View source for Concentration of media ownership

{{Short description|Control of mass media}}
{{For|digital media convergence|Technological convergence}}

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[[File:Media graphic.png|thumb|270px|right|Media graphic showing the 2019 ownership of mass media groups in the United States]]

'''Concentration of media ownership''', also known as '''media consolidation''' or '''media convergence''', is a process wherein fewer individuals or organizations control shares of the [[mass media]].<ref>Steven, 2009: p. 19</ref> Research in the 1990s and early 2000s suggested then-increasing levels of consolidation, with many media industries already [[Market concentration|highly concentrated]] where [[oligopoly|a few companies own much of the market]].<ref>{{cite book|editor=Downing, John|title=The SAGE Handbook of Media Studies|publisher=SAGE|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7619-2169-1|page=296|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isFAwqhITCUC&pg=PA296}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lorimer, Rowland |author2=Scannell, Paddy|title=Mass communications: a comparative introduction|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-7190-3946-1|pages=86–87|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5z7oAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA86}}</ref> However, since the proliferation of the [[Internet]], smaller and more diverse [[new media]] companies maintain a larger share of the overall market.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vizcarrondo |first=Thomas E. |date=2004 |title=Ownership Diversity Within the Media Industry: Trends and Current Conditions|journal=Electronic Theses and Dissertations|volume=43 |page=31}}</ref> As a result, many of the references below on this page are of declining relevance in comparison to the influence of digital media companies such as Meta, ByteDance or X.<ref name="Reuters Institute Digital News Report">{{cite web |last1=Newman |first1=Nic |title=Overview and key findings of the 2024 Digital News Report |url=https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2024/dnr-executive-summary#:~:text=News%20use%20across%20online%20platforms,X%2C%20for%20the%20first%20time. |website=Reuters Institute |publisher=Reuters |access-date=1 April 2025}}</ref>

Globally, some of the largest [[media conglomerates]] include [[Bertelsmann]], [[National Amusements]] ([[Paramount Global]]), [[Sony|Sony Group Corporation]], [[News Corp (2013–present)|News Corp]], [[Comcast]], [[The Walt Disney Company]], [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[Fox Corporation]], [[Hearst Communications]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] ([[Amazon MGM Studios]]), [[Grupo Globo]] (South America), and [[Lagardère Group]].<ref name="New Internationalist"/><ref name="newint.org"/><ref name="Katharine Ainger"/>

As of 2022, the largest media conglomerates in terms of revenue are [[NBCUniversal|Comcast NBCUniversal]], [[The Walt Disney Company]], [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], and [[Paramount Global]].

==Mergers==
Media mergers occur when one [[Mass media|media]] company buys another.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2020-03-24|editor-last=Woodhull|editor-first=Nancy J.|editor2-last=Snyder|editor2-first=Robert W.|title=Media Mergers|doi=10.4324/9781351309363|isbn=9781351309363|s2cid=241334318}}</ref> In 2008, Joseph Straubhaar, Robert LaRose and Lucinda Davenport described the landscape of corporate media ownership in the United States of America as an [[oligopoly]].<ref name="Straubhaar, Joseph 2008">Straubhaar, Joseph, Robert LaRose, and Lucinda Davenport. Media Now: Understanding Media, Culture, and Technology. Wadsworth Pub Co, 2008. Print.</ref>

=== Risks for media integrity ===
Some believe media integrity to be at risk when ownership of the media market is concentrated. Media integrity refers to the ability of a media outlet to serve the [[public interest]] and [[democratic process]], making it resilient to institutional [[corruption]] within the media system, economy of influence, conflicting dependence and political clientelism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Media Integrity Matters: Understanding the Meaning of and Risks to Media Integrity|last=Petković|first=Brankica|publisher=Peace Institute|year=2015|location=Ljubljana}}</ref>

=== Elimination of net neutrality ===
[[Net neutrality]] is also at stake when media mergers occur. Net neutrality involves a lack of restrictions on content on the internet, however, with big businesses supporting campaigns financially they tend to have influence over political issues, which can translate into their mediums. These big businesses, that also have control over [[internet usage]] or the airwaves, could possibly make the content available biased from their political stand point, or they could restrict usage for conflicting political views, therefore eliminating net neutrality.<ref name="Straubhaar, Joseph 2008"/>

==Issues==
Concentration of media ownership is very frequently seen as a problem of [[contemporary]] media and society.<ref name="New Internationalist">{{cite web |title= Global Media |url= http://www.newint.org/issues/2001/04/01/|work=[[New Internationalist]] |date= April 2001|access-date=2009-10-10}}</ref><ref name="newint.org">{{cite web |title= Ultra Concentrated Media - Facts|url= http://www.newint.org/features/2001/04/01/facts/|work=[[New Internationalist]] |date= April 2001|access-date=2009-10-10}}</ref><ref name="Katharine Ainger">{{cite web |first= Katharine|last= Ainger|title= Empires of the Senseless|url= http://www.newint.org/features/2001/04/01/keynote/|work=[[New Internationalist]] |date= April 2001|access-date=2009-10-10}}</ref>

=== Freedom of the press and editorial independence ===
Johannes von Dohnanyi, in a 2003 report published by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE)'s Office of the Representative on Freedom of the Media, argued market concentration among media&mdash;whether driven by domestic or foreign investors&mdash;should be "closely monitored" because "Horizontal concentration may cause dangers to media pluralism and diversity, while vertical concentration may result in entry barriers for new competitors."<ref name=Dohnanyi>{{Cite web|url=https://www.osce.org/fom/13870?download=true|title=The Impact of Media Concentration on Professional Journalism|last=von Dohnanyi|first=Johannes|date=2003|website=Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|pages=188–89}}</ref> Von Dohnanyi argues that to "safeguard free and independent print media and protect professional journalism as one of the cornerstones of constitutional democracy" there should be standards for editorial independence, better labor protections for professional journalists, and independent institutions "to monitor the implementation and observance of all laws and regulations regarding concentration processes, media pluralism, content diversity and journalistic freedoms."<ref name=Dohnanyi/>

=== Deregulation ===
[[Robert W. McChesney]] argues that the concentration of media ownership is caused by a shift to neoliberal [[deregulation]] policies, which is a market-driven approach. Deregulation effectively removes governmental barriers to allow for the commercial exploitation of media. Motivation for media firms to merge includes increased profit-margins, reduced risk and maintaining a competitive edge. In contrast to this, those who support deregulation have argued that cultural [[trade barrier]]s and regulations harm consumers and domestic support in the form of [[subsidies]] hinders countries to develop their own strong media firms. The opening of borders is more beneficial to countries than maintaining [[protectionist]] regulations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McChesney|first=R.|title=Global media, neoliberalism and imperialism|journal=Monthly Review|year=2001|volume=52|issue=10|pages=1|doi=10.14452/MR-052-10-2001-03_1}}</ref>

Critics of media deregulation and the resulting concentration of ownership fear that such trends will only continue to reduce the diversity of information provided, as well as to reduce the accountability of information providers to the public.  The ultimate consequence of consolidation, critics argue, is a poorly informed public, restricted to a reduced array of media options that offer only information that does not harm the media oligopoly's growing range of interests.<ref>{{cite book|last=Baker|first=C. Edmund|title=Media concentration and democracy: why ownership matters|url=https://archive.org/details/mediaconcentrati00bake|url-access=limited|location=New York; Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/mediaconcentrati00bake/page/n18 3]}}</ref>

For those critics, media deregulation is a dangerous trend, facilitating an increase in concentration of media ownership, and subsequently reducing the overall quality and diversity of information communicated through major media channels.  Increased concentration of media ownership can lead to [[corporate censorship]] affecting a wide range of critical thought.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cooper|first=M.|title=Limits on Media Ownership Serve the Public Interest|journal=Television Quarterly|year=2004|volume=34|issue=3/4}}</ref>

== Media pluralism ==

The concentration of media ownership is commonly regarded as one of the crucial aspects reducing media pluralism. A high concentration of the media market increases the chances to reduce the plurality of political, cultural and social points of views.<ref name=CMPF>{{cite web|url=http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/38886/CMPF_PolicyReport_2015.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Monitoring media pluralism in Europe : testing and implementation of the media pluralism monitor 2014}}</ref>
Even if ownership of the media is one of the main concerns when it comes to assessing [[media pluralism]], the concept of media pluralism is broader as it touches many aspects, from merger control rules to editorial freedom, the status of public service broadcasters, the working conditions of journalists, the relationship between media and politics, representation of local and regional communities and the inclusion of minorities' voices.<ref name=CMPF/> Also, it embraces all measures guaranteeing citizens' access to diversified sources so to allow the formation of a plurality of opinions in the public sphere without undue influence of dominant powers.

Furthermore, media pluralism has a two-fold dimension, or rather internal and external. Internal pluralism concerns pluralism within a specific media organisation: in this regard, many countries request public broadcast services to account for a variety of views and opinions, including those of minority groups. External pluralism applies instead to the overall media landscape, for instance in terms of the number of media outlets operating in a given country.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">[https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/sites/digital-agenda/files/HLG%20Final%20Report.pdf A Free and pluralistic media to sustain European democracy. The report of the High Level Group on Media Freedom and Pluralism, European Commission, January 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2016.]</ref>

Media ownership can pose serious challenges to pluralism when owners interfere with journalists' independence and editorial line. However, in a free market economy, owners must have the capacity to decide the strategy of their company to remain competitive in the market. Also, pluralism does not mean neutrality and lack of opinion, as having an editorial line is an integral part of the role of editors provided that this line is transparent and explicit to both the staff and audience.<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/>

=== Determinants of media pluralism ===

====Size and wealth of the market====
"Within any free market economy, the level of resources available for the provision of media will be constrained principally by the size and wealth of that economy, and the propensity of its inhabitants to consume media." [Gillian Doyle; 2002:15] Those countries that have a relatively large market, like the United Kingdom, France or Spain have more financial background to support diversity of output and have the ability to keep more media companies in the market (as they are there to make profit). More diverse output and fragmented ownership will support [[Pluralism (political theory)|pluralism]]. In contrast, small markets like Ireland or Hungary suffer from the absence of the diversity of output given in countries with bigger markets. It means that "support for the media through direct payment" and "levels of consumers expenditure", furthermore "the availability of advertising support" [Gillian Doyle; 2002:15] are less in these countries, due to the low number of audience. Overall, the size and wealth of the market determine the diversity of both media output and media ownership.

====Consolidation of resources====
The [[Consolidation (business)|consolidation]] of cost functions and cost-sharing. Cost-sharing is a common practice in monomedia and cross media. For example, "for multi-product television or radio broadcasters, the more homogeneity possible between different services held in common ownership (or the more elements within a programme schedule which can be shared between 'different' stations), the greater the opportunity to reap economies".<ref>Doyle, 2002: p. 22–23</ref> Though the main concern of pluralism is that different organization under different ownership may buy the same e.g. news stories from the same news-supplier agency. In the UK, the biggest news-supplier is The Press Association (PA). Here is a quoted text from PA web site: "The Press Association supplies services to every national and regional daily newspaper, major broadcasters, online publishers and a wide range of commercial organisations." Overall, in a system where all different media organizations gather their stories from the same source, we can't really call that system pluralist. That is where diversity of output comes in.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Doyle|first=Gillian|title=What's "new" about the future of communications? An evaluation of recent shifts in UK media ownership policy|volume=24|issue=5|year=2002}}</ref>

=== Pluralism in media ownership ===
[[File:ASBU.jpg|thumb|Arab States Broadcasting Union building in [[Tunis]]]]

Media privatization and the lessening of state dominance over media content has continued since 2012. In the [[Arab world|Arab region]], the [[Arab States Broadcasting Union]] (ASBU) counted 1,230 television stations broadcasting via Arab and international [[satellite]]s, of which 133 were state-owned and 1,097 private.<ref>Arab States Broadcasting Union. 2015. Arab Satellite Broadcasting Annual Report 2015. Available at <<nowiki>http://www.asbu.net/medias/</nowiki> NewMedia_2016/text/asbu_report_2015. pdf>.</ref>  According to the ASBU Report, these numbers serve as evidence of a decline in the percentage of [[Public broadcasting|state channels]] and a rise in national private and foreign public stations targeting the Arab region. The reduction of direct government ownership over the whole media sector is commonly registered as a positive trend, but this has paralleled by a growth in outlets with a sectarian agenda.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf|pages=202}}</ref>

In [[Africa]], some private media outlets have maintained close ties to governments or individual politicians, while media houses owned by politically non-aligned individuals have struggled to survive, often in the face of advertising [[boycott]]s by state agencies. In almost all regions, models of [[Public broadcasting|public service broadcasting]] have been struggling for funding. In Western, Central and Eastern [[Europe]], funds directed to public service broadcasting have been stagnating or declining since 2012.<ref>European Broadcasting Union (EBU). 2015. Funding of Public Service Media 2015. Available at <<nowiki>https://www.ebu.ch/</nowiki> publications/funding-of-public-servicemedia>.</ref>

New types of [[Cross ownership|cross-ownership]] have emerged in the past five years that have spurred new questions about where to draw the line between media and other industries. A notable case has been the acquisition of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' by the founder of online retailer [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]. While the move initially raised concerns about  the newspaper's independence, the newspaper has significantly increased its standing in the [[Digital media|online media]]—and print—and introduced significant innovations.<ref name=":0" />

The community-centred media ownership model continues to survive in some areas, especially in isolated, rural or disadvantaged areas, and mostly pertaining to radio. Through this model, not-for-profit media outlets are run and managed by the communities they serve.<ref name=":0" />

==In particular nations==
===Armenia===
{{excerpt|Mass media in Armenia|Concentration and pluralism}}
===Australia===
{{Further|Media ownership in Australia}}

Controls over media ownership in Australia are laid down in the ''[[Broadcasting Services Act 1992]]'',<ref>{{cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|bsa1992214|Broadcasting Services Act 1992}}.</ref> administered by the [[Australian Communications & Media Authority]] (ACMA). Even with laws in place Australia has a high concentration of media ownership. Ownership of national newspapers and those of each capital city are dominated by [[News Corp Australia]] and [[Nine Entertainment]]. Although much of the everyday mainstream news is drawn from the [[Australian Associated Press]], all the privately owned media outlets still compete with each other for exclusive [[popular culture|pop culture]] news.

Rural and regional media is dominated by [[Australian Community Media]], with significant holdings in all states and territories.
[[Daily Mail & General Trust]] operate the [[Nova Entertainment]] commercial radio networks in metropolitan and regional areas of Australia. Formed in 1996, it has since become one of the largest radio media companies in the country. The company currently own more than 60 radio stations across [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]].

There are rules governing foreign ownership of Australian media and these rules were loosened by the [[Howard government]].

''[[Media Watch (TV program)|Media Watch]]'' is an independent media watchdog televised on the public broadcaster [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] (ABC), which is one of two government-administered channels, the other being [[Special Broadcasting Service]] (SBS).

In late 2011, the [[Finkelstein Inquiry]] into media regulation was launched, and reported its findings back to the federal government in early 2012.<ref>[http://www.dbcde.gov.au/digital_economy/independent_media_inquiry Department of Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy - Independent Media Inquiry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306040636/http://www.dbcde.gov.au/digital_economy/independent_media_inquiry |date=2012-03-06 }}</ref>

===New Zealand===

[[Independent Newspapers|Independent Newspapers Limited]] (INL) formerly published the [[Wellington]]-based newspapers [[The Dominion (Wellington)|The Dominion]] and [[The Evening Post (New Zealand)|The Evening Post]], in addition to purchasing a large shareholding in pay TV broadcaster Sky Media Limited in 1997. These two newspapers merged to form the [[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|Dominion Post]] in 2002, and in 2003, sold its entire print media division to [[Fairfax New Zealand]]. The remainder of the company officially merged with Sky Media Limited in 2005 to form [[Sky Network Television]] Limited.

When INL ceased publishing the ''[[Auckland Star]]'' in 1991, ''[[The New Zealand Herald]]'' became the [[Auckland]] region's sole daily newspaper. The ''New Zealand Herald'' and the ''[[New Zealand Listener]]'', formerly privately held by the Wilson & Horton families, was sold to [[APN News & Media]] in 1996. The long-running news syndication agency [[NZPA]] announced that it would close down in 2011, with operations to be taken over by 3 separate agencies, APN's APNZ, Fairfax's FNZN and [[Australian Associated Press|AAP]]'s NZN, all owned by Australian parent companies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Farewell NZPA, hello three new news services |first=Andrew |last=Stone |url= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10748448 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=31 August 2011 |access-date=31 August 2011}}</ref> In 2014, APN's New Zealand division officially changed its name to [[New Zealand Media and Entertainment|NZME]], in order to reflect the company's convergence with its radio division The Radio Network. As of early 2015, [[Fairfax New Zealand]] and [[NZME]] have a near duopoly on newspapers and magazines in New Zealand. In May 2016, NZME and Fairfax NZ announced merger talks, pending Commerce Commission approval.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11637176|title=NZME, Fairfax in merger talks|first=Fran|last=O'Sullivan|publisher=[[New Zealand Herald]] |date=2016-05-11|newspaper=[[The New Zealand Herald]] }}</ref> The merger was abandoned in 2018 following a Court of Appeal ruling that judged that the "detriments clearly outweigh benefits, and not by a small margin".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/business/367340/stuff-nzme-merger-would-lead-to-substantial-reduction-of-journalists-court-says |title=Stuff-NZME merger would lead to 'substantial reduction' of journalists, court says |date=2018-09-26 |publisher=[[RNZ]] }}</ref>

Commercial radio stations are largely divided up between [[MediaWorks New Zealand]] and NZME. MediaWorks' TV division, which includes [[TV3 (New Zealand)|TV3]] and [[C4 (TV channel)|C4]] (now [[The Edge TV]]), were purchased by Discovery Networks in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/300101113/discovery-takes-bet-on-nz-by-buying-television-channel-three |title=Discovery takes 'bet on NZ' by buying television channel Three |author=Tom Pullar-Strecker |date=2020-09-07 |publisher=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] }}</ref> [[TVNZ|Television New Zealand]], although 100% state-owned, has been run on an almost entirely commercial basis since the late 1980s, in spite of previous attempts to steer it towards a more [[Public broadcasting|public service-oriented]] role. Its primary public-service outlet, [[TVNZ7]], ceased broadcasting in 2012 due to non-renewal of funding, and the youth-oriented [[TVNZ6]] was rebranded as the short-lived commercial channel [[TVNZ U]]. In addition, the now-defunct TVNZ channels Kidzone and [[TVNZ Heartland]]) were only available through [[Sky Network Television]] and not on the [[Freeview (New Zealand)|Freeview]] platform.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10765453|title=TVNZ and Sky TV too cosy, says industry|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=9 January 2016|date=2011-11-11|last1=Jdrinnan@Xtra.Co.Nz @Zagzigger2|first1=John Drinnan John Drinnan is the Media Writer for the New Zealand Herald}}</ref>

[[Sky Network Television]] has had an effective monopoly on [[pay TV]] in New Zealand since its nearest rival [[Saturn Communications]] (later part of [[TelstraClear]] and now [[Vodafone New Zealand]]) began wholesaling Sky content in 2002. However, in 2011, TelstraClear CEO Allan Freeth warned it would review its wholesale agreement with Sky unless it allowed TelstraClear to purchase non-Sky content.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=383883 |title=Sky TV adds to customer base - Business - NZ Herald News |publisher=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=2001-12-22 |access-date=2013-04-30|newspaper=[[The New Zealand Herald]] }}</ref>

===Canada===
{{Main|Media ownership in Canada}}
Canada has the biggest concentrated TV ownership out of all the G8 countries and it comes in second place for the most concentrated television viewers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2012/08/13/concentration-media-ownership-canada_n_1773117.html|title=Media Concentration In Canada Is Worst In G8: Report|last=Howard|first=Caroline|date=December 12, 2016|website=The Huffington Post|publisher=Daniel Tencer|access-date=2016-12-12}}</ref>

Broadcasting and telecommunications in Canada are regulated by the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC), an independent governing agency that aims to serve the needs and interests of citizens, industries, interest groups and the government. The CRTC does not regulate newspapers or magazines.<ref>{{cite web |last=Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission |title=About the CRTC |url=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/backgrnd/brochures/b29903.htm |access-date=23 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120031819/http://crtc.gc.ca/eng/backgrnd/brochures/b29903.htm |archive-date=20 November 2011 }}</ref>

Apart from a relatively small number of [[Community radio|community broadcasters]], media in Canada are primarily owned by a small number of groups, including [[Bell Canada]], the Shaw family (via [[Corus Entertainment]] and [[Shaw Communications]]), [[Rogers Communications]], [[Quebecor Inc.|Quebecor]], and the government-owned [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC/Radio-Canada]]. Each of these companies holds a diverse mix of television, specialty television, and radio operations. Bell, Rogers, Shaw, and Quebecor also engage in the telecommunications industry with their ownership of internet providers, television providers, and mobile carriers, while Rogers is also involved in publishing.

In 2007, CTVglobemedia, Rogers Media and Quebecor all expanded significantly through the acquisitions of [[CHUM Limited]], [[CityTV]] and [[Osprey Media]], respectively. In 2010, [[Canwest Global Communications]], having filed for bankruptcy, sold its television assets to Shaw (through a new subsidiary, [[Shaw Media]]) and spun off its newspaper holdings into [[Postmedia Network]], a new company founded by the ''[[National Post]]'''s CEO [[Paul Godfrey]].<ref>{{cite news|last=CBCNews|author-link=CBC News|title=Media convergence, acquisitions and sales in Canada|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/media-convergence-acquisitions-and-sales-in-canada-1.948788|access-date=24 October 2011|work=[[CBC News]]|date=2011-03-11}}</ref> Later that year, Bell also announced that it would acquire the remaining shares of CTVglobemedia (which was originally majority owned by Bell when it was formed in 2001; Bell had reduced its stake in the following years), forming [[Bell Media]].<ref name="CTV-purchase">{{cite news
  | last = Marlow
  | first = Iain
  | title = BCE-CTV deal remakes media landscape
  | newspaper = The Globe and Mail
  | date = 2010-09-10
  | url = https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/bce-ctv-deal-remakes-media-landscape/article1702385/
  | access-date = 2010-09-11
  | location=Toronto| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100913122024/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/bce-ctv-deal-remakes-media-landscape/article1702385/| archive-date= 13 September 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Between 1990 and 2005 there were a number of media corporate mergers and takeovers in Canada. For example, in 1990, 17.3% of daily newspapers were independently owned; whereas in 2005, 1% were.<ref>{{cite web|last=McCurry|first=Lawrence|title=Web Exclusive: Media Guilty In G-20|url=http://canadiandimension.com/articles/3567/|work=Articles – December 3, 2010|publisher=[[Canadian Dimension]]|access-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>  These changes, among others, caused the Senate Standing Committee on Transport and Communications to launch a study of Canadian [[news media]] in March 2003. (This topic had been examined twice in the past, by the Davey Commission (1970) and the [[Kent Commission]] (1981), both of which produced recommendations that were never implemented in any meaningful way.)<ref name="The Globe and Mail">{{cite web|author=The Globe and Mail|title=Review media mergers - Senate group urges Grant Robertson and Simon Tuck|url=http://www.friends.ca/news-item/3762|publisher=[[The Globe and Mail]] – republished by [[Friends of Canadian Broadcasting]]|date=June 22, 2006|access-date=10 October 2009|author-link=The Globe and Mail|archive-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118143058/https://www.friends.ca/news-item/3762|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications">{{cite web |author= Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications|title= Final report on the Canadian news media|url= https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/391/tran/rep/repfinjun06vol1-e.htm|publisher=[[Parliament of Canada]] |date= June 2006|access-date=10 October 2009}}</ref>

The Senate Committee's final report, released in June 2006, expressed concern about the effects of the current levels of news media ownership in Canada. Specifically, the committee discussed their concerns regarding the following trends: the potential of media ownership concentration to limit news diversity and reduce news quality; the CRTC and Competition Bureau's ineffectiveness at stopping media ownership concentration; the lack of federal funding for the CBC and the broadcaster's uncertain mandate and role; diminishing employment standards for journalists (including less job security, less journalistic freedom, and new contractual threats to intellectual property); a lack of Canadian training and research institutes; and difficulties with the federal government's support for print media and the absence of funding for the internet-based news media.<ref name="The Globe and Mail"/><ref name="Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications"/>

The Senate report expressed particular concern about the concentration of ownership in the province of New Brunswick, where the Irving business empire owns all the English-language daily newspapers and most of the weeklies. Senator Joan Fraser, author of the report, stated, "We didn't find anywhere else in the developed world a situation like the situation in New Brunswick."<ref name="CBC">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/feds-must-examine-irving-media-empire-fraser-1.677605 | title=CBC: Feds must examine Irving media empire|date=2007-10-12|access-date=2016-03-24}}</ref>

The report provided 40 recommendations and 10 suggestions (for areas outside of federal government jurisdiction), including legislation [[amendments]] that would trigger automatic reviews of a proposed media merger if certain thresholds are reached, and CRTC regulation revisions to ensure that access to the broadcasting system is encouraged and that a diversity of news and information programming is available through these services.<ref name="The Globe and Mail"/><ref name="Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications"/>

Public inquires into the concentration of ownership and its impact upon democracy. The Canadian regulatory framework imposes requirements upon the protection and enhancement of Canadian culture (through regulation, subsidies and the operation of the CBC). Increasing acceptance of media/news as commercial enterprise in 1990s driven by: hegemony of new-liberalism, role of commodified information technology in economic growth, commitment to private sector "champions" of Canadian culture.

===Brazil===
{{broader|Brazil#Media}}
In Brazil, the concentration of media ownership seems to have manifested itself very early. Dr. Venício A. de Lima noted in 2003:

{{Blockquote|in Brazil there is an environment very conducive to concentration. Sectorial legislation has been timid, by express intention of the legislator, by failing to include direct provisions that limit or control the concentration of ownership, which, incidentally, goes in the opposite direction of what happens in countries like France, Italy and the United Kingdom, which are concerned with the plurality and diversity in the new scenario of [[technological convergence]].|Lobato, [[Folha de S.Paulo]], 10/14/2001<ref name="Lima">{{cite web|url=http://www.observatoriodaimprensa.com.br/artigos/plq010720031.htm | title=Existe concentração na mídia brasileira? Sim|author=Venício A. de Lima|language=pt|editor=Observatório da Imprensa|editor-link=Observatório da Imprensa|date=2003-07-01|access-date=2012-04-08}}</ref>}}

Lima points to other factors that would make media concentration easier, particularly in [[broadcasting]]: the failure of legal norms that limit the equity interest of the same economic group in various broadcasting organizations; a short period (five years) for resell broadcasting concessions, facilitating the concentration by the big media groups through the purchase of independent stations, and no restrictions to the formation of national [[broadcasting network]]s. He cites examples of horizontal, vertical, crossed and "in cross" concentration (a Brazilian peculiarity).<ref name="Lima"/>
* '''Horizontal concentration''': [[oligopoly]] or monopoly produced within an area or industry; television ([[Pay television|pay]] or free) is the Brazilian classical model. In 2002 the [[Cable TV|cable networks]] Sky and NET dominated 61% of the Brazilian market. In the same year, 58.37% of all advertising budgets were invested in TV – and in this aspect, [[TV Globo]] and its [[Network affiliate|affiliates]] received 78% of the amount.<ref>{{cite news|author=Castro, D.|date=2003-03-10|title=TV fatura R$ 5,7 bi e cresce 6% em 2002|work=[[Folha de S.Paulo]]|language=pt}}</ref>
* '''Vertical concentration''': integration of the different phases of production and distribution, eliminating the work of independent producers. In Brazil, unlike the United States, it is common for a TV network to produce, advertise, market and distribute most of its programming. TV Globo is known for its [[soap opera]]s exported to dozens of countries; it keeps under permanent contract the actors, authors, and the whole production staff. The final product is broadcast by a network of newspapers, magazines, radio stations and websites owned by [[Globo Organizations]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Ortiz, R.|year=1989|title=Telenovela-História e Produção|place=São Paulo|editor=Brasiliense|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
* '''[[Cross ownership]]''': ownership of different kinds of media (TV, newspapers, magazines, etc.) by the same group. Initially, the phenomenon occurred in radio, television and print media, with emphasis on the group of "[[Diários Associados]]." At a later stage appeared the [[RBS TV|RBS Group]] (affiliated to TV Globo), with operations in the markets of [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]. Besides being the owner of radio and television stations, and of the main local newspapers, it has two [[Internet portal]]s. The opinions of its commentators are thus replicated by a multimedia system that makes it extremely easy to spread the point of view advocated by the group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.observatoriodaimprensa.com.br/news/view/formacao_de_monopolio_da_rbs_em_sc_sera_questionada |title=Formação de monopólio da RBS em SC será questionada |first=Laura |last=Schenkel |date=2006-09-12 |access-date=2012-04-08 |language=pt |editor=Observatório da Imprensa|editor-link=Observatório da Imprensa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212130658/http://www.observatoriodaimprensa.com.br/news/view/formacao_de_monopolio_da_rbs_em_sc_sera_questionada |archive-date=2013-12-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://redebonja.cbj.g12.br/ielusc/revi_2005/revi_mod_reg.php?id=2510|title=RBS e AN: os riscos da monopolização|first1=Jacques|last1=Mick|last2=Lima |first2=Samuel|editor=Agência Experimental de Jornalismo|date=2006-08-30|access-date=2012-04-08|language=pt}}</ref>
* '''Monopoly "in cross"''': reproduction into local level, of the particularities of [[cross ownership]]. Research carried out in the early 1990s, detected the presence of this singularity in 18 of the 26 [[Brazilian states]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Amaral, R.|author2=Guimarães, C.|year=1994|title=Media Monopoly in Brazil|editor=Journal of Communications|volume=44|edition=4, Autumm|pages=30–32}}</ref> Manifests itself by the presence of a TV channel with a large audience, often linked to TV Globo and by the existence of two daily newspapers, in which the one with the largest circulation is linked to the major television channel and to a network of radio stations, that almost always reproduces articles and the editorial line of the newspaper "[[O Globo]]".<ref>{{cite book|author=Amaral, R.|author2=Guimarães, C.|year=1994|title=Media Monopoly in Brazil|editor=Journal of Communications|volume=44|edition=4, Autumm|pages=30}}</ref> In 2002, another survey (which did not include pay TV), found the presence of the "monopoly in cross" in 13 major markets in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://donosdamidia.com.br/media/documentos/DonosCarta.pdf |title=Quem são os donos |first1=Daniel |last1=Herz |last2=Görgen |first2=James |last3=Osório |first3=Pedro Luiz |editor=CartaCapital|editor-link=CartaCapital |date=2002-03-06 |access-date=2012-04-05 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113081931/http://donosdamidia.com.br/media/documentos/DonosCarta.pdf |archive-date=2011-11-13 }}</ref>

The [[UNESCO]] office in [[Brasília]] has expressed its concern over the existence of an outdated code of telecommunications (1962),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www4.gsb.columbia.edu/filemgr?file_id=13824|title=Communications regulatory framework in Brazil: media, telecommunications, internet|format=pdf|author=Murilo César Ramos|editor=University of Brasília|editor-link=University of Brasília|access-date=2012-10-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185705/http://www4.gsb.columbia.edu/filemgr?file_id=13824|archive-date=2013-10-29}}</ref> which no longer meets the expectations generated by the [[Constitution of Brazil|Brazilian Constitution of 1988]] in the political and social fields, and the inability of the Brazilian government to establish an [[independent regulatory agency]] to manage the media.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/brasilia/communication-and-information/freedom-of-expression/|title=Freedom of Expression in Brazil|editor=UNESCO|editor-link=UNESCO|access-date=2012-10-16}}</ref> Attempts in this direction have been pointed by the [[mainstream media]] as attacks on [[freedom of expression]], the trend of the political left in the entire Latin American continent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cima.ned.org/brazil%E2%80%99s-new-communications-minister-defends-new-regulation |title=Brazil's New Communications Minister Defends New Regulation |first=Maira |last=Magro |editor=Center for International Media Assistance|editor-link=Center for International Media Assistance |date=2011-01-03 |access-date=2012-10-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190110/http://cima.ned.org/brazil%E2%80%99s-new-communications-minister-defends-new-regulation |archive-date=2013-10-29 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.observatoriodaimprensa.com.br/news/view/_ed687_liberdade_e_regulacao |title=Liberdade e regulação |last=Rosenfield |newspaper=[[O Estado de S. Paulo]] |first=Denis |language=pt |date=2012-03-27 |access-date=2013-01-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601013659/http://observatoriodaimprensa.com.br/news/view/_ed687_liberdade_e_regulacao |archive-date=2012-06-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cartamaior.com.br/templates/materiaMostrar.cfm?materia_id=20167 |title=FHC defende a regulação dos meios de comunicação |editor-first=Carta |editor-last=Maior |first=João |last=Brant |language=pt |date=2012-05-17 |access-date=2012-10-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022120145/http://www.cartamaior.com.br/templates/materiaMostrar.cfm?materia_id=20167 |archive-date=2012-10-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.direitoacomunicacao.org.br/content.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=9135|title=Assusta-me que FHC assuma a bandeira da regulação da mídia|last=Mansur|first=Vinícius|publisher=Carta Maior|language=pt|date=2012-05-22|access-date=2013-01-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118063351/http://direitoacomunicacao.org.br/content.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=9135|archive-date=2013-01-18}}</ref>

===Europe===

====Council of Europe and European Union====

Since the 1980s, a significant debate has developed at the European level concerning the regulation of media ownership and the principles to be adopted to regulate media ownership concentration.<ref name=Harcourt>{{cite journal |first=Alison J.|last=Harcourt|date= September 1998|title=EU Media Ownership Regulation: Conflict over the Definition of Alternatives |journal= Journal of Common Market Studies|volume= 36|issue=3 |pages= 369–389|doi= 10.1111/1468-5965.00115}}</ref>  Both the [[Council of Europe]] (CoE) and the [[European Union]] (EU) have tried to formulate a distinctive and comprehensive [[media policy]], including on the issue of concentration.<ref name=Galik>{{cite book |last= Gálik |first=Mihály |date=2010 |title=Media Freedom and Pluralism: Media Policy Challenges in the enlarged Europe [online] |pages=229–244 |chapter=Regulating Media Concentration within the Council of Europe and the European Union |chapter-url=http://books.openedition.org/ceup/2179 |location=Budapest |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=9786155211850|series=CEUP collection }}</ref> However, the emphasis of both the organisations was more on strengthening media diversity and pluralism than on limiting concentration, even though they have often expressed the need for common European media concentration regulations.<ref name=Galik/> However, the European Union enforces a common regulation for [[environmental protection]], [[consumer protection]] and [[human rights]], but it has none for [[media pluralism]].<ref name="Pisan16082010"/>

Although there is no specific media concentration legislation at the European level, a number of existing legal instruments such as the [[Amsterdam Protocol]], the [[Audiovisual Media Services Directive]] and actions programs contribute directly and indirectly to curbing media concentration at EU level.<ref name=Galik/>

When it comes to regulating media concentration at the common European level, there is a conflict between Member states and the [[European Commission]] (EC). Even if Member states do not publicly challenge the need for common regulation on media concentration, they push to incorporate their own regulatory approach at the EU level and are reluctant to give the European Union their regulatory power on the issue of media concentration.<ref name=Galik/>

The Council of Europe's initiative promoting media pluralism and curbing media concentration dates back to the mid-1970s. Several resolutions, recommendations, declarations by the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers and studies by experts' groups have addressed the issue since then.<ref name=Galik/> The council's approach has been mainly addressed at defining and protecting media pluralism, defined in terms of pluralism of media content in order to allow a plurality of ideas and opinions.<ref name=Galik/>

Within the European Union, two main standpoints have emerged in the debate: on the one hand, the [[European Parliament]] has favoured the idea that, considering the crucial role that media play in the functioning of democratic systems, policies in this field should prevent excessive concentration in order to guarantee pluralism and diversity. On the other hand, the European Commission has privileged the understanding that the media sector should be regulated, as any other economic field, following the principles of market harmonization and liberalization.<ref name=Harcourt/>

Indeed, media concentration issues can be addressed both by general competition policies and by specific media sector rules. According to some scholars, given the vital importance of contemporary media, sector-specific competition rules in the media industries should be enhanced.<ref name=Galik/> Within the EU, the Council regulation 4064/89/EEC on the control of concentrations between undertakings as part of European competition legislation covered also media concentration cases.<ref name=Galik/> The need for sector-specific regulation has been widely supported by both media scholars and the European Parliament. In the 1980s, when preparing legislation on cross-border television many experts and MEPs argued for including provisions for media concentration in the EU directive but these efforts failed.<ref name=Galik/> In 1992, the Commission of the European Communities published a policy document named "Pluralism and Media Concentration in the internal Market – an assessment of the need for Community action" which outlined three options on the issue of media concentration regulation at the Community level, i.e. no specific action to be taken; action regulating transparency; and action to harmonize laws. Out of these options, the first one was chosen but the debate on this decision lasted for years.<ref name=Galik/> Council regulation as a tool for regulating media concentration was excluded and the two proposals on a media concentration directive advanced in the mid 1990s were not backed by the commission. As a consequence, efforts at legislating media concentration at Community level were phased out by the end of the 1990s.<ref name=Galik/>

Despite a wide consensus over the idea that the vital importance of contemporary media justifies to regulate media concentration through sector-specific concentration rules going beyond the general competition policy, the need for sector specific regulation has been challenged in recent years due to the peculiar evolution of the media industry in the digital environment and [[media convergence]]. In practice, sector-specific media concentration rules have been abolished in some European countries in recent years.<ref name=Galik/>

As a consequence, scholars Harcourt and Picard argue that "the trend has been to remove ownership rules and restrictions on media ownership within Europe in order that 'domestic champions' can bulk up to 'fend off' the US threat. This has been a key argument for the loosening of ownership rules within Europe."<ref name="Harcourt1">{{cite journal|date=2009|title=Policy, Economic, and Business Challenges of Media Ownership Regulation|journal=Journal of Media Business Studies|volume=6|issue=3|pages=1–17|author=Alison Harcourt & Robert G. Picard|doi=10.1080/16522354.2009.11073486|s2cid=167929232}}</ref>

In 2002, the European Parliament tried to revitalize the efforts on regulating media concentration at the European level and adopted a resolution on media concentration which called on the European Commission to launch a broad and comprehensive consultation on media pluralism and media concentration and to prepare a Green Paper on the issue by the end of 2003. The European Commission failed to meet this deadline.<ref name=Galik/> In the following years, during the process of amending the Televisions Without Frontiers directive, which was adopted by the EP and the Council in 2007, the issue of media concentration was discussed, but it did not represent the core of the debate.<ref name=Galik/> In 2003, the European Commission issued a policy document named "The future of European Regulatory Audiovisual Policy" which stressed that, in order to ensure media pluralism, measures should aim at limiting the level of media concentration by establishing "maximum holdings in media companies and prevent[ing] cumulative control or participation in several media companies at the same time".<ref name=Galik/>

In 2007, reacting to concerns on media concentration and its repercussion on pluralism and [[freedom of expression]] in the EU member states raised by the European Parliament and by NGOs, the European Commission launched a new three-phase plan on media pluralism<ref name="Pisan16082010">Pisanò, Alessio (2010) [http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2010/08/16/se-il-pluralismo-scivola-in-fondo-allagenda-ue/50677/ Se il pluralismo scivola in fondo all’agenda Ue], ''[[Il Fatto Quotidiano]], August 16, 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/media_taskforce/pluralism/index_en.htm |title=European Journalism - Study :Statistical review of journalism and media sector in the European Union |publisher=Ec.europa.eu |access-date=2013-10-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1089699|title=Council of Europe|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref>

In October 2009, a [[Directive (European Union)|European Union Directive]] was proposed to set for all member states common and higher standards for [[media pluralism]] and [[freedom of expression]]. The proposal was put to a vote in the [[European Parliament]] and rejected by just three votes. The directive was supported by the [[Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|liberal-centrists]], the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|progressives]] and the [[The Greens–European Free Alliance|greens]], and was opposed by the [[European People's Party]].<ref name="Pisan16082010"/> Unexpectedly, the Irish liberals made an exception by voting against the directive, and later revealed that they had been pressured by the Irish right-wing government to do so.<ref name="Pisan16082010"/>

Following this debate, the European Commission commissioned a large, in depth study published in 2009 aiming to identify the indicators to be adopted to assess media pluralism in Europe.<ref name="media pluralism in MS">{{cite book |date=2009 |title= Independent Study on Indicators for Media Pluralism in the Member States – Towards a Risk-Based Approach|url=https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/sites/digital-agenda/files/final_report_09.pdf}}</ref>

The "Independent Study on Indicators for Media Pluralism in the Member States – Towards a Risk-Based Approach" provided a prototype of indicators and country reports for 27 EU member states. After years of refining and preliminary testings, the study resulted in the [[Media Pluralism Monitor]] (MPM), a yearly monitoring carried out by the Centre for Media Pluralism and Freedom at the [[European University Institute]] in Florence on a variety of aspects affecting media pluralism, including also the concentration of media ownership is considered.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/news/results-media-pluralism-monitor-2015/ |title=Monitoring Media Pluralism in Europe: Results of the second pilot-test implementation of the Media Pluralism Monitor (MPM2015) |access-date=2017-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323233956/http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/news/results-media-pluralism-monitor-2015/ |archive-date=2017-03-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> To assess the risk that media ownership concentration in a given country may actually hinder media pluralism, the MPM takes into account three specific elements:
* Horizontal concentration, that is concentration of media ownership within a given media sector (press, audio-visual, etc.);
* Cross-media concentration across different media markets;
* [[Transparency of media ownership in Europe|Transparency of media ownership]].

In 2015, the MPM was carried out in 19 European countries. The results of the monitoring activity in the field of media market concentration identify five countries as facing a high risk: Finland, Luxembourg, Lithuania, Poland and Spain. There are nine countries facing a medium risk: Czech Republic, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden. Finally, only five countries face a low risk: Croatia, Cyprus, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia.<ref name="MPM2015">{{cite web|url=http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/mpm2015/results/market/|title=MPM 2015 Market Plurality Domain|date=March 2016|access-date=12 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315195501/http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/mpm2015/results/market/|archive-date=15 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the monitoring carried out in 2014, 7 of 9 countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, the UK) scored a high risk in audience concentration.<ref>[http://monitor.cmpf.eui.eu/results-2014/ownership/!MPM2014]{{Dead link|date=November 2019|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

====Pan-European groups====

A 2016 report based on data collected by [[MAVISE]], a free online database on audiovisual services and companies in Europe, highlights the growing number of Pan-European media companies in the field of [[broadcasting]] and divides them into different categories: multi‐country media groups, controlling "channels that play an important role in various national markets (for example [[Modern Times Group]], [[Central European Media Enterprises|CME]], [[RTL Group|RTL]], a Luxembourg-based media group operating in 10 countries,<ref>[http://www.rtlgroup.com/en/about_us/the_group/profile.cfm Rtlgroup - About Us]</ref> and [[Sanoma]]). These groups generally control a high market share in the countries in which they operate, and have gradually emerged through the acquisition of existing channels or by establishing new companies in countries in which they were not already present.<ref name=Mavise>{{cite book |title= Media ownership: towards Pan-European groups? |url=http://www.obs.coe.int/documents/205595/264629/Media+ownership+towards+pan-European+groups/418385fa-cf0e-4c12-b233-29476177d863 |publisher=MAVISE }}</ref> The four groups RTL Group, CME, Modern Times Group and Sanoma are major players (in the top 4 regarding audience share) in 19 European countries (RTL Group, CME and Modern Times Group are major players in 17 countries).<ref name=Mavise/> Pan‐European broadcasters operate with a unique identity and well recognized brands across Europe. Most of them are based in the United States and have progressively expanded their activities in the European market. In many cases, these groups evolved from being content creators to also deliver such contents through channels renamed after the original brands.

Examples of such pan-European groups include [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], [[Paramount Global]], and [[The Walt Disney Company]],<ref name="Mavise" /> pan‐European distribution groups (cable and satellite operators), companies that operate at the European level in the distribution sector via cable, satellite or [[IPTV]]. The emergence of major actors operating in this field has been made possible mainly thanks to the process of [[digital transformation|digitalization]] and benefit of specific [[economies of scale]].<ref name="Mavise" />

====EU Member States====
=====Czech Republic=====
In the [[Czech Republic]] about 80% of the newspapers and magazines were owned by German and Swiss corporations in 2007,<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/registre/docs_autres_institutions/commission_europeenne/sec/2007/0032/COM_SEC(2007)0032_EN.pdf Commission of the European Communities, Commission staff working document - Media pluralism in the Member States of the European Union, Brussels, 16.1.2007 SEC(2007) 0032, p.9]</ref> as the two main press groups [[Vltava Labe Media]] and [[Mafra (company)|Mafra]] were (completely or partly) controlled by the German group [[Rheinisch-Bergische Druckerei- und Verlagsgesellschaft]] (Mediengruppe [[Rheinische Post]]), but were both later purchased by Czech-owned conglomerates [[Penta Investments]] and [[Agrofert]] in 2015 and 2013 respectively. Several major media previously owned by Swiss company [[Ringier]] became Czech-owned through their acquisition by the [[Czech News Center]] in 2013.
* [[Vltava Labe Media]], a subsidiary of [[Penta Investments]], that owns the tabloids ''ŠÍP'' and ''ŠÍP EXTRA'', 73 regional dailies ''Deník'' and other 26 weeklies<ref>[http://www.vlp.cz/en/titles-published/weeklies.html "Independent periodicals", Website of VLTAVA-LABE PRESS a.s.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206222142/http://www.vlp.cz/en/titles-published/weeklies.html |date=February 6, 2010 }}:
''CV Týden'', ''Tachovská Jiskra'', ''Týdeník Domažlicko'', ''Týdeník Chebsko'', ''Týdeník Karlovarska'', ''Týdeník Klatovska'', ''Týdeník Sokolovska'', ''Týdeník Vysočina'', ''Týden u nás'', ''Vyškovské noviny'', ''Nový život'', ''Slovácko'', ''Znojemské noviny'', ''Týdeník Ostrava'', ''Region – Bruntálský'', ''Region – Krnovské noviny'', ''Region – Opavský a Hlučínský'', ''Region – Karvinsko'', ''Region – Havířsko'', ''Region – Týdeník okresu Nový Jičín'', ''Region – Frýdecko-Místecko'', ''Prostějovský týden'', ''Nové Přerovské'', ''Hranický týden'', ''Moravský sever'', ''Slovácké noviny plus''</ref><ref>[http://www.vlp.cz/en/titles-published/titles-published.html Company structure on VLTAVA-LABE-PRESS's website] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100207004811/http://www.vlp.cz/en/titles-published/titles-published.html |date=February 7, 2010 }}</ref> and that is major [[shareholder]] of publishing houses ''Astrosat'' and ''Melinor''<ref>{{langx|cs|[http://www.vlp.cz/o-vlp/o-firme.html Website of VLTAVA-LABE PRESS a.s., "About us"]}}</ref><ref>{{langx|cs|[http://is.muni.cz/th/181996/fss_b/Bakalarska_prace.txt Město Brno pohledem lidí z různých oborů BA thesis by Michal Kárný]}}</ref> and 100% owner of ''Metropol''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rocenkaunievydavatelu.cz/2007/index.php?akce=det&detail=1833 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017142532/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3AGG16jn4mT3MJ%3Awww.rocenkaunievydavatelu.cz%2F2007%2Findex.php%3Fakce%3Ddet%26detail%3D1833 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 October 2015 |title=Ročenka Unie vydavatelů 2007 |access-date=9 January 2016 }}</ref> and also partly controls the distribution of all the prints through ''PNS, a.s.''<ref name=PNS>[http://www.alacrastore.com/storecontent/Thomson_M&A/Vltava_Labe_Press_AS_acquires_a_minority_stake_in_Prvni_Novinova_Spolecnost_from_Czech_Republic-1219976040 ''Vltava-Labe-Press AS acquires a minority stake in Prvni Novinova Spolecnost from Czech Republic''] Thomson Financial Mergers & Acquisitions.  08-06-2001</ref> which was previously part of the German ''{{Interlanguage link multi|Verlagsgruppe Passau|de|3=Passauer Neue Presse#Verlagsgruppe Passau}}''<ref>[http://www.vlp.cz/en/ Website of VLTAVA-LABE PRESS a.s.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430113845/http://www.vlp.cz/en/ |date=2009-04-30 }}</ref> (that controls also the German ''Neue Presse Verlags'', the Polish ''Polskapresse'' and the Slovak ''Petit Press'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vgp.de/cms_en.php?i=11|title=Verlagsgruppe Passau|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref>
* [[Mafra (company)|Mafra]], a subsidiary of [[Kaprain Chemical]] (that owns the centre-right dailies ''[[Mladá fronta DNES|Dnes]]'', ''[[Lidové noviny]]'',<ref>[http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/11577 The Czech media landscape - print media] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325070306/http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/11577 |date=2011-03-25 }}</ref> the local edition of the [[Free daily newspaper|freesheet]] ''[[Metro International|Metro]]'', the periodical ''14dní'', several monthly magazines, the TV [[music channel]] ''[[Óčko]]'', the [[Radio Network|radio stations]] ''Expresradio'' and ''Rádio Classic FM'', several web portals<ref>[http://www.mafra.cz/cs/mafra-tiskove-zpravy.asp?y=mafra_all%5Ccs_produkty-a-sluzby_mlada-fronta-dnes.htm Web page of MAFRA]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rocenkaunievydavatelu.cz/2008/index.php?akce=det&detail=15080|title=Ročenka Unie vydavatelů 2008|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref> and partly controls, together with ''Vltava-Labe-Press'' and ''Czech News Center'', the distribution company ''PNS'')<ref name=PNS/> was previously owned by [[Agrofert]], prior to its acquisition by Cyprus-registered Kaprain.
* [[Czech News Center]] controls 16 Czech daily [[Tabloid (newspaper format)|tabloids]] and weeklies (such as ''24 hodin'', ''Abc'', ''Aha!'', ''[[Blesk]]'', ''Blesk TV Magazin'', ''Blesk pro ženy'', ''Blesk Hobby'', ''Blesk Zdravi'', ''Nedělní Blesk'', ''Nedělní Sport'', ''Reflex'', ''Sport'', ''Sport Magazin'') as well as 7 [[web portal]]s, reaching approximately 3.2 million readers.

[[Czech government]]s have defended foreign newspaper ownership as a manifestation of the principle of the [[free movement of capital]].<ref name=bbc>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/europe/4068647.stm|title=The press in the Czech Republic|work=[[BBC News]] |date=December 10, 2005|access-date=2008-12-13}}</ref>

The weekly ''[[Respekt]]'' is published by ''Respekt Media''. The national television market is dominated by four terrestrial stations, two public ([[ČT1|Czech TV1]] and [[ČT2|Czech TV2]]) and two private ([[Nova (Czech TV)|NOVA TV]] and [[TV Prima|Prima TV]]), which draw 95% of audience share.<ref>[http://www.eui.eu/RSCAS/Research/GEMI/Report.shtml Pre-workshop Report, Robert Schumann centre for Advanced Studies] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929161845/http://www.eui.eu/RSCAS/Research/GEMI/Report.shtml |date=September 29, 2011 }}</ref> Concerning the diversity of output, this is limited by a series of factors: the average low level of professional education among Czech journalists is compensated by "informal professionalization", leading to a degree of conformity in approaches;<ref name=eurozine>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2009-03-20-volek-en.html|title=Eurozine - The market takes all - Jaromír Volek Czech Republic: Playing the game of media trumps|access-date=9 January 2016|date=2009-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105090609/http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2009-03-20-volek-en.html|archive-date=5 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> political parties hold strong ties in Czech media, especially print, where more than 50% of Czech journalists identify with the Right, while only 16% express sympathy for the Left;<ref name=eurozine/> and the process of commercialization and "[[Tabloid journalism|tabloidization]]" has increased, lowering differentiation of content in Czech print media.<ref name=eurozine/>

=====Germany=====
[[Axel Springer AG]] is one of the largest newspaper publishing companies in Europe, claiming to have over 150 newspapers and magazines in over 30 countries in Europe. In the 1960s and 1970s the company's media followed an aggressive conservative policy (see [[Springerpresse]]). It publishes Germany's only nationwide tabloid, ''[[Bild]]'', and one of Germany's most important broadsheets, ''[[Die Welt]]''. Axel Springer also owns a number of regional newspapers, especially in [[Saxony]] and in the [[Hamburg Metropolitan Region]], giving the company a de facto monopoly in the latter case. An attempt to buy one of Germany's two major private TV Groups, [[ProSiebenSat.1]], in 2006, was withdrawn due to large concerns by regulation authorities as well as by parts of the public. The company is also active in Hungary, where it is the biggest publisher of regional newspapers, and in Poland, where it owns the best-selling tabloid ''[[Fakt]]'', one of the nation's most important broadsheets, ''[[Dziennik]]'', and is one of the biggest shareholder in the second-ranked private TV company, [[Polsat]].

[[Bertelsmann]] is one of the world's largest media companies. It owns [[RTL Group]], which is one of the two major private TV companies in both Germany and the Netherlands and also owning assets in Belgium, France, UK, Spain, Czech and Hungary. Bertelsmann also owns [[Gruner + Jahr]], Germany's biggest popular magazine publisher, including popular news magazine [[Stern (magazine)|''Stern'']] and a 26% share in investigative news magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]''. Bertelsmann also owns [[Random House]], a book publisher, ranked first in the [[English-speaking world]] and second in Germany.

=====Greece=====
{{excerpt|Mass media in Greece|Media ownership concentration}}
=====Ireland=====
In Ireland, the company [[Independent News & Media]] owns many national newspapers: the ''[[Evening Herald]]'', ''[[Irish Independent]]'', ''[[Sunday Independent (Ireland)|Sunday Independent]]'', ''[[Sunday World]]'' and ''[[Irish Daily Star]]''. It also owns 29.9% of the ''[[Sunday Tribune]]''. Broadcast media is divided between state owned [[RTÉ]], which operates several radio stations and television channels and started digital radio and television services in the early 2010s, [[TG4]], an Irish language broadcaster, and [[TV3 (Ireland)|TV3]], a commercial television operator. [[Denis O'Brien]] an Irish billionaire with a fortune partly accumulated through the [[Esat Digifone licence controversy]], formed Communicorp Group Ltd in 1989, with the company currently owning 42 radio stations in 8 European countries, including Ireland's [[Newstalk]], [[Today FM]], [[Dublin's 98FM]], [[SPIN 1038]] and [[SPIN South West]]. In January 2006, O'Brien took a stake in Tony O'Reilly's Independent News & Media (IN&M). As of May 2012, he holds a 29.9% stake in the company, making him the largest shareholder; the O'Reilly family's stake is around 13%.

=====Italy=====
{{Further|Silvio Berlusconi#Media control and conflict of interest}}
[[Silvio Berlusconi]], the former [[Prime Minister of Italy]], is the major shareholder of – by far – Italy's biggest (and [[de facto]] only) private free TV company, [[Mediaset]]; Italy's biggest publisher, [[Mondadori]]; and Italy's biggest advertising company, {{Interlanguage link multi|Publitalia|it|3=Publitalia '80}}. One of Italy's nationwide dailies, ''[[Il Giornale]]'', is owned by his brother, [[Paolo Berlusconi]], and another, ''[[Il Foglio]]'', by his former wife, [[Veronica Lario]]. Berlusconi has often been criticized for using the media assets he owns to advance his political career.
=====Latvia=====
{{excerpt|Mass media in Latvia|Media ownership}}

=====Romania=====
{{excerpt|Mass media in Romania|Concentration and pluralism}}
====Belarus====
{{excerpt|Mass media in Belarus|Legislative framework and regulatory authorities|paragraphs=1}}

====Slovenia====
{{excerpt|Mass media in Slovenia|Concentration and pluralism}}
====United Kingdom====
In Britain and Ireland, [[Rupert Murdoch]] owns best-selling tabloid  ''[[The Sun (United Kingdom)|The Sun]]'' as well as the broadsheet ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[Sunday Times]]'', in addition having also owned 39% of satellite broadcasting network [[BSkyB]]. In March 2011, the United Kingdom provisionally approved Murdoch to buy the remaining 61% of BSkyB;<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12631875 | work=[[BBC News]] | title=Rupert Murdoch BSkyB takeover gets government go-ahead | date=2011-03-03}}</ref> however, subsequent events (''[[News of the World]]'' hacking scandal and its closure in July 2011) leading to the [[Leveson Inquiry]] have halted this takeover. In 2019, despite the British government granting formal permission for a new take over of Sky (conditional on the divestiture of Sky News), Fox were outbid by American conglomerate Comcast.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rajan|first=Amol|date=2018-09-24|title=Why Comcast wanted Sky so badly|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-45634303|access-date=2020-08-22}}</ref>

[[Reach PLC|Reach]] own five major national titles, the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'', ''[[Sunday Mirror]]'' and ''[[The Sunday People]]'', and the Scottish ''[[Sunday Mail (Scotland)|Sunday Mail]]'' and ''[[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]]'' as well as over 100 regional newspapers. They claim to have a monthly digital reach of 73 million people. They also own  ''[[OK! magazine]]'', the ''[[Daily Express]]'', and the ''[[Daily Star (United Kingdom)|Daily Star]]'' 

after they were acquired by Reach from Richard Desmond [[Daily Mail and General Trust]] (DMGT) own the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' and ''[[The Mail on Sunday]]'', ''[[Ireland on Sunday]]'', and free London daily ''[[Metro (Associated Metro Limited)|Metro]]'', and control a large proportion of regional media, including through subsidiary [[Northcliffe Media]], in addition to large shares in [[ITN]] and formerly [[GCap Media]] before it became [[Global Media & Entertainment|Global Radio]].

''[[The Guardian]]'' is owned by Guardian Media Group.

[[Richard Desmond]] used to own ''[[OK! magazine]]'', the ''[[Daily Express]]'', and the ''[[Daily Star (United Kingdom)|Daily Star]]''. They were sold to [[Reach plc]] in 2018. He used to own [[Channel 5 (UK)|Channel 5]]; on 1 May 2014 the channel was acquired by [[Viacom (2005–present)|Viacom]] for £450 million (US$759 million).[https://web.archive.org/web/20140504012436/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/viacom-to-buy-channel-5-in-450m-deal-9311094.html]

The ''[[Evening Standard]]''<ref>{{cite news|last=Brook|first=Stephen|author2=Sweney, Mark|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/jan/21/alexander-lebedev-london-evening-standard1|title=Alexander Lebedev's Evening Standard takeover: Dacre announces sale to staff|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2009-01-21|access-date=2009-01-21|location=London}}</ref> and former print publication ''[[The Independent]]''<ref name="BBC2">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8587469.stm|title=The Independent bought by Lebedev for £1|work=[[BBC News]] |date=2010-03-25|access-date=2010-03-25}}</ref> are both partly owned by British-Russian media boss [[Evgeny Lebedev]].

[[BBC News]] produces news for its [[BBC Television|television channels]] and [[BBC Radio|radio stations]].

[[Independent Television News]] produces news for [[ITV (TV channel)|ITV]], [[Channel 4]] and [[Channel 5 (UK)|Channel 5]].

[[Independent Radio News]], which has a contract with [[Sky News]], produces news for the most popular [[Radio in the United Kingdom#Commercial radio|commercial radio stations]]. However this has changed somewhat since the mid 2010s as many of the most popular commercial stations are owned by [[Global Media & Entertainment|Global]] who produce their own news service, most notably for [[LBC]] and [[LBC News]] but also for [[Capital (radio network)|Capital FM]], [[Heart (radio network)|Heart]], [[Smooth Radio (2014)|Smooth]], [[Gold (British radio network)|Gold]], [[Radio X (United Kingdom)|Radio X]], [[Capital Xtra]], [[Classic FM (UK)|Classic FM]] and others. National and local radio station ownership is dominated by the aforementioned [[Global Media & Entertainment]] as well as [[Bauer Media Audio UK|Bauer Media]], [[News Broadcasting]] and the UK's only public service radio broadcaster the [[BBC]]

===India===
{{See also|Media of India}}
In India a few political parties also own media organizations, for example the proprietors of [[Kalaignar TV]] are close aides of Tamil Nadu's former Chief Minister [[M. Karunanidhi]]. So is also the case with [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]. SRM university owner Pachamuthu, a member of Parliament, has stakes in Pudhiyathalaimurai News Channel. AMMK General Secretary TTV Dinakaran, MLA's close aides run Jaya TV. 
[[Sakshi TV]] a Telugu channel in Andhra Pradesh is owned by ex-chief minister's son and family.

===Israel===
In Israel, [[Arnon Mozes]] owns the most widespread Hebrew newspaper, [[Yediot Aharonot]], the most widespread Russian newspaper [[Vesti (Israeli newspaper)|Vesty]], the most popular Hebrew news website [[Ynet]], and 17% of the cable TV firm [[Hot (Israel)|HOT]]. Moreover, Mozes owns the Reshet TV firm, which is one of the two operators of the most popular channel in Israel, Channel 2.<ref>
{{Citation | last = Verter | first = Yossi | title = Israel election's biggest battle being fought by newspaper tycoons | publisher = Haaretz | date = Feb 10, 2015 | url = http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-election-2015/.premium-1.641786#! | access-date = October 19, 2015}}</ref>

=== Mexico ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2010}}
In Mexico there are only two national broadcast television service companies, [[Televisa]] and [[Azteca (multimedia company)|Azteca]]. These two broadcasters together administer 434 of the 461 total commercial television stations in the country (94.14%).<ref>[http://periodistas.scyma.info/?q=node/7 Permisos y concesiones de televisión en México] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824074757/http://periodistas.scyma.info/?q=node%2F7 |date=2011-08-24 }}</ref>

Though concern about the existence of a duopoly had been around for some time, a press uproar sparked in 2006, when [[Ley Televisa|a controversial reform to the Federal Radio and Television Law]], seriously hampered the entry of new competitors, like [[Cadena Tres]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://americasquarterly.org/content/telecommunications-mexicos-new-reform|title=Telecommunications: Mexico's New Reform {{!}} Americas Quarterly|last=Howard|first=Caroline|date=December 12, 2016|website=americasquarterly.org|access-date=2016-12-12}}</ref>

Televisa also owns subscription TV enterprises {{Interlanguage link multi|Cablevision (Mexico)|es|3=Cablevisión (México)}} and [[SKY México|SKY]], a publishing company {{Interlanguage link multi|Editorial Televisa|es}}, and the [[Televisa Radio]] broadcast radio network, creating a de facto media monopoly in many regions of the country.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

===United States===
{{main|Media cross-ownership in the United States}}

==== Recent media mergers in the United States ====
An infographic created by Jason at Frugal Dad states that in 1983, 90% of US media was controlled by 50 companies, and that in 2011, 90% was controlled by just 6 companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/these-6-corporations-control-90-of-the-media-in-america-2012-6?IR=T|title=These 6 Corporations Control 90% Of The Media In America|first=Ashley|last=Lutz|date=14 June 2012|work=Business Insider|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Frugal Dad |first=Jason |date=22 November 2011 |title=Media Consolidation: The Illusion of Choice (Infographic) |url=http://frugaldad.com/2011/11/22/media-consolidation-infographic/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123042442/http://frugaldad.com/2011/11/22/media-consolidation-infographic/ |archive-date=23 November 2011 |website=frugaldad.com}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=the originally referenced "Frugal Dad" infographic in Business Insider is now broken; reliability dubious to begin with|date=September 2024}} One of the companies listed, [[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]], was split into two separate companies on June 28, 2013, with publishing assets and Australian media assets going to [[News Corp (2013–present)|News Corp]] and broadcasting and media assets going to [[21st Century Fox]].<ref name=bbc-splitofficial>{{cite news|title=News Corp officially splits in two|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23104822|newspaper=[[BBC News]] |access-date=June 29, 2013|date=2013-06-28}}</ref>

==== Film industry ====
In the United States, movie production has been dominated by major studios since the early 20th century; before that, there was a period in which [[Motion Picture Patents Company|Edison's Trust]] monopolized the industry. The music and television industries recently witnessed cases of media consolidation, with [[Sony Music Entertainment]]'s parent company merging their music division with Bertelsmann AG's [[Bertelsmann Music Group|BMG]] to form [[Sony BMG]] and Tribune's [[The WB]] and CBS Corp.'s [[UPN]] merging to form [[The CW]]. In the case of Sony BMG, there existed a "Big Five" (now "[[Big Four record labels|Big Four]]") of major [[record company|record companies]], while The CW's creation was an attempt to consolidate ratings and stand up to the "Big Four" of American [[network television|network (terrestrial) television]] (this despite the fact that the CW was, in fact, partially owned by one of the Big Four in CBS). In television, the vast majority of broadcast and basic cable networks, over a hundred in all, are controlled by seven corporations: [[Fox Corporation]], [[The Walt Disney Company]] (which includes the ABC, ESPN, FX and Disney brands), [[National Amusements]] (which owns [[Paramount Global]]), [[Comcast]] (which owns [[NBCUniversal]]), [[Warner Bros. Discovery]], the [[E. W. Scripps Company]], [[Cablevision]] (now known as [[Altice USA]]), or some combination thereof.<ref>{{cite web|last=Steiner|first=Tobias|title=Under the Macroscope: Convergence in the US Television Market between 2000 and 2014|url=https://www.academia.edu/2017902|work=academia.edu|access-date=4 Aug 2015}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

There may also be some large-scale owners in an industry that are not the causes of monopoly or oligopoly. [[iHeartMedia]] (formerly Clear Channel Communications), especially since the [[Telecommunications Act of 1996]], acquired many [[radio station]]s across the United States, and came to own more than 1,200 stations. However, the radio broadcasting industry in the United States and elsewhere can be regarded as oligopolistic regardless of the existence of such a player. Because radio stations are local in reach, each licensing a specific part of spectrum from the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] in a specific local area, any local market is served by a limited number of stations. In most countries, this system of licensing makes many [[market (economics)|markets]] local oligopolies. The similar market structure exists for television broadcasting, cable systems and newspaper industries, all of which are characterized by the existence of large-scale owners. Concentration of ownership is often found in these industries.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==== Effect of ownership on coverage ====
In a 2020 article, Herzog and Scerbinina argued that CNN's coverage in 2017 of a potential merger between its parent company Time Warner and AT&T was "self-centered, self-promoting, and self-legitimizing."<ref name="HerzogScerbinina">{{cite journal|last1=Herzog|first1=C|last2=Scerbinina|first2=A|title='Self-centered, self-promoting, and self-legitimizing': CNN's portrayal of media ownership concentration in the US|journal=Atlantic Journal of Communication|date=2020|volume=29|issue=5|pages=328–344|doi=10.1080/15456870.2020.1779725|s2cid=225628947}}</ref>

=== Venezuela ===
About 70% of Venezuelan TV and radio stations are privately owned, while only about 5% or less of these stations are currently state-owned. The remaining stations are mostly community owned. [[Venezolana de Televisión|VTV]] was the only state TV channel in Venezuela only about a decade ago. For the last decade, through the present day, the Venezuelan government operates and owns five more stations.<ref name="Howard">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-19368807|title=In depth: Media in Venezuela|last=Howard|first=Caroline|date=2012-10-03|newspaper=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB|access-date=2016-12-12}}</ref>

Commercial outlets completely rule over the radio sector. However, the Venezuelan government funds a good number of radio shows and TV stations. The primary newspapers of Venezuela are private companies that are frequently condemning of their government. These newspapers being produced in Venezuela do not have a large following.<ref name="Howard"/>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Agenda-setting theory]]
* [[Alternative media]]
* [[Big Three television networks]]
* [[Deregulation]]
* [[Democratic backsliding]]
* [[Dispersal of ownership]]
* [[Gleichschaltung]]
* [[Lists of corporate assets]]
* [[Local News Service]]
* [[Media cross-ownership in the United States]]
* [[Media democracy]]
* [[Media imperialism]]
* [[Media transparency]]
* [[Monopolies of knowledge]]
* [[Network neutrality]]
* [[Old media]]
* [[Partido da Imprensa Golpista]]
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Prometheus Radio Project]]
* [[Propaganda model]]
* [[Retail concentration]]
* [[State controlled media]]
* [[Transparency of media ownership in Europe]]
{{div col end}}

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018
| author =
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 202
| source =
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B0D29C5_0_12&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license =
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==Bibliography==
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* {{cite book|author=Steven, Peter|title=The No-nonsense Guide to Global Media|publisher=Verso|year=2004|isbn=978-1-85984-581-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYPPfpIBWGsC}}
{{Refbegin|33em}}
* Amelia Arsenault & Manuel Castells (2008) [http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/298 The Structure and Dynamics of Global Multi-Media Business Networks]. ''International Journal of Communication''.
* {{cite book|author=Bagdikian, Benjamin H.|title=The new media monopoly|publisher=Beacon Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8070-6187-9|url=https://archive.org/details/newmediamonopoly0000bagd|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|author=Baker, C. Edwin|title=Media concentration and democracy: why ownership matters|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-86832-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxA1Cc8pB3UC}}
* {{cite book|author1=Compaine, Benjamin M.  |author2=Gomery, Douglas|title=Who owns the media?: competition and concentration in the mass media industry|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8058-2936-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYjCBQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|author=Croteau, David |author2=Hoynes, William|title=The business of media: corporate media and the public interest|publisher=Pine Forge Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4129-1315-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1GYiTi2vgAC}}
* {{cite book|author=Dwyer, Tim|title=Media Convergence|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|year=2010|isbn=978-0-335-22873-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rbovMF7_Ft8C}}
* {{cite book|editor=Harper, Joe |editor2=Yantek, Thom|title=Media, profit, and politics: competing priorities in an open society|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87338-754-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Ztc4DZxqwwC}}
* {{cite book|editor=Hassan, Robert |editor2=Thomas, Julian|title=The new media theory reader|publisher=McGraw-Hill International|year=2006|isbn=978-0-335-21710-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sFfOKVf2l7UC}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Herman|first1=Edward S.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47971712|title=Manufacturing consent : the political economy of the mass media|last2=Chomsky|first2=Noam|date=2002|others=(Updated version of the 1988 original)|isbn=0-375-71449-9|edition=|location=New York|oclc=47971712}}
* {{cite book|author=McChesney, Robert W.|title=Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy|publisher=Seven Stories Press|year=1997|isbn=978-1-888363-47-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Noam, Eli M.|title=Media ownership and concentration in America|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-518852-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd_1STqyGFcC}}
* {{cite book|editor=Skinner, David |display-editors=etal |title=Converging media, diverging politics: a political economy of news media in the United States and Canada|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7391-1306-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mCNXFPLsCkC}}
* {{cite book |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/media-convergence/ |title=Media convergence |publisher=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |access-date=2011-05-02}}
{{Refend}}

{{Media culture}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Concentration of media ownership}}
[[Category:Concentration of media ownership| ]]
[[Category:Anti-corporate activism|Big media]]
[[Category:Imperfect competition]]
[[Category:Media bias]]