first2=John|last3=Shor|first3=Glenn|last4=Shuford|first4=Harry|last5=Sygnatur|first5=Eric|date=2014-07-01|title=Contingent workers: Workers' compensation data analysis strategies and limitations|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=57|issue=7|pages=764–775|doi=10.1002/ajim.22302|issn=1097-0274|pmid=24464742}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Boden L, Spieler EA, Wagner G. 2016. The changing structure of work: Implications for workplace safety and health in the US. United States Department of Labor/Occupational Safety and Health Administration.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Breslin|first1=F. C.|last2=Smith|first2=P.|date=2006-01-01|title=Trial by fire: a multivariate examination of the relation between job tenure and work injuries|url= |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine|language=en|volume=63|issue=1|pages=27–32|doi=10.1136/oem.2005.021006|issn=1351-0711|pmc=2078031|pmid=16361402}}</ref> may be reluctant to object to unsafe working conditions or to advocate for safety measures for fear of job loss or other repercussions,<ref name=":1" /> and they may lack basic knowledge and skills to protect themselves from workplace hazards due to insufficient safety training.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cummings|first1=Kristin J.|last2=Kreiss|first2=Kathleen|date=2008-01-30|title=Contingent Workers and Contingent Health: Risks of a Modern Economy|journal=JAMA|volume=299|issue=4|pages=448–450|doi=10.1001/jama.299.4.448|issn=0098-7484|pmid=18230783}}</ref>

According to a joint guidance document released by the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) and the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH), both staffing agencies and host employers in the United States (clients of staffing agencies) are responsible for providing and maintaining a safe and healthy work environment for contingent workers.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2014|title=CDC - NIOSH Publications and Products - Recommended Practices, Protecting Temporary Workers (2014-139)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2014-139/default.html|language=en-us|doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB2014139|access-date=2017-03-08|website=www.cdc.gov|hdl=1813/77856|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Collaborative and interdisciplinary (e.g., epidemiology, occupational psychology, organizational science, economics, law, management, sociology, labor health and safety) research and intervention efforts are needed to protect and promote the occupational safety and health of contingent workers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard|first=John|date=2017-01-01|title=Nonstandard work arrangements and worker health and safety|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=60|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1002/ajim.22669|pmid=27779787|s2cid=27748531|issn=1097-0274|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1000667}}</ref> 

In 2022, NIOSH and partners released a set of occupational safety and health best practices for host employers of temporary workers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-03 |title=Protecting Temporary Workers |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nora/councils/serv/protectingtemporaryworkers/host-employers.html |access-date=2023-01-06 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Checklists to foster adoption of the best practices and a slide deck staffing companies can use to educate their host employer clients about the best practices are also included.

==Advantages and disadvantages for employers using contingent workers==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Advantages<ref name=InformIT/>
! Disadvantages
|-
| Flexibility in type and amount of labor resources
| Lack of loyalty to employer or company
|-
| Save costs in benefits and tax
| Disturbs organization's core morale and culture
|-
| Immediate access to expertise not present internally
| Training costs
|-
| Savings in long-term compensation costs
| Worker carries the full risk, limited benefits
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Organized labour}}
*[[Adjunct professor]]
*[[Contract attorney]]
*[[Day labor]]
*[[Dispatched labor]]
*[[Ghost Work]]
*[[Human capital]]
*[[Misclassification of employees as independent contractors]]
*[[National Safety Council]]
*[[Permatemp]]
*[[Precariat]]
*[[Precarious work]]
*[[Precarity]]
*[[Psychological contract]]
*[[Temporary work]]
*[[Workforce casualisation]]
*[[Zero-hour contract]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*''Contingent Work: American Employment Relations in Transition'', edited by Kathleen Barker and Kathleen Christensen, {{ISBN|0801484057}}

{{Employment|sp=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iQtHSX5o9N0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Kathleen+Christensen&ots=KKwXv5U4XW&sig=DKv7Df3mVqv2p5zhpRVeZQr8tu8#v=onepage&q=Kathleen%20Christensen&f=false}}
{{Organized labor|sp=uk}}

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