View source for Colonial India

{{Short description|Period of Indian history characterized by European colonial rule}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Colonial India}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Conflicts in Colonial India
| place             = [[Indian Subcontinent]]
| combatant1        = '''(Pre 1857) :'''
[[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|23px]] [[Company rule in India|British India]]<br> {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}}  [[French India]]<br>[[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|23px]] [[Dutch India]]<br>[[File:Danish Colonial Merchant Ensign India.png|23px]] [[Danish India]]<br>[[File:Flag of Portugal (1830–1910).svg|23px]] [[Portuguese India]]<hr>'''(Post 1857) :'''<br>
{{flagicon|British Raj}} [[British India]]<br>[[File:Flag of France.svg|23px]] [[French India]]<br> [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] [[Portuguese India]]<hr>'''(Post 1947):'''<br> [[File:Flag of France.svg|23px]] [[French India]]<br>[[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] [[Portuguese India]]
| combatant2        = '''(Pre 1857) :'''
[[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Maratha Empire]]<br>[[File:Flag of Awadh.svg|23px]] [[Oudh State|Oudh]]<br> {{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Mughal Empire]]<br> {{flagicon image|Sikh Empire flag.svg}} [[Sikh Empire]]<br> {{flagicon image|Flag of Mysore Hyder Ali & TipuSultan.png}} [[Mysore State|Mysore]]<br> {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag.svg}} [[Nawab of Bengal|Bengal]]<br>[[File:Former Travancore flag-Martanda Varma.png|23px]] [[Travancore]]<br> [[File:Flag of the Princely State of Jhansi.svg|23px]] [[Jhansi State]]<br> [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|23px]] [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Rebel sepoy mutineers in 1857]]<br>Various smaller kingdoms and tribes<hr>'''(Post 1857) :'''<br>
{{flagicon|India|1931}} [[Azad Hind]]<br>[[File:Ghadar Flag.png|23px]] [[Ghadar movement|Ghadar Party]]<br>{{flagicon|India|1931}} [[List of Indian independence activists|Indian Nationalists]]<br>Various Peasant and Tribal militias<br>'''Supported by:'''
[[File:Flag of Germany (1935–1945).svg|23px]] [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
* [[Indian Legion]]
{{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] 
* [[File:INA Insignia.svg|23px]] [[Indian National Army]]
[[File:Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg|23px]] [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]
* [[Battaglione Azad Hindoustan]]<hr>'''(Post 1947):'''<br>{{flagdeco|India}} [[India]]<br>'''Supported by:'''<br>[[Annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli|Pro-India Goan Nationalist and Communist groups]]
* [[Azad Gomantak Dal]]
* [[Goan People's Party]]
* United Front of Goans
* National Liberation Movement Organization<br> {{flagicon image|CPI-banner.svg}} [[Communist Party of India]]<br>[[File:Flag of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.svg|23px]] [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism in India: Ideological corollaries
|quote=The RSS people also participated in 1954 in the liberation struggle of Nagar Haveli enclave from Portugal|page=130|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications}}</ref>
| commander1        = '''Prominent leaders (Pre 1857) :'''
* {{flagicon image|British East India Company flag.png}} [[Josiah Child]]{{Surrendered}}
* [[File:Flag of Great Britain.svg|23px]] [[Robert Clive]] ([[Suicide]])
* [[File:Flag of Great Britain.svg|23px]] [[Warren Hastings]] 
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg}}   [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wellesley]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg}} [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]]
* [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|23px]] [[Lord Dalhousie]]
* [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|23px]] [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Lord Canning]]
* {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}}  [[Joseph François Dupleix|Joseph Dupleix]]
* [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|23px]] [[Eustachius De Lannoy]] {{Surrendered}} {{POW}}
* [[File:Danish Colonial Merchant Ensign India.png|23px]] [[Willem Leyel]]
* [[File:Flag of Portugal (1495).svg|23px]] [[Francisco de Almeida]] {{KIA}}
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Portugal|1667}} [[Francisco de Távora|Count of Alvor]]
* {{flagicon|Portugal|1707}} João de Saldanha da Gama<hr>'''(Post 1857):'''
{{flagicon|British Raj}} [[Lord Linlithgow]]<br> {{flagicon|British Raj}} [[Lord Wavell]]<br> [[File:Flag of France.svg|23px]] [[Louis Alexis Étienne Bonvin]]<br> [[File:Flag of France.svg|23px]] François Baron<br> [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] [[José Ricardo Pereira Cabral]]<br> [[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] [[Manuel António Vassalo e Silva]]<hr>'''(Post 1947):'''<br>[[File:Flag of France.svg|23px]] [[André Ménard]]<br>[[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] [[Manuel António Vassalo e Silva]] {{Surrendered}}<br>[[File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg|23px]] Captain Virgílio Fidalgo {{Surrendered}}
| commander2        = '''Prominent leaders (Pre 1857) :'''
* [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Sambhaji]] {{Executed}}
* [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Bajirao I]]
* [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Madhav Rao II]] ([[Suicide]])
* [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Nana Sahib]]
* [[File:Flag of the Maratha Empire.svg|23px]] [[Tatya Tope]] {{Executed}}
* [[File:Flag of Awadh.svg|23px]] [[Begum Hazrat Mahal]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Mughal Empire.png}} [[Aurangzeb]] {{Natural Causes}}
* {{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}}  [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]] {{POW}}
* {{flagicon image|Captured flag of the Mughal Empire (1857).png}} [[Bakht Khan]] {{KIA}}
* {{flagicon image|Sikh Empire flag.svg}} [[Jind Kaur]] 
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Mysore Hyder Ali & TipuSultan.png}} [[Tipu Sultan]] {{KIA}}
* {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag.svg}} [[Siraj Ud-Daulah]] {{Executed}}
* [[File:Former Travancore flag-Martanda Varma.png|23px]] [[Marthanda Varma]] 
* [[File:Flag of the Princely State of Jhansi.svg|23px]][[Rani of Jhansi|Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi]] {{KIA}}<br> [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|23px]] Unknown<hr>'''(Post 1857):'''
{{flagicon|India|1931}} [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]<br>[[File:Ghadar Flag.png|23px]] [[Lala Har Dayal]]<br>{{flagicon|India|1931}} Various Indian Nationalists and Peasant-Tribal leaders<br>'''Supported by:'''<br>
[[File:Flag of Germany (1935–1945).svg|23px]] [[Adolf Hitler]]<br>{{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Hirohito]]<br>[[File:Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg|23px]] [[Benito Mussolini]]<hr>'''(Post 1947):'''<br>{{flagdeco|India}} [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]<br>'''Supported by:'''<br>Francis Mascarenhas<br> {{flagicon image|CPI-banner.svg}}  [[Comrade|Com]]. L.B. Dhangar<br> [[File:Flag of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.svg|23px]] Raja Wakankar<br> [[File:Flag of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh.svg|23px]] Nana Kajrekar<br>[[Prabhakar Sinari]]
| result            = [[Independence of India]]
* End of [[British Raj|British rule]] after 1947
* Eventual end of the [[Dutch India|Dutch]] and [[Danish India|Danish]] rule before 1947
* [[French India|French territories]] ceded to [[India]] after 1947
* [[Annexation of Goa|End of Portuguese rule]] in 1961
| date              = {{circa}}1498-1961
| image             = Meeting between Vasco da Gama & Samoothiri (Zamorin) in Calicut.jpg
| caption           = A sketch depicting the meeting between the Portuguese explorer, [[Vasco da Gama]] and the [[Zamorin]] of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], marking the advent of European colonialism in India
| image_size        = 350px
| partof            = Age of Imperialism
| territory         = * [[Government of India Act, 1858|Eventual end of all of the sovereign Empires, Kingdoms and States]] after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] 
* [[Partition of India]] (Post-1947)
}}
{{History of South Asia}}'''Colonial India''' was the part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] that was occupied by European colonial powers during and after the [[Age of Discovery]]. European power was exerted both by conquest and trade, especially in [[spice trade|spices]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Corn |first=Charles |date=1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha |pages=xxi–xxii |isbn=978-1-56836-202-1 |quote=The ultimate goal of the Portuguese, as with the nations that followed them, was to reach the source of the fabled holy trinity of spices ... while seizing the vital centers of international trade routes, thus destroying the long-standing Muslim control of the spice trade. European colonisation of Asia was ancillary to this purpose. |url=https://archive.org/details/scentsofedenna00corn |url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Donkin |first=Robin A. |author-link=Robin Donkin |year=2003 |title=Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans |publisher=Diane Publishing Company |pages=xvii–xviii |isbn=978-0-87169-248-1 |quote=What drove men to such extraordinary feats ... gold and silver in easy abundance ... and, perhaps more especially, merchandise that was altogether unavailable in Europe—strange jewels, orient pearls, rich textiles, and animal and vegetable products of equatorial provenance ... The ultimate goal was to obtain supplies of spices at source and then to meet demand from whatever quarter.}}</ref> The search for the wealth and prosperity of India led to the colonisation of the Americas after [[Christopher Columbus]] went to the Americas in 1492. Only a few years later, near the end of the 15th century, Portuguese sailor [[Vasco da Gama]] became the first European to re-establish direct trade links with India by being the first to arrive by circumnavigating Africa ({{Circa|1497–1499}}). Having arrived in [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]], which by then was one of the major trading ports of the eastern world,<ref>{{cite magazine | date=20 August 2001 | title = The Land That Lost Its History | url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/journey2001/india.html | magazine=Time | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913013711/http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/journey2001/india.html |archive-date=13 September 2001}}</ref> he obtained permission to trade in the city from the [[Saamoothiri|Saamoothiris (Zamorins)]]. The next to arrive [[Dutch India|were the Dutch]], with their main base in [[Ceylon]]. Their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] to the [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]], during the [[Travancore–Dutch War]] on the hands of [[Marthanda Varma]].

Trading rivalries among the seafaring European powers brought other coastal powers from the empires of Europe to India. The [[Dutch Republic]], [[English colonial empire|England]], France, and [[Denmark–Norway]] all established trading posts in India in the early 17th century. As the [[Mughal Empire]] disintegrated in the early 18th century, and then as the [[Maratha Empire]] became weakened after the [[third battle of Panipat]], many relatively weak and unstable Indian states which emerged were increasingly open to manipulation by the Europeans, through dependent Indian rulers.

In the later 18th century, Great Britain and France struggled for dominance, partly through proxy Indian rulers but also by direct military intervention. The defeat of the formidable Indian ruler [[Tipu Sultan]] in 1799 marginalised the French influence. This was followed by a rapid expansion of British power through the greater part of the Indian subcontinent in the early 19th century. By the middle of the century, the British had already gained direct or indirect control over almost all parts of India. [[British India]], consisting of the [[British Raj|directly ruled British presidencies and provinces]], contained the most populous and valuable parts of the [[British Empire]] and thus became known as "the jewel in the British crown".

India, during its colonial era, was a founding member of the [[League of Nations]], a participating nation in the [[India at the Olympics|Summer Olympics]] in [[India at the 1900 Summer Olympics|1900]], [[India at the 1920 Summer Olympics|1920]], [[India at the 1928 Summer Olympics|1928]], [[India at the 1932 Summer Olympics|1932]], and [[India at the 1936 Summer Olympics|1936]], and a [[Member states of the United Nations|founding member]] of the United Nations in [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|San Francisco in 1945]].<ref name="mansergh-UN-SanFrancisco">{{citation|last=Mansergh|first=Nicholas|author-link=Nicholas Mansergh|title=Constitutional relations between Britain and India|year=1974|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJkOAQAAMAAJ|access-date=19 September 2013|publisher=His Majesty's Stationery Office|location=London|page=xxx|isbn=9780115800160}} Quote: "[[Viceroy's Executive Council|India Executive Council]]: Sir [[Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar]], Sir [[Firoz Khan Noon]] and Sir [[V. T. Krishnamachari]] served as India's delegates to the London Commonwealth Meeting, April 1945, and the U.N. San Francisco Conference on International Organisation, April–June 1945."</ref> In 1947, India [[Indian independence movement|gained its independence]] and was [[partition of India|partitioned]] into the [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]], the latter of which was created as a homeland for [[Islam in India#Partition of India|colonial India's Muslims]].<ref name="Fernandes2014">{{cite book |last1=Fernandes |first1=Leela |title=Routledge Handbook of Gender in South Asia |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-90707-7 |language=en |quote=Partition of colonial India in 1947 – forming two nation-states, India and Pakistan, at the time of its independence from almost two centuries of British rule – was a deeply violent and gendered experience.}}</ref><ref name="TrivediAllen2000">{{cite book |last1=Trivedi |first1=Harish |last2=Allen |first2=Richard |title=Literature and Nation |date=2000 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-21207-6 |language=en |quote=In this introductory section I want to touch briefly on four aspects of this social and historic context for a reading of Sunlight on a Broken Column: the struggle for independence; communalism and the partition of colonial India into independent India and East and West Pakistan; the social structure of India; and the specific situation of women. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/literaturenation1800unse }}</ref><ref name="GortJansenVroom2002">{{cite book |last1=Gort |first1=Jerald D. |last2=Jansen |first2=Henry |last3=Vroom |first3=Hendrik M. |title=Religion, Conflict and Reconciliation: Multifaith Ideals and Realities |date=2002 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-1166-3 |language=en |quote=Partition was intended to create a homeland for Indian Muslims, but this was far from the case; Indian Muslims are not only divided into three separate sections, but the number of Muslims in India--for whom the Muslim homeland was meant--still remains the highest of all three sections.}}</ref>

== Portuguese ==
{{Main|Portuguese India}}
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach [[Calicut]]
(black line) in 1498, which was also the [[Age of Discovery|discovery of a sea route]] from Europe to India, and eventually paved way for the European colonisation of [[Indian subcontinent]].]]
The Portuguese, first arriving by ship in May 1498, began establishing trading outposts in India. 
[[File:Bernardo Peres da Silva in 1835.jpg|thumb|[[Bernardo Peres da Silva]], the only ethnic Indian governor general in Colonial India]] 
The first successful voyage to India was by [[Vasco da Gama]] in 1498, when after sailing around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] he arrived in [[Calicut]], now in [[Kerala]]. Having arrived there, he obtained permission from [[Saamoothiri|Saamoothiri Rajah]] to trade in the city. The navigator was received with traditional hospitality, but an interview with the Saamoothiri (Zamorin) failed to produce any definitive results. Vasco da Gama requested permission to leave a factor behind in charge of the merchandise he could not sell; his request was refused, and the king insisted that Gama should pay customs duty like any other trader, which strained their relations. The ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tanur]], who was a vassal to the [[Zamorin of Calicut]], sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Calicut.<ref name="Malabar">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |date=January 2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-81-264-1588-5 |page=27 |edition=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (''[[Tirur Taluk|Vettathunadu]]'') became one of the earliest Portuguese allies in India. The ruler of [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] also sided with [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]].<ref name="Malabar"/> Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th members were selected from [[Vettom Grama Panchayath|Vettom]].<ref name="Malabar"/> However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [[Battle of Cochin (1504)]].<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book|title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I)|last=Logan|first=William|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2010|isbn=9788120604476|location=New Delhi|pages=631–666}}</ref> However, the allegiance of the [[Mappila]] merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.<ref name="Makhdoom">{{cite book
 | author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
 | title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
 | url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
}}</ref>

[[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed Viceroy of India in 1505. During his reign, the Portuguese dominated Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=J. L. |year=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707–1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA326 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=New Dawn Press |pages=326–327 |isbn=978-1-932705-54-6}}</ref> The Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in [[South Malabar]]; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Calicut admirals known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars were credited with organizing the first naval defence of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |title=Give Indian Navy its due |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |access-date=23 January 2021 |work=[[The Asian Age]] |date=11 February 2017 |type=Opinion}}</ref> ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
 Books [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm]</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Roland E. Miller.
 ''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonise [[Malabar coast]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011"/> In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the [[Kingdom of Tanur#Battles at Chaliyam Fort|battle at Chaliyam Fort]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kurup |first1=K. K. N. |author-link=K. K. N. Kurup |year=1997 |title=India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-81-7211-083-3 |pages=37–38}}</ref>
[[File:Thangassery Fort.jpg|right|thumb|Ruins of the Portuguese built [[St Thomas Fort]] at [[Tangasseri]] in [[Kollam|Kollam city]], est. in 1518]]

Though [[Portugal]]'s presence in India initially started in 1498, their colonial rule lasted from 1505 until 1961.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wars, Proxy-wars and Terrorism: Post Independent India |via=[[Google Books]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC |publication-place=New Delhi, India |first=Peter Wilson |last=Prabhakar |editor1-first=Naurang |editor1-last=Rai |publisher=Mittle Publications |isbn=9788170998907 |year=2003 |edition=1st |chapter=3. Liberation of Goa, Daman and Diu |pages=39–41 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC&pg=PA39 }}</ref> The [[Portuguese Empire]] established the first European trading centre at [[Kollam|Quilon (Kollam)]] in 1502. It is believed that the colonial era in India started with the establishment of this Portuguese trading centre at Quilon.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsin.asia/the-ugly-and-good-side-of-conversions-in-south-asia/ |title=The ugly and good side of conversions in South Asia |publisher=NewsIn Asia |date=10 March 2020 |access-date=10 March 2020}}</ref> In 1505, King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] appointed Dom Francisco de Almeida as the first [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Portuguese viceroy in India]], followed in 1509 by Dom [[Afonso de Albuquerque]]. In 1510, Albuquerque conquered the city of [[Goa]], which had been controlled by [[Muslims]]. He inaugurated the policy of marrying Portuguese men with native women who had converted to Catholicism, the consequence of which was a great [[miscegenation]] in Goa and other Portuguese territories in Asia. The first revolt against the Portuguese was the [[Conspiracy of the Pintos]] in 1787. 
[[File:Coat of Arms of the Pintos April 1770.jpg|thumb|Coat of Arms of the [[Conspiracy of the Pintos|Pintos]], the ethnic [[Goan]] family that had the first anti-colonial revolt in India.]]
For decades after, the Conspiracy was used as a stick to defame and denigrate Goan missionaries and priests in British India by their opponents, the Vicars Apostolic of the Propaganda party, Goans being of the [[Padroado]] party. The incident was used to represent the Goans to the British government and to the Christians in British India as untrustworthy, rebellious and willing to compromise with their own enemies (Tipu Sultan). This became Goa's [[black legend]].

[[Abbé Faria]] teamed up with the revolutionaries of the [[French Revolution]] and participated along with the "juring" clerics in the Revolutionaries' brutal persecution of the Catholic Church in France and elsewhere. Two Pinto  brothers Lt. Col Francisco and Jose Antonio joined the army of the [[Maratha Empire]] under [[Baji Rao II]] and fought against the British in the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] and [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thegoan.net/global-goenkar/goan-colonel-decorated-in-the-maratha-army/91527.html | title=Goan colonel decorated in the Maratha army }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thegoan.net/global-goenkar/noted-goans-during-peshwe-era-in-pune3-2-goans-follow-illustrious-kin/91809.html | title=Noted Goans during Peshwe era in Pune-3: 2 Goans follow illustrious kin }}</ref>

While the revolt failed, Goans did achieve stronger forms of Government and when the [[Portuguese Constitution of 1822]] was adopted, two native Goans [[Bernardo Peres da Silva]] and [[Constâncio Roque da Costa]] were elected to the first parliament in Portugal, a practice that continued till the [[Annexation of Goa]] in 1961

An account of this was done by the Portuguese civil servant [[Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara]] which is one of the major accounts of the Pinto Revolt and subsequently translated into English by Dr. Charles Borges.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnKEgXtNHt0C | title=Goa and the Revolt of 1787 | isbn=978-81-7022-646-8 | last1=Borges | first1=Charles J. | date=1996 | publisher=Concept Publishing Company }}</ref>
Goa was [[Annexation of Goa|annexed]] by India on 19 December 1961.<ref>{{cite book
|first=Roger
|last=Crowley
|year=2015
|title=Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire
|publisher=Faber & Faber
|location=London}}</ref> Another feature of the Portuguese presence in India was their promotion of Catholicism by sponsoring missionaries from various orders, such as the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary [[Saint Francis Xavier]], who is revered among the Catholics of India.<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Christianisation of the Goa Islands 1510-1567
|author=Anthony D’Costa
|publisher=Heras Institute
|location=Bombay
|date=1965
}}</ref>

== Dutch ==
{{main|Dutch India}}
[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Kingdom of Travancore]] after the [[Battle of Colachel]] (Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]]).]]

The [[Dutch East India Company]] established trading posts along different parts of the Indian coast. For some time, they controlled the [[Dutch Malabar|Malabar]] southwest coast ([[Pallippuram, Ernakulam|Pallipuram]], [[Kochi, India|Cochin]], Cochin de Baixo/[[Santa Cruz, Goa|Santa Cruz]], [[Quilon]] (Coylan), [[Kannur|Cannanore]], [[Kundapura]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Ponnani]]) and the [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]] southeastern coast ([[Golkonda]], [[Bhimunipatnam]], [[Pulicat]], [[Porto Novo|Parangippettai]], [[Negapatnam]]) and [[Surat]] (1616–1795). They conquered [[Ceylon]] from the Portuguese. The Dutch also established trading stations in [[Travancore]] and coastal [[Tamil Nadu]] as well as at [[Rajshahi]] in present-day [[Bangladesh]], [[Hugli-Chinsura]], and [[Murshidabad]] in present-day [[West Bengal]], [[Balasore]] (Baleshwar or Bellasoor) in [[Odisha]], and [[Inwa|Ava]], [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], and [[Syriam]] in present-day [[Myanmar]] (Burma). However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] to the Kingdom of Travancore, during the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M.O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1 http://mod.nic.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>

Ceylon was lost at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in the aftermath of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], where the Dutch having fallen subject to France, saw their colonies captured by Britain. The Dutch later became less involved in India, as they had the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]).

==English and British India==
{{main|English overseas possessions|British India}}
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2017}}

===Rivalry with the Netherlands===
At the end of the 16th century, England and the [[Dutch Republic|United Netherlands]] began to challenge Portugal's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private [[Joint stock company|joint-stock companies]] to finance the voyages: the [[East India Company|English (later British) East India Company]], and the Dutch East India Company,  were chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. These companies were intended to carry on the lucrative spice trade, and they focused their efforts on the areas of production, especially the Indonesian archipelago  the "[[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]]", and on India as an important market for the trade. The close proximity of London and [[Amsterdam]] across the [[North Sea]], and the intense rivalry between England and the Netherlands, inevitably led to conflict between the two companies, with the Dutch gaining the upper hand in the Moluccas (previously a Portuguese stronghold) after the withdrawal of the English in 1622, but with the English enjoying more success in India, at [[Surat]], after the establishment of a [[factory (trading post)|factory]] in 1613.
[[File:Fort St. George, Chennai.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]] was founded at [[Chennai|Madras]] in 1639]]

The Netherlands' more advanced financial system<ref name="ferguson19">[[#refFergusonEmpire2004|Ferguson 2004]], p.&nbsp;19.</ref> and the three [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] of the 17th century left the Dutch as the dominant naval and trading power in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, when the Dutch prince [[William III of England|William of Orange]] ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the more valuable spice trade of the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles overtook spices in terms of profitability, so that by 1720, in terms of sales, the English company had overtaken the Dutch.<ref name="ferguson19"/> The English East India Company shifted its focus from Surat—a hub of the spice trade network—to [[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]].

===East India Company===
{{See also|Company rule in India}}
In 1757, [[Mir Jafar]], the commander-in-chief of the army of the [[Nawab of Bengal]], along with [[Jagat Seth]] and some others secretly working with the British, asked for their support to overthrow the Nawab in return for trade grants. The British forces, whose sole duty until then was guarding Company property,{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} were numerically inferior to the [[Bengal Subah|Bengali]] armed forces. At the [[Battle of Plassey]] on 23 June 1757, fought between the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] and the Nawab, Mir Jafar's forces betrayed the Nawab and helped them to defeat him. Jafar was installed on the throne as a British subservient ruler.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1977 |title=A New History of India |edition=7th |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=181 |isbn=978-0-19-516677-4}}</ref> The battle transformed British perspective as they realised their strength and potential to conquer smaller Indian kingdoms and marked the beginning of the imperial or colonial era in South Asia.

[[File:Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey.jpg|thumb|left|180px|''Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey'' by [[Francis Hayman]], depicting [[Robert Clive]] meeting with [[Mir Jafar]] after the battle of Plassey. The victory at Plassey marked the start of a period form [[Company rule in India|Company expansion]] which saw them seizing control over the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[British rule in Burma|Burma]] over the next century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Prelude to Empire: Plassey Revolution of 1757 |last=Chaudhary |first=Sushil |year=2000 |publisher=Manohar |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-7304-301-9 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Siraj-ud-daulah |last=Datta |first=K.K. |year=1971 |publisher=Sangam Books |location=Calcutta |isbn=0-86125-258-6 }}</ref>]]

British policy in Asia during the 19th century was chiefly concerned with expanding and protecting its hold on India, viewed as its most important colony and the key to the rest of Asia.<ref name="refhdbe478">[[#refHDBE|Olson]], p.&nbsp;478.</ref> The East India Company drove the expansion of the [[British Empire]] in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with the [[Royal Navy]] during the [[Seven Years' War]], and the two continued to cooperate in arenas outside India: against the [[French campaign in Egypt and Syria]], the capture of [[Java]] from the Netherlands in 1811, the acquisition of Singapore in 1819 and [[Malacca]] in 1824, and the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] in 1826.<ref name="#refOHBEv3|Porter, p. 401">[[#refOHBEv3|Porter]], p.&nbsp;401.</ref>

From its base in India, the company was also engaged in an increasingly profitable [[opium]] trade to [[Qing dynasty|China]], which had begun in the 1730s. This trade helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. The Chinese authorities banned the importation of opium, and in 1839, 20,000 chests of opium were confiscated and destroyed in [[Guangzhou|Canton]] by [[Lin Zexu]]. This led to the [[First Opium War]], which was concluded in the [[Treaty of Nanking|Treaty of Nanjing]], re-legalizing the importation of opium into China.<ref>[[#refHDBE|Olson]], p.&nbsp;293.</ref>

[[File: Defence-of-Arrah-House.png|thumb|right|180px|'' Defence of the Arrah House, 1857'' by William Tayler, depicting the [[siege of Arrah]] during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Forrest |first=George |author-link=George William Forrest |year=2006 |orig-year=First published 1904 |title = A History of the Indian Mutiny, 1857-58 (Volume III) |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VDmS9noPkbkC&q=dinapore+mutiny&pg=PA414 |publisher=Gautam Jetley (reprint) |isbn=81-206-1999-4}}</ref>]]

The British had direct or indirect control over all parts of present-day India before the middle of the 19th century. In 1857, a local rebellion by a group of ''[[sepoy]]s'' escalated into the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], which took six months to suppress with heavy loss of life on both sides; with British casualties numbering in the thousands and Indian casualties numbering in the hundreds of thousands.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ramesh |first=Randeep |date=24 August 2007 |title=India's secret history: 'A holocaust, one where millions disappeared...' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/24/india.randeepramesh |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> The trigger for the rebellion has been a subject of dispute among historians. The rebellion, although short-lived, was triggered by attempts from the East India Company to expand its control in India. According to Olson, several reasons may have triggered the rebellion. For example, Olson concludes that the East India Company's attempt to annex and expand its direct control of India, by arbitrary laws such as [[Doctrine of Lapse]], combined with discrimination in employment against Indians, contributed to the 1857 Rebellion.<ref>[[#refHDBE|Olson]], p. 653</ref> The East India Company officers lived lavish lives, the company finances were in shambles, and the company's effectiveness in India was examined by the British crown after 1858. As a result, the East India Company lost its powers of government and [[British India]] formally came under [[British Raj|direct Crown control]], with an appointed [[Governor-General of India]]. The East India Company was dissolved the following year in 1858. A few years later, [[Queen Victoria]] took the title of [[Empress of India]].<ref>[[#refHDBE|Olson]], p.&nbsp;568</ref>

[[File:Marche sel.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[British Raj]] era photograph of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] during the [[Salt March]], which gave a critical impetus to the [[Indian independence movement]].]]

===British Raj===
{{See also|British Raj}}

India suffered a series of crop failures in the late 19th century, leading to [[British Raj#Famines, epidemics, public health|widespread famines]] that caused tens of millions of deaths in India.<ref>pp.&nbsp;133–34.</ref> Responding to earlier famines as threats to the stability of their control, the East India Company had already begun to concern itself with famine prevention during the early colonial period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahuja|first=Ravi|date=2016-07-26|title=State formation and 'famine policy' in early colonial south India|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=39|issue=4|pages=351–380|doi=10.1177/001946460203900402|s2cid=146305963}}</ref> This greatly expanded during the ''Raj'', in which commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to take an effect.<ref>[[#refMarshall|Marshall]], pp.&nbsp;133–34.</ref>

The slow but momentous reform movement developed gradually into the [[Indian independence movement]]. During the [[First World War]], the hitherto bourgeois "home-rule" movement was transformed into a popular mass movement by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], a [[Pacifism|pacifist]] lawyer. Revolutionaries such as [[Bagha Jatin]], [[Khudiram Bose]], [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Chandrashekar Azad]], [[Surya Sen]], [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] differed from Gandhi in their use of violence during their campaigns against British rule. The independence movement attained its objective with the independence of Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively.

== French ==
{{main|French India}}
[[File:Pondicherry1843.jpg|thumb|View of [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] in 1843]]
Following the Portuguese, English, and Dutch, the French also established trading bases in India. Their first establishment was in [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]] on the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India in 1674. Subsequent French settlements were [[Chandernagore]] in Bengal, northeastern India in 1688, [[Yanaon (Inde française)|Yanam]] in Andhra Pradesh in 1723, [[Mahé, India|Mahe]] in 1725, and [[Karaikal]] in 1739. The French were constantly in conflict with the Dutch and later on mainly with the British in India. At the height of French power in the mid-18th century, the French established several outposts in southern India and the area lying in today's northern [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Odisha]]. Between 1744 and 1761, the British and the French repeatedly attacked and conquered each other's forts and towns in southeastern India and in Bengal in the northeast. After some initial French successes, the British decisively defeated the French in Bengal in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and in the southeast in 1761 in the [[Battle of Wandiwash]], after which the British East India Company was the supreme military and political power in southern India as well as in Bengal. In the following decades, it gradually increased the size of the territories under its control. The enclaves of [[Pondicherry district|Pondichéry]], Karaikal, Yanam, Mahé, and Chandernagore were returned to France in 1816 and were integrated with the [[Republic of India]] in 1954.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

== Danish ==
{{main|Danish India}}
[[File:A view of Tranquebar - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Fort Dansborg]] at Tranquebar, built by [[Ove Gjedde]], {{Circa|1658}}]]
[[Denmark–Norway]] held several [[Factories (trading posts)|factories]] in India for more than 200 years, but the Danish presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rasmussen|first=Peter Ravn|title=Tranquebar: The Danish East India Company 1616–1669|url=http://scholiast.org/history/tra-narr.html|publisher=University of Copenhagen|year=1996|access-date=29 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202120144/http://scholiast.org/history/tra-narr.html|archive-date=2 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Denmark–Norway established trading outposts in [[Tranquebar]], Tamil Nadu (1620); [[Serampore]], West Bengal (1755); [[Calicut]], Kerala (1752) and the [[Nicobar Islands]] (1750s). At one time, the main Danish and Swedish East Asia companies together imported more tea to Europe than the British did. Their outposts lost economic and strategic importance, and Tranquebar, the last Dano-Norwegian outpost, was sold to the British on 16 October 1868.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

== Other external powers ==

===Sweden===
The [[Swedish East India Company]] (1731–1813) very briefly possessed a factory in [[Parangipettai]] for about one month of 1733 before [[Affair of Porto Novo|being evicted]] by a combined Anglo–French force.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://runeberg.org/nfca/0776.html|title=Porto Novo|work=Nordisk familjebok|access-date=23 September 2019|language=sv}}</ref>

===Croatia===
The [[Republic of Ragusa]] (1358–1808) had a settlement in [[Gandaulim (Ilhas)]] (''Sau Brás'') in Goa,{{Citation needed|date=May 2025|reason=Seems like the sources are referring to a settlement by ''Croatian merchants'', but the Republic of Ragusa itself}} where they built a replica of [[St Blaise's Church]] in 1605 dedicated to St Blaise (''Sao Brás''). As of March 2025, roughly 250 Goan residents gained [[Croatian nationality law|Croatian citizenship]] by proving lineage to the Croatian settlers. However, this path to [[European Union citizenship]] is rarely pursued as birth certificates are required dating all the way back to the 1600s. It is far less burdensome for Goan residents to gain Portuguese (EU) citizenship, as Goa was a [[Portuguese India|Portuguese colony]] as recent as 1961.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Goan Churches {{!}} Information on all Churches in Goa |url=https://goanchurches.info/church/st-blaise-church-gandaulimgoa/ |access-date=2025-03-26 |website=goanchurches.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Why this Goan village will root for Croatia |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/why-this-goan-village-will-root-for-croatia/articleshow/64983827.cms |access-date=2025-03-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Croats of Goa |url=https://www.axisbank.com/progress-with-us/other/the-croats-of-goa |access-date=2025-03-26 |website=www.axisbank.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Austria ===
The [[Austrian colonisation of the Nicobar Islands]] ({{langx|de|link=no|Nikobaren}}, renamed to the '''Theresia Islands''' [''Theresia-Inseln'']) involved a series of three separate attempts to colonize and settle the Nicobar Islands by the [[Habsburg monarchy]], and later the [[Austrian Empire]], between 1778 and 1886. During the period of Austrian colonisation, the Nicobar Islands were previously colonized by the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands#Danish colonial period and British rule|Danish in 1756]], but were abandoned due to multiple outbreaks of [[malaria]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1013&context=kunapipi|title=Denmark in the Indian Ocean, 1616–1845|last=Stow|first=Randolph|date=1979|website=ro.uow.edu.au|access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref>

=== Japanese occupation ===
The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] were [[Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands|briefly occupied]] by the [[Empire of Japan]] during [[World War II]].<ref name="Klemen">{{cite web|first = Klemen | last = L |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/andaman.html |title= The capture of Andaman Islands, March 1942 |date=1999–2000 |work=Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942}}</ref><ref>Dasgupta ''Red Sun over Black Water'' pp. 50–51</ref><ref>Mathur ''Kala Pani'' p. 248; Iqbal Singh ''The Andaman Story'' pp. 241–42</ref>

== Wars ==
{{see also|List of Anglo-Indian Wars}}
{{Campaignbox British Conquest of India}}

[[File:Battle of Assaye.jpeg|thumb|Major General [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellesley]] commanding his troops at the [[Battle of Assaye]], 1803]]
[[File:Battle of ferozeshah(H Martens).jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Ferozeshah]] during the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], 1845]]

The wars that took place involving the British East India Company or British India during the colonial era:
* [[Anglo-Afghan Wars]]
* [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]]
* [[Anglo-Manipur War]]
* [[Anglo-Maratha Wars]]
* [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]
* [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (Gorkha War)
* [[Anglo-Sikh War (disambiguation)|Anglo-Sikh War]]
* [[British conquest of Sindh]]
* [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (First War of Independence, Sepoy Mutiny)
* [[Polygar Wars]]
* [[World War I]]: see [[Indian Army during World War I]], [[Bombardment of Madras]]
* [[World War II]]: see [[Indian Army during World War II]]

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Ancient India]]
** [[Greater India]]
** [[Indosphere]]
** [[Sanskritization]]
** [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
* Indian empires
** [[Maurya Empire]]
** [[Chola dynasty|Chola Empire]]
** [[Mughal Empire]]
** [[Maratha Empire]]
** [[Sikh Empire]]
* [[British Raj]]
** [[Economy of India under the British Raj]]
** [[Economy of India under Company rule]]
** [[Political warfare in British colonial India]]
** [[Opposition to the partition of India]]
* [[List of Indian Princely States]]
** [[Arakkal Kingdom]]
** [[Hyderabad State]]
** [[Kingdom of Mysore]]
** [[Kingdom of Travancore]]
** [[Rajputana|Rajput States]]
** [[Zamorin|Kingdom of Calicut]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
* Prasenjit K. Basu " Asia Reborn: A Continent Rises from the Ravages of Colonialism and War to a New Dynamism", Publisher: Aleph Book Company
* Brian, Mac Arthur (1996) The Penguin Book of Historic Speeches ed. Penguin Books.
* Buckland, C.E. ''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_InFTmnS4crYC full text]
* Kachru, Braj (1983) The Indianization of English, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }}
* Moss, Peter (1999) ''Oxford History for Pakistan, a revised and expanded version of Oxford History Project Book Three'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book| first=Niall| last=Ferguson| author-link=Niall Ferguson| title=Empire| publisher=Basic Books| year=2004| isbn=978-0-465-02329-5| url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial| url-access=registration| ref=refFergusonEmpire2004| access-date=2009-07-22}}
* {{cite book| first=PJ| last=Marshall| title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1996| isbn=978-0-521-00254-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC| ref=refMarshall| access-date=2009-07-22}}
* {{cite book| first=James| last=Olson| title=Historical Dictionary of the British Empire| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group| year=1996| isbn=978-0-313-29366-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ol1bAAAACAAJ| ref=refHDBE| access-date=2009-07-22}}
* {{cite book| first=Andrew| last=Porter| title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1998| isbn=978-0-19-924678-6| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC| ref=refOHBEv3| access-date=2009-07-22}}
* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC excerpt]
* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries [https://books.google.com/books?id=LI8UAQAAIAAJ excerpt]
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Andrada (undated). ''The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India''. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. {{ISBN|81-206-0900-X}}
*C.A. Bayly, ''Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India , 1780– 1870'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
* {{cite book |last1=Crosthwaite |first1=Charles|author-link=Charles Crosthwaite |title=The Empire and the Century |date=1905 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |pages=621–650 |chapter=[[s:The Empire and the century/India: Past, Present, and Future|India: Past, Present, and Future]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Herbert |first=William |author2=William Nichelson |author3=Samuel Dunn |title=A New Directory for the East-Indies |url=https://archive.org/stream/newdirectoryfore00herb#page/n7/mode/2up |year=1791 |publisher=Gilbert & Wright, London}}
*Mukhopadhyay, Priyasha. ''Required Reading : The Life of Everyday Texts in the British Empire'', Princeton University Press, 2024.  
* [[K. M. Panikkar|Panikkar, K. M.]] (1953). Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
* [[K. M. Panikkar|Panikkar, K. M.]] 1929: Malabar and the Portuguese: being a history of the relations of the Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663
* Priolkar, A. K. The Goa Inquisition (Bombay, 1961).

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Colonial India}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070823020532/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/remainsD.html List of archaeological remains of Dutch, Danish and Portuguese India settlements]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20040611000624/http://www.gatewayforindia.com/history/british_history1.htm gateway.for.india: British history]}}

{{Clear}}
{{South Asian topics}}
{{India topics}}
{{Indian Independence Movement}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1505 establishments in India]]
[[Category:1961 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Colonial India| ]]
[[Category:European colonisation in Asia]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Asia]]