View source for Colonial Brazil

{{Short description|1500–1815 Portuguese possession in South America}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 
| image_flag             = 
| conventional_long_name = 
| common_name            = Colonial Brazil
| status                 = [[Colony]] of the [[Portuguese Empire]]
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]]
| empire                 = 
| year_start             = 1500
| year_end               = 1815
| date_start             = 22 April
| date_end               = 16 December
| event_start            = [[Discovery of Brazil|Portuguese arrival]]
| event_end              = [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves |Creation of United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]]
| p1                     = Indigenous peoples in Brazil
| flag_p1                = 
| s1                     = United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves
| flag_s1                = Flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves.svg
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1534.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Brazil in 1534|[[File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1574.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Brazil in 1574|[[File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1709.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Brazil in 1709|[[File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1778.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Brazil in 1778|default=4}}
| image_map_caption      = 
| image_map2             = 
| image_map2_caption     = 
| image_map3             = 
| capital                = [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] (1549–1763)<br/>{{nowrap|[[Rio de Janeiro]] (1763–1815)}}
| image_coat             = 
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| common_languages       = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (official)<br/>[[Paulista General Language]], [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]],{{Citation needed|reason=Nheengatu would only emerge in the 19th century, likely when Brazil was no longer a colony.|date=January 2024}} many [[Indigenous languages of Brazil|indigenous languages]]
| religion               = [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] (official)<br/>[[Afro-American religion|Afro-Brazilian religions]], [[Judaism]], [[Guarani mythology|indigenous practices]]
| currency               = [[Portuguese real]]
| leader1                = [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] (first)
| leader2                = [[Maria I of Portugal|Maria I]] (last)
| year_leader1           = 1500–1521
| year_leader2           = 1777-1816
| title_leader           = [[Monarchs of Portugal|Monarch]]
| deputy1                = [[Tomé de Sousa]]<br>{{nowrap|(first, as governor-general)}}
| deputy2                = [[Marcos de Noronha e Brito, 8th Count of Arcos|Marcos de Noronha]]<br>(last, as viceroy)
| year_deputy1           = 1549–1553
| year_deputy2           = 1806–1808
| title_deputy           = [[List of governors-general of Brazil|Governor]]
| today                  = [[Brazil]]<br/>[[Uruguay]]
| demonym                = 
| area_km2               = 8,100,200<ref name=note76>"Society and Education in Brazil" "Authors: Robert J. Havighurst, J. Roberto Moreira" "https://books.google.pt/books?id=u65BLiP8qXEC&pg=PA60</ref>
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}
'''Colonial Brazil''' ({{langx|pt|Brasil Colonial}}), sometimes referred to as '''[[Portuguese America]]''', comprises the period from 1500, with the [[Discovery of Brazil|arrival of the Portuguese]], until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to a [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|kingdom in union with Portugal]]. During the 300 years of Brazilian colonial history, the main economic activities of the territory were based first on [[Paubrasilia|brazilwood]] extraction (brazilwood cycle), which gave the territory its name;<ref>A.J.R. Russell-Wood, Brazil, The colonial era" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, p. 410. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> sugar production ([[Brazilian sugar cycle|sugar cycle]]); and finally on gold and diamond mining ([[Brazilian Gold Rush|gold cycle]]). Slaves, especially those [[Atlantic slave trade to Brazil|brought from Africa]], provided most of the workforce of the Brazilian export economy after a brief initial period of Indigenous slavery to cut brazilwood.

In contrast to the neighboring [[Spanish America|Spanish possessions]], which had several [[Viceroy|viceroyalties]], the colony of Brazil was settled mainly in the coastal area by the Portuguese and a large [[Slavery in Brazil|black slave population]] working on [[Engenho|sugar plantations]] and mines. 

The boom and bust of the economic cycles were linked to export products. Brazil's sugar age, with the development of plantation slavery, merchants serving as middle men between production sites, Brazilian ports, and Europe was undermined by the growth of the sugar industry in the Caribbean on islands that European powers seized from Spain. Gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the colonial administrative capital was moved from [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] to [[Rio de Janeiro]] in response to the rise and fall of export products' importance.

Unlike Spanish America, which fragmented into many republics upon [[Spanish American wars of independence|independence]], Brazil remained a single administrative unit under a monarch as the [[Empire of Brazil]], giving rise to the largest country in Latin America. Just as Spanish and Roman Catholicism were a core source of cohesion among Spain's vast and multi-ethnic territories, Brazilian society was united by the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism. As the only [[Geographical distribution of Portuguese speakers|Lusophone]] polity in the Americas, the Portuguese language was - and remains - particularly important to Brazilian identity.

==Initial European contact and early history (1494–1530)==
{{BrazilianHistory}}

Portugal pioneered the European charting of sea routes that were the first and only channels of interaction between all of the world's continents, thus beginning the process of [[globalization]]. In addition to the imperial and economic undertaking of discovery and colonization of lands distant from Europe, these years were filled with pronounced advancements in [[cartography]], [[shipbuilding]] and [[navigational instrument]]s, of which the Portuguese explorers took advantage.<ref>Source: Europe and the Age of Exploration | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]</ref>

In 1494, the two kingdoms of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] divided the [[New World]] between them in the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], and in 1500 navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landed in what is now Brazil and laid claim to it in the name of king [[Manuel I of Portugal]]. The Portuguese identified  in Portuguese brazilwood as a valuable red dye source and an exploitable product, and attempted to force indigenous groups in Brazil to cut the trees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1.1 Brazilwood {{!}} Brazil: Five Centuries of Change |url=https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-1/brazilwood/ |access-date=2024-11-19 |website=library.brown.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv120qrdk |title=The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics |date=2018-12-06 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-7179-3 |editor-last=Green |editor-first=James N. |edition=2nd', 'Revised' |pages=7–8 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv120qrdk.5 |jstor=j.ctv120qrdk |editor-last2=Langland |editor-first2=Victoria |editor-last3=Schwarcz |editor-first3=Lilia Moritz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Skidmore |first=Thomas E. |url=https://archive.org/details/brazilfivecentur00skid/mode/1up |title=Brazil : five centuries of change |date=1999 |publisher=New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-505809-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schwarcz |first1=Lilia M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5M2YDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT6 |title=Brazil: A Biography |last2=Starling |first2=Heloisa M. |date=2018-08-21 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-71070-5 |language=en}}</ref>

===The Age of Exploration===
{{main|Age of Discovery}}

Portuguese seafarers in the early fifteenth century, as an extension of the [[Portugal in the Reconquista|Portuguese Reconquista]], began to expand from a small area of the Iberian Peninsula, to seizing the Muslim fortress of [[Ceuta]] in North Africa. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and across the Indian Ocean to the south Asian subcontinent, as well as the Atlantic islands off the coast of Africa on the way. They sought sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves, high value goods in the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading [[Factory (trading post)|''feitorias'']] (factories), whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region. 

The initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From the Portuguese Crown's point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself.<ref>[[James Lockhart (historian)|James Lockhart]] and [[Stuart B. Schwartz]], ''Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 24–26.</ref> On the Atlantic islands of the [[Azores]], [[Madeira]], and [[São Tomé]], the Portuguese began [[plantation]] production of sugarcane using forced labor, a precedent for Brazil's sugar production in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', pp. 26–27.</ref>

The Portuguese discovery of Brazil was preceded by a series of treaties between the kings of Portugal and [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], following Portuguese sailings down the coast of Africa to India and the voyages to the Caribbean of the Genoese mariner sailing for Castile, [[Christopher Columbus]]. The most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, which created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between the two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian was to be the property of Portugal, and everything to the west of it went to Spain.

The Tordesillas Meridian divided [[South America]] into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas has been called the earliest document in Brazilian history,<ref>Rollie Poppino, Brazil: The Land and People,Oxford University Press, 1968, p. 44</ref> since it determined that part of South America would be settled by Portugal instead of Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas was an item of dispute for more than two and a half centuries but clearly established the Portuguese in America. It was replaced by the [[Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)|Treaty of Madrid]] in 1750, and both reflect the present extent of Brazil's coastline.<ref>E. Bradford Burns,A History of Brazil, 2 ed. Columbia University Press, New York, p. 71</ref>

===Arrival and early exploitation===
{{Main|Discovery of Brazil}}

[[Image:Brazil 16thc map.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Portuguese map by Lopo Homem (c. 1519), showing the coast of Brazil and natives extracting brazilwood, as well as Portuguese ships]]

On 22 April 1500, during the reign of king [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]], a fleet led by navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landed in Brazil and took possession of the land in the name of the king. Although [[Discovery of Brazil#Theories regarding the discovery of Brazil|it is debated]] whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as [[Porto Seguro]], in [[Northeast Region, Brazil|northeastern Brazil]]. Cabral was leading a large fleet of 13 ships and more than 1,000 men following [[Vasco da Gama]]'s way to India, around Africa. Cabral was able to safely enter and leave Brazil in ten days,<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|title=Go-Betweens and the Colonization of Brazil : 1500–1600|last=Metcalf|first=Alida C.|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2005|isbn=0-292-70970-6|location=Austin, TX|pages=17–33}}</ref> despite having no means of communication with the [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|indigenous people]] there, due to the experience Portuguese explorers, such as Gama, had been amassing over the past few decades in interacting with foreign peoples.

The Portuguese colonization, around 80 years earlier, of islands off West Africa such as [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], were the first examples of the Portuguese monarchy beginning to move from a crusading and looting-centric attitude, to a trade-centric attitude when approaching new lands.<ref name=":03" /> The latter attitude required communication and cooperation with indigenous people, thus, interpreters. This informed Cabral's actions in Brazil.

[[Image:Brazilwood tree in Vitória, ES, Brazil.jpg|thumb|right|The brazilwood tree, which gives Brazil its name, has dark, valuable wood and provides red dye]]

As Cabral realized that no one in his convoy spoke the language of the indigenous people in Brazil, he took every effort to avoid violence and conflict and used music and humor as forms of communication.<ref name=":03" /> Just a few months before Cabral landed, Spanish navigator [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón]] came to the northeastern coast of Brazil and deployed many armed men ashore with no means of communicating with the indigenous people. One of his ships and captains was captured by indigenous people and eight of his men were killed.<ref name=":03" /> Cabral no doubt learned from this to treat communication with the utmost priority. Cabral left two ''[[Degredado|degredados]]'' (criminal exiles) in Brazil to learn the native languages and to serve as interpreters in the future. The practice of leaving ''degredados'' in new lands to serve as interpreters came straight from the colonization of the islands off of the West African coast 80 years before Cabral landed in Brazil.<ref name=":03" />

After Cabral's voyage, the Portuguese focused their efforts on their possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to the new land to chart the coast and to obtain brazilwood. In Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable red dye to luxury textiles. To extract brazilwood from the tropical rainforest, the Portuguese and other Europeans relied on the work of the natives, who initially worked in exchange for European goods like mirrors, scissors, knives and axes.<ref>Alexander Marchant, ''From Barter to Slavery: The Economic Relations of Portuguese and Indians in the Settlement of Brazil, 1500–1580''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press 1942.</ref>

In this early stage of the colonization of Brazil, and also later, the Portuguese frequently relied on the help of Europeans who lived together with the indigenous people and knew their languages and culture. The most famous of these were [[João Ramalho]], who lived among the Guaianaz tribe near today's [[São Paulo]], and Diogo Álvares Correia, who acquired the name [[Caramuru]], who lived among the [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambá]] natives near today's Salvador.

Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to the land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and fight the French. In 1530, an expedition led by [[Martim Afonso de Sousa]] arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, expel the French, and create the first colonial villages like [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]] on the coast.

==Structure of colonization==
Because Brazil was not home to larger civilizations like the [[Aztec Empire|Aztec]] and the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] in Mexico and Peru, the Portuguese could not place themselves on an established social structure. This, coupled with the fact that tangible material wealth was not found until the 18th century, made the relationship between the Portuguese and the Brazilian colony very different from the relationship of the Spanish to their possessions in the Americas. For example, the Brazilian colony was at first thought of as a commercial asset that would facilitate trade between the Portuguese and India and not a place to be settled to develop a society.<ref name="library.brown.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-1/captaincies-general/|title=Captaincies-General: The Structure of Governance in Colonial Brazil &#124; Brazil: Five Centuries of Change|website=Brown University Library |date=2021 |first1=James N. |last1=Green |first2=Thomas E. |last2=Skidmore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315135054/https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-1/captaincies-general/ |archive-date= Mar 15, 2024 }}</ref> 

The social model of conquest in Brazil was one geared toward commerce and entrepreneurial ideals rather than conquest as was the case in the Spanish realm. As time progressed, the Portuguese crown found that having the colony serve as a trading post was not ideal for regulating land claims in the Americas, so it decided that the best way to keep control of their land was to settle it.<ref name="library.brown.edu"/> Thus, the land was divided into fifteen private, [[Captaincies of Brazil|hereditary captaincies]], the most successful of which being [[Captaincy of Pernambuco|Pernambuco]] and [[Captaincy of São Vicente|São Vicente]]. Pernambuco succeeded by growing sugarcane. São Vicente prospered by enslaving indigenous native people from the land. The other thirteen captaincies failed, leading the king to make colonization a royal effort rather than a private one.<ref> Bailey Diffie, A History of Colonial Brazil: 1500–1792, Krueger, Malabar, Florida, 1987, ch 4</ref> 

In 1549, [[Tomé de Sousa]] sailed to Brazil to establish a central government. He brought along [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] priests, who set up [[Mission (station)|missions]], forbidding natives to express their own cultures, and converting many to Catholicism. The Jesuits' work to dominate the indigenous native’s cultural expression and way of living helped the Portuguese expel the French from a colony they had established at present-day [[Rio de Janeiro]].<ref>Bailey Diffie, A History of Colonial Brazil: 1500–1792, Krueger, Malabar, Florida, 1987, pp. 125–147</ref>

===Captaincies===
{{main|Captaincies of Brazil}}

[[File:Capitanias.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Portuguese map (1574) by [[Luís Teixeira]], showing the location of the hereditary captaincies of Brazil]]

The first attempt to colonize Brazil followed the system of hereditary captaincies (''Capitanias Hereditárias''), which had previously been used successfully in the colonization of Madeira. These captaincies were granted by royal decree to private owners, namely to merchants, soldiers, sailors, and petty nobility, saving the Portuguese crown from the high costs of colonization.<ref name="library.brown.edu"/> The captaincies granted control over large areas of land and all that resided upon it. Furthermore, the splitting of land highlights the economic importance a large amount of land would have for red-dye producing trees and sugar plantations. Thus, between 1534 and 1536 king [[John III of Portugal|John III]] divided the land into 15 captaincy colonies, which were given to those who wanted and had the means to administer and explore them. The captains were granted ample powers to administer and profit from their possessions.

From the 15 original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. The failure of most captaincies was related to the resistance of the indigenous native people, shipwrecks and internal disputes between the colonizers.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Failure can also be attributed to the Crown not having a strong administrative hold due to Brazil's reliance on its exportation economy. Pernambuco, the most successful captaincy, belonged to [[Duarte Coelho]], who founded the city of [[Olinda]] in 1536. His captaincy prospered with [[Engenho|''engenhos'']], sugarcane mills, installed after 1542 producing sugar. Sugar was a very valuable good in Europe, and its production became the main Brazilian colonial product for the next 150 years. The captaincy of São Vicente, owned by Martim Afonso de Sousa, also produced sugar but its main economic activity was capturing indigenous native people to trade them as slaves.

===Governors General===
{{main|Governorate General of Brazil|List of governors-general of Brazil}}

{{see also|Governorate General of Rio de Janeiro|Governorate General of Bahia}}
With the failure of most captaincies and the menacing presence of French ships along the Brazilian coast, the government of king John III decided to turn the colonization of Brazil back into a royal enterprise. In 1549, a large fleet led by Tomé de Sousa set sail to Brazil to establish a central government in the colony. Tomé de Sousa, the first [[Governor-General]] of Brazil, brought detailed instructions, prepared by the king's aides, about how to administer and foster the development of the colony. His first act was the foundation of the capital city, [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]], in northeastern Brazil, in today's state of [[Bahia]]. The city was built on a slope by a bay ([[Bay of All Saints|All Saints Bay]]) and was divided into an upper administrative area and a lower commercial area with a harbour. Tomé de Sousa also visited the captaincies to repair the villages and reorganise their economies. In 1551, the [[Diocese of São Salvador da Bahia]] was established in the colony, with its seat in Salvador.

[[File:Pelourinho1-CCBY.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Historical centre of [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] in 2007 – the [[Architecture of Portugal|architecture of the city's historic centre is typically Portuguese]].]]
The second Governor General, Duarte da Costa (1553–1557), faced conflicts with the indigenous people and severe disputes with other colonizers and the bishop. Wars against the natives around Salvador consumed much of his government. The fact that the first bishop of Brazil, [[Pero Fernandes Sardinha]], was killed and eaten by the [[Caeté people|Caeté]] natives after a shipwreck in 1556 illustrates how strained the situation was between the Portuguese and many indigenous communities.

The third [[Governor-General#Other colonial and similar usage#Portugal|Governor-General of Brazil]] was [[Mem de Sá]] (1557–1573). He was an efficient administrator who managed to defeat the indigenous people and, with the help of the Jesuits, expel the French ([[Huguenots]] and some previous Catholic settlers) from their colony of [[France Antarctique]]. As part of this process, his nephew, [[Estácio de Sá]], founded the city of Rio de Janeiro there in 1565.

The huge size of Brazil led to the colony being divided in two after 1621 when king [[Philip III of Spain|Philip II]] created the states of ''[[State of Brazil|Brasil]]'', with Salvador as capital, and ''[[State of Maranhão (colonial)|Maranhão]]'', with its capital in [[São Luís, Maranhão|São Luís]]. The state of Maranhão was still further divided in 1737 into the ''[[State of Maranhão and Piauí|Maranhão e Piauí]]'' and ''[[State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão|Grão-Pará e Rio Negro]]'', with its capital in [[Belém do Pará]]. Each state had its own Governor.

After 1640, the governors of Brazil coming from the high nobility started to use the title of ''Vice-rei'' ([[Viceroy]]). In 1763{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. In 1775 all Brazilian States (Brasil, Maranhão and Grão-Pará) were unified into the [[Viceroyalty of Brazil]], with Rio de Janeiro as capital, and the title of the king's representative was officially changed to that of Viceroy of Brazil.

As in Portugal, each colonial village and city had a city council (''[[câmara municipal]]''), whose members were prominent figures of colonial society (land owners, merchants, slave traders). Colonial city councils were responsible for regulating commerce, public infrastructure, professional artisans, prisons etc.

===Jesuit missions===
{{See|Jesuit missions among the Guaraní}}
[[File:SPedroAldeia-JesuitChurch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|17th-century Jesuit church in [[São Pedro da Aldeia]], near Rio de Janeiro]]

Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony.<ref>For a comprehensive history of the Jesuits in Brazil see Serafim Leite, S.J. ''História de Companhia de Jesus no Brasil''. 10 vols. Lisbon 1938–50.</ref> More than any other religious order, the Jesuits represented the spiritual side of the enterprise and were destined to play a central role in the colonial history of Brazil. The spreading of the Catholic faith was an important justification for the Portuguese conquests, and the Jesuits were officially supported by the king, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianise the indigenous people.

The first Jesuits, guided by Father [[Manuel da Nóbrega]] and including prominent figures like Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes and later [[Joseph of Anchieta]], established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in [[São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga]], the settlement that gave rise to the city of [[São Paulo]]. Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of [[France Antarctique]] by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.

The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous people to [[Catholicism]] is linked to their capacity to understand the native culture, especially the language. The first grammar of the [[Tupian languages|Tupi]] language was compiled by Joseph of Anchieta and printed in [[Coimbra]] in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines into communities of resettlement called ''aldeias'', similar in intent to the [[reductions]] implemented by [[Francisco de Toledo]] in southern [[Peru]] during the 1560s. where the natives worked for the community and were evangelized. Founded in the aftermath of the campaign undertaken by Mem de Sá from 1557 to force the submission of Salvadoran natives, the ''aldeias'' marked the transition of Jesuit policy from conversion by persuasion alone to the acceptance of force as a means of organizing natives with a means to then evangelizing them.<ref>Alida Metcalf, "Go-betweens and the colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600". Austin: University of Texas Press (2005), 110–112</ref> Nevertheless, these ''aldeias'' were unattractive to the natives due to the introduction of epidemic diseases to the communities, the forced settlement of ''aldeia'' natives elsewhere to labor, and raiding of the ''aldeias'' by colonists eager to steal laborers for themselves thus causing natives to flee the settlements.<ref>Mark Burkholder, Lyman Johnson. "Colonial Latin America". New York: Oxford University Press (2001), 124</ref> The ''aldeia'' model would again be used, though also unsuccessfully, by the Governor of the captaincy of São Paulo, {{illm|Luís António de Sousa Botelho Mourão|pt}}, in 1765, in order to encourage [[mestizos]], natives, and [[mulattoes]] to abandon [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture and adopt a sedentary farming lifestyle.<ref>Warren Dean "With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest". Berkeley: University of California Press (1997), 100</ref>

The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives, but also with the hierarchy of the Catholic Church itself. Following the creation of the [[Diocese of Bahia|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia]] by the Pope, Bishop Pero Fernandes Sardinha arrived in Bahia in 1552 and took issue with the Jesuit mission led by Manoel da Nóbrega. Sardinha opposed the Jesuits taking part in indigenous dances and playing indigenous instruments since he viewed these activities had little effect on conversion. The use of interpreters at confession by the Jesuits was also railed against by Sardinha who opposed the appropriation of indigenous culture for evangelization.<ref>Alida Metcalf, "Go-betweens and the colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600". Austin: University of Texas Press (2005), 102–104</ref> Sardinha also challenged the Jesuit prohibition on waging war against and enslaving the indigenous population, eventually forcing Nóbrega to leave Bahia for the Jesuit mission at São Vicente in late 1552 to return only at the conclusion of the Sardinha's tenure.<ref>Kenneth Mills, William B. Taylor, and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, "Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History". Lanham, Md.: SR Books, (2004), 95.</ref>  The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from [[slavery]], but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labour and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African people.

===French incursions===
{{main|France Antarctique|Equinoctial France}}

The potential riches of tropical Brazil led the French, who did not recognize the Tordesillas Treaty that divided the world between the Spanish and the Portuguese, to attempt to colonize parts of Brazil. In 1555, the [[Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon]] founded a settlement within [[Guanabara Bay]], in an island in front of today's Rio de Janeiro. The colony, named [[France Antarctique]], led to conflict with Governor General Mem de Sá, who waged war against the colony in 1560. Estácio de Sá, nephew of the Governor, founded Rio de Janeiro in 1565 and managed to expel the last French settlers in 1567. Jesuit priests Manuel da Nóbrega and Joseph of Anchieta were instrumental in the Portuguese victory by pacifying the natives who supported the French.<ref>Charles E. Nowell, "The French in Sixteenth-Century Brazil," ''The Americas'' 5 (1949):381–93.</ref>

Another French colony, [[France Équinoxiale]], was founded in 1612 in present-day [[São Luís, Maranhão|São Luís]], in the North of Brazil. In 1614 the French were again expelled from São Luís by the Portuguese.

==The sugar age (1530–1700)==
{{see also|Brazilian sugar cycle|History of Pernambuco}}
[[Image:Engenho com capela.jpg|thumb|200px|right|View of a sugar-producing farm (''engenho'') in colonial Pernambuco by Dutch painter Frans Post (17th century)]]

Since the initial attempts to find gold and silver failed, the Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods that were to be exported to Europe. [[Tobacco]] and [[cotton]] and some other agricultural goods were produced, but sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century. The first sugarcane farms were established in the mid-16th century and were the key for the success of the captaincies of São Vicente and Pernambuco, leading sugarcane plantations to quickly spread to other coastal areas in colonial Brazil. Initially, the Portuguese attempted to utilize Indian slaves for sugar cultivation, but shifted to the use of black African slave labor.<ref>[[Stuart B. Schwartz]], "Indian Labor and New World Demands and Indian Response in Northeastern Brazil." ''[[American Historical Review]]'' 83 (1978) 43–79.</ref> While the availability of Amerindians did decrease due to epidemics afflicting the coastal native population and the declaration of king [[Sebastian of Portugal|Sebastian I]]'s 1570 law which proclaimed the liberty of Brazilian natives, the enslavement of indigenous people increased after 1570. A new slave trade emerged where indigenous people were brought from the [[Sertão|''sertões'']] or "inland wilderness frontiers" by mixed-race [[mameluco]] under the loophole in the 1570 law that they were captured in just wars against native groups who "customarily" attacked the Portuguese. By 1580, as many as 40,000 natives could have been taken from the interior to toil as slaves on Brazil's interior, and this enslavement of indigenous people continued right throughout the colonial period.<ref>Alida Metcalf, "Go-betweens and the colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600". Austin: University of Texas Press (2005), 181–190</ref>

[[File:StFranciscoChurch1-CCBY.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Golden [[Baroque]] inner decoration of the [[São Francisco Church and Convent|Franciscan church of Salvador]] (first half of the 18th century)]]

The period of sugar-based economy (1530 – c. 1700) is known as the sugar cycle in Brazil.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', chapter 7. Brazil in the Sugar Age. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.</ref>  The development of the sugar complex occurred over time, with a variety of models.<ref>Stuart B. Schwartz, "Free Farmers in a Slave Economy: The ''Lavradores de Cana'' in Colonial Bahia," in Dauril Alden, ed. ''Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1973, pp. 147–197.</ref> The dependencies of the farm included a ''casa-grande'' (big house) where the owner of the farm lived with his family, and the ''senzala'', where the slaves were kept. A notable early study of this complex is by Brazilian sociologist [[Gilberto Freyre]].<ref>Gilberto Freyre, ''The Masters and the Slaves: A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization''. New York: English edition 1956; 1933 Portuguese original edition.</ref> This arrangement was depicted in engravings and paintings by [[Frans Post]] as a feature of an apparently harmonious society.<ref>See the articles by Ernst van den Boogaart and by Elmer Kolfin in ''The Slave in European Art: From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem'', ed Elizabeth McGrath and Jean Michel Massing, London (The Warburg Institute) and Turin 2012.</ref>

Initially, the Portuguese relied on enslaved Amerindians to work on sugarcane harvesting and processing, but they soon began [[Atlantic slave trade|importing enslaved Africans]] from West Africa, though the enslavement of indigenous people continued. The Portuguese had established several commercial facilities in [[West Africa]], where West African slaves were bought from African slave traders. The enslaved West Africans were then sent via [[slave ship]]s to Brazil, chained and in crowded conditions. Enslaved West Africans were more desirable and practical because many came from sedentary, [[Agrarian society|agriculture-based societies]] and did not require as much training in how to farm as did members of Amerindian societies, which tended to not be primarily agricultural.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Slavery in Brazil|last1=Klein|first1=Herbert S.|last2=Luna|first2=Francisco Vidal|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-14192-5|location=Cambridge|pages=17|oclc=1026039080}}</ref> Africans were also less vulnerable to disease than Amerindians were.<ref name=":10" /> The importation of enslaved Africans into Brazil was heavily influenced by the rise of sugar and gold industries in the colony; from 1600 until 1650, sugar accounted for 95% of Brazil's exports.<ref name="Recreating">Sweet, James H. ''Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441–1770''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2003. Print. {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Slave labor demands varied based on region and on the type of harvest crop. In the Bahia region, where sugar was the main crop, conditions for enslaved peoples were extremely harsh. It was often cheaper for slaveowners to literally work enslaved peoples to death over the course of a few years and replace them with newly imported enslaved people.<ref name=":82">{{Cite book|title=Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery|last=Schwartz, Stuart B.|date=1996|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0-252-06549-2|pages=2|chapter=Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil|oclc=857899745}}</ref> Areas where [[Cassava|manioc]], a subsistence crop, was cultivated also utilized high numbers of enslaved peoples. In these areas, 40 to 60 percent of the population was enslaved. These regions were characterized by fewer work demands and better living and working conditions for enslaved peoples as compared to labor conditions for enslaved populations in sugar regions.<ref name=":82"/>

The Portuguese attempted to severely restrict colonial trade, meaning that Brazil was only allowed to export and import goods from Portugal and other Portuguese colonies. Brazil exported sugar, tobacco, cotton and native products and imported from Portugal [[wine]], [[olive oil]], [[textile]]s and luxury goods – the latter imported by Portugal from other European countries. Africa played an essential role as the supplier of slaves, and Brazilian slave traders in Africa frequently exchanged ''[[cachaça]]'', a distilled spirit derived from sugarcane, and shells, for slaves. This comprised what is now known as the [[triangular trade]] between Europe, Africa and the Americas during the colonial period.

Merchants during the sugar age were crucial to the economic development of the colony, the link between the sugar production areas, coastal Portuguese cities, and Europe.<ref>Rae Flory and David Grant Smith, "Bahian Merchants and Planters in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries." ''[[Hispanic American Historical Review]]'' 58(1978):571–94.</ref> Merchants in the early came from many nations, including Germans, Flemings, and Italians, but Portuguese merchants came to dominate the trade in Brazil. During the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns (1580–1640), to be active in Spanish America as well, especially trading African slaves.<ref name="Schwartz, p. 221">Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', p. 221.</ref>

Even though Brazilian sugar was reputed as being of high quality, the industry faced a crisis during the 17th and 18th centuries when the Dutch and the French started producing sugar in the [[Antilles]], located much closer to Europe, causing sugar prices to fall.

===Cities and towns===
[[File:Gezicht_op_Olinda,_Brazilië_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-742.jpeg|thumb|left|View of Olinda, {{circa|1660}}, Frans Post]]
Brazil had coastal cities and towns, which have been considered far less important than colonial settlements in Spanish America, but like Spanish America, urban settlements were important as the sites of institutional life of church and state, as well as urban groups of merchants. Unlike many areas of Spanish America, there was no dense, sedentary indigenous population which had already created settlements, but cities and towns in Brazil were similar to those in Spanish [[Colonial Venezuela]]. Port cities allowed Portuguese trade goods to enter, including African slaves, and export goods of sugar and later gold and coffee to be exported to Portugal and beyond. Coastal cities of Olinda (founded 1537), Salvador (1549), [[Santos, São Paulo|Santos]] (1545), [[Vitória, Espírito Santo|Vitória]] (1551), and Rio de Janeiro (1565) were also vital in the defense against pirates. Only São Paulo was an important inland city. Unlike the network of towns and cities that developed in most areas of Spanish America, the coastal cities and their hinterlands were oriented toward Portugal directly with little connection otherwise. With sugar as the major export commodity in the early period and the necessity to process cane into exportable refined sugar on-site, the sugar ''engenhos'' had resident artisans and barber-surgeons, and functioned in some ways as small towns. Also unlike most Spanish settlements, Brazilian cities and towns did not have a uniform lay-out of central plaza and a check board pattern of streets, often because the topography defeated such an orderly layout.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, ''Early Latin America''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 227–231.</ref>

===New Christians===
Converted Jews, so-called [[New Christians]], many of whom were merchants, played a role in colonial Brazil. Their "importance in the colonial may be one explanation why the [[Portuguese Inquisition|Inquisition]] was not permanently established in Brazil during the [[Iberian Union]]." New Christians were well integrated into institutional life, serving in civil as well as ecclesiastical offices. The relative lack of persecution and abundance of opportunity allowed them to have a significant place in society. With the Iberian Union (1580–1640), many migrated to Spanish America.<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, ''Early Latin America''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, pp. 226–227.</ref>

===The Iberian Union (1580–1640)===
{{Main|Iberian Union}}

[[File:Full Ornamented Coat of Arms of Spanish House of Austria (1580-1668).svg|thumb|right|Coat of arms of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II and I of Spain and Portugal]], [[Inescutcheon|inserting]] the coat of arms of Portugal over those of [[Crown of Castile|Castile and León]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]]]]
In 1580, a [[Struggle for the throne of Portugal|succession crisis]] led to the union of Portugal and Spain being ruled by the [[Habsburg]] king [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]. The unification of the crowns of the two Iberian kingdoms, known as the Iberian Union, lasted until 1640 when the Portuguese revolted. During the union the institutions of both kingdoms remained separate. For Portuguese merchants, many of whom were Christian converts from Judaism ("New Christians") or their descendants, the union of crowns presented commercial opportunities in the slave trade to Spanish America.<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', pp. 225, 250.</ref><ref>Arnold Wiznitzer, ''the Jews of Colonial Brazil''. New York: 1960.</ref> The [[Seventeen Provinces]] obtained independence from Spain in 1581, leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil. Since the Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production in the Brazilian Northeast and were important as shippers of sugar,<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', p. 250.</ref> a conflict began with Dutch [[privateer]]s plundering the coast: they sacked Salvador in 1604, from which they removed large amounts of gold and silver before a joint Spanish-Portuguese fleet recaptured the town.<ref>{{Cite web|title=war and social upheaval : Dutch-Portuguese War|url=https://histclo.com/essay/war/swc/17/sw17-dpw.html|access-date=2021-12-16|website=histclo.com}}</ref> The city was captured again by the Dutch in May 1624 before being surrendered to a Luso-Spanish armada 11 months later.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dutch Brazil|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0283.xml|access-date=2021-12-16|website=obo|language=en}}</ref>

===Dutch rule in northeastern Brazil, 1630–1654===
{{Main|Dutch invasions of Brazil|Dutch Brazil}}

From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in commercial [[Recife]] and aristocratic Olinda.<ref>C.R. Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil: 1624–1654''. New York: Oxford University Press 1957.</ref> With the capture of [[Paraíba]] in 1635, the Dutch controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe ([[Dutch Brazil]]), without, however, penetrating the interior. The large Dutch ships were unable to moor in the coastal inlets where lighter Portuguese shipping came and went. Ironically, the result of the Dutch capture of the sugar coast was a higher price of sugar in [[Amsterdam]]. During the [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Nieuw Holland]] episode, the colonists of the [[Dutch West India Company]] in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence of the count [[John Maurice of Nassau]] as governor (1637–1644) in Recife (renamed [[Mauritsstad|Mauritstaad]]). Nassau invited scientific commissions to research the local flora and fauna, resulting in added knowledge of the territory. Moreover, he set up a city project for Recife and Olinda, which was partially accomplished. Remnants survive into the modern era. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch finally withdrew in 1654; the Portuguese paid off a war debt in payments of salt. Few Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remain, but [[Albert Eckhout]]'s paintings of amerindians and slaves, as well as his still lifes are important works of baroque art.

===Slavery in Brazil===
{{main|Slavery in Brazil}}

Unlike neighboring Spanish America, Brazil was a slave society from its outset. The African slave trade was inherent to the economic and social structure of the colony. Years before the North American slave trade got underway, more slaves had been brought to Brazil than would ever reach the [[Thirteen Colonies]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The African Slave Trade and Slave Life {{!}} Brazil: Five Centuries of Change |url=https://library.brown.edu/create/fivecenturiesofchange/chapters/chapter-2/african-slavery/ |website=library.brown.edu}}</ref> It can be estimated that around 35% of all Africans captured in the Atlantic slave trade were sent to Brazil.<ref>{{cite web |title=slavery in Brazil |url=https://histclo.com/act/work/slave/am/sa-bra.html |website=histclo.com}}</ref> The slave trade in Brazil would continue for nearly two hundred years and last the longest of any country in the Americas. African slaves had a higher monetary value than indigenous slaves largely because many of them came from agricultural societies and thus were already familiar with the work needed to maintain the profitable sugar plantations of Brazil. Also, African slaves were already immune to several of the Old World diseases that killed many indigenous people and were less likely to flee, as compared to indigenous slaves, since their place of origin was so inaccessible. However, many African slaves did in fact flee and created their own communities of runaway slaves called ''[[Quilombo|quilombos]]'', which often became established political and economic entities.

===Runaway slave settlements===
{{main|Quilombo}}

[[File:Albert_Eckhout_painting.jpg|thumb|Albert Eckhout, African warrior at the time of Ganga Zumba and leader of the Palmares quilombo]]
Work on the sugarcane plantations in Northeast Brazil and other areas relied heavily on [[Slavery|slave labor]], mostly of west African origin. Tijmen vd P. Had a immense role in slave oppression and torture of escaped africans These enslaved people worked to resist slavery in many ways. Some of the most common forms of resistance involved engaging in sluggishness and [[sabotage]].<ref name=":72">{{Citation|last=Schwartz|first=Stuart B.|chapter=Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil|pages=1294–1325|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-90-04-34661-1|doi=10.1163/9789004346611_041|title=Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.)|year=2017}}</ref> Other ways these enslaved peoples resisted was by exacting violence upon themselves and their babies, often to the point of death, and by seeking revenge against their masters.<ref name=":72"/> Another type of resistance to slavery was flight and, with the dense vegetation of the tropics, runaway slaves fled in numbers and for slave owners, this was an "endemic problem."<ref>James Lockhart and Stuart Schwartz, ''Early Latin America''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983, p. 220.</ref> The realities of being on a frontier that was policed in less than optimal ways fostered the successful escapes of enslaved people.<ref name=":82"/> Since the early 17th century there are indications of runaway slaves organizing themselves into settlements in the Brazilian hinterland. These settlements, called ''[[mocambos]]'' and ''quilombos'', were usually small and relatively close to sugar fields, and attracted not only African slaves but also people of indigenous origin.

''Quilombos'' were often viewed by Portuguese colonists as "parasitic," relying upon theft of livestock and crops, "extortion, and sporadic raiding" for sustenance.<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Abreu, Johnathan A. (2018). "Fugitive Slave Communities in Northern Brail between 1880 and 1900: Territoriality, Resistance, and the Struggle for Autonomy." ''Journal of Latin American Geography.'' Austin: University of Texas Press. 17(1): 199. {{doi|10.1353/lag.2018.0008}}.</ref> Often, the victims of this raiding were not white sugar planters but blacks who sold produce grown on their own plots.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery|last=Schwartz|first=Stuart B.|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1992|isbn=0-252-06549-2|location=Urbana|page=5|chapter=Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil|oclc=857899745}}</ref> Other accounts document the actions of members of ''quilombos'' to successfully prospect gold and diamonds and to engage in trade with white-controlled cities.<ref>Dean, Warren (1997). ''With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest''. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.&nbsp;103. {{ISBN|978-0-520-20886-5}}. {{OCLC|1048765486}}. Abreu, Johnathan A. (2018). "Fugitive Slave Communities in Northern Brail between 1880 and 1900: Territoriality, Resistance, and the Struggle for Autonomy." ''Journal of Latin American Geography.'' Austin: University of Texas Press. 17(1): 201. {{doi|10.1353/lag.2018.0008}}.</ref>

While the reasons for fugitive settlement are varied, ''quilombos'' were rarely wholly self-sufficient and although inhabitants may have engaged in agricultural pursuits, they depended on a kind of parasitic economy where proximity to settled areas were usually prerequisites for their long-term success. Unlike the ''[[Palenque (village)|palenque]]'' in Spanish America or [[Maroons|maroon]] settlements in the [[West Indies]], Portuguese officials rebuked any kind of agreements to standardize the ''quilombos'' out of the fear of drawing even more fugitive slaves to their communities.<ref>Stuart Schwartz. "Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery". Urbana: University of Illinois Press (1992), 108–112.</ref> The largest of the ''quilombos'' was the [[Quilombo dos Palmares]], located in today's [[Alagoas]] state, which grew to many thousands during the disruption of Portuguese rule with the Dutch incursion.<ref>Lockhart and Schwartz, ''Early Latin America'', pp. 220–221.</ref> Palmares was governed by leaders [[Ganga Zumba]] and his successor, [[Zumbi]]. The terminology for the settlements and leaders come directly from Angola, with ''quilombo,'' an Angolan word for military villages of diverse settlers, and the ''nganga a nzumbi'' "was the priest responsible for the spiritual defense of the community."<ref name="Schwartz, p. 221"/> The Dutch and later the Portuguese attempted several times to conquer Palmares, until an army led by famed São Paulo-born [[Domingos Jorge Velho]] managed to destroy the great quilombo and kill Zumbi in 1695. Brazilian feature film director [[Carlos Diegues]] made a film about Palmares called simply ''Quilombo''. Of the many ''quilombos'' that once existed in Brazil, some have survived to this day as isolated rural communities.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

Portuguese colonists sought to destroy these fugitive communities because they threatened the economic and social order of the slave regime in Brazil.<ref name=":04">Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 4. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Kent, R. K. (1965). "Palmares: An African State in Brazil." ''The Journal of African History'' 6(2). p. 174. {{JSTOR|180194}}.</ref> There was a constant fear among colonists that enslaved peoples would revolt and resist slavery.<ref name=":72"/> Two settler objectives were to discourage enslaved peoples from trying to escape and to close down their options for escape.<ref>{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean, Warren.|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-20886-5|location=Berkeley|pages=103|oclc=1048765486}}</ref> Strategies used by Portuguese colonists to prevent enslaved people from fleeing included apprehending escapees before they had the opportunity to band together.<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels: reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 3. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Anderson, Robert Nelson. (1996). "The Quilombo of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil." ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 28(3).</ref> Slave catchers mounted expeditions with the intent to destroy fugitive communities. These expeditions destroyed ''mocambos'' and either killed or re-enslaved inhabitants<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels: reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 4. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Anderson, Robert Nelson. (1996). "The Quilombo of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil." ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 28(3).</ref> These expeditions were conducted by soldiers and mercenaries, many of whom were supported by local people or by the government's military.<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 5. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Anderson, Robert Nelson. (1996). "The Quilombo of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil." ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 28(3).</ref> As a result, many fugitive communities were heavily fortified.<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 6. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}. Anderson, Robert Nelson. (1996). "The Quilombo of Palmares: A New Overview of a Maroon State in Seventeenth-Century Brazil." ''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 28(3).</ref> Amerindians were sometimes utilized as ‘slave catchers’ or as part of a larger set of defenses against slave uprisings that had been orchestrated by cities and towns.<ref name=":9">Schwartz, Stuart B. (1992). "Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil". ''Slaves, peasants, and rebels : reconsidering Brazilian slavery''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 4. {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}}. {{OCLC|857899745}}.</ref> At the same time, some Amerindians resisted the colonizers’ efforts to prevent uprisings by surreptitiously incorporating into their villages those who had escaped slavery.<ref name=":9" />

Many of the details surrounding the inner political and social structure of the ''quilombos'' remain a mystery, and the information available today is limited by the fact that it usually comes from colonial accounts of their destruction.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=Stuart|date=November 10, 2019|title=Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil|journal=The Encyclopedia of the African and the African American Experience|edition=2nd |pages=1–12|via=Oxford African American Studies Center}}</ref> More is known about the Quilombo dos Palmares because it was "the longest-lived and largest fugitive community" in Colonial Brazil.<ref name=":05" /> Like any polity, Palmares and other ''quilombos'' changed over time.<ref name=":05" /> ''Quilombos'' drew on both African and European influences, often emulating the realities of colonial society in Brazil.<ref name=":05" /> In Palmares, slavery, which also existed in Africa, continued.<ref name=":05" /> ''Quilombos'', like plantations, were most likely composed of people from different African groups.<ref name=":05" /> Religious syncretism, combining African and Christian elements, was prevalent.<ref name=":05" /> The Bahian ''quilombo'' of [[Buraco de Tatu]] is described as a "well-organized" village in which people probably practiced monogamy and lived on rectangular-shaped houses that made up neat rows, emulating a plantation ''senzala''.<ref name=":05" /> ''Quilombos'' were often well fortified, with swampy dikes and false roads leading to "covered traps" and "sharpened stakes," like those used in Africa.<ref name=":05" /> The gender imbalance among African slaves was a result of the planters' preference for male labor, and men in ''quilombos'' not only raided for crops and goods, but for women; the women taken back to the quilombos were often black or [[mulatto]].<ref name=":05" />

In [[Minas Gerais]], the mining economy particularly favored the formation of ''quilombos''.<ref name=":05" /> The skilled slaves that worked in mines were highly valuable to their owners, but, as long as they continued to cede their findings, they were often allowed freedom of movement within the mining districts.<ref name=":05" /> Slaves and freed blacks made up to three-fourths of the region's population, and runaways could easily hide among the "sea of coloreds."<ref name=":05" /> The region's mountains and large tracts of unsettled land provided potential hideouts.<ref name=":05" /> Civil unrest combined with other forms of resistance against the colonial government severely hindered the anti-''quilombo'' efforts of slaveowners and local authorities.<ref name=":05" /> In fact, to the dismay of colonial authorities, slaves participated in these anti-government movements, often armed by their owners.<ref name=":05" />

As mentioned, indigenous people could be both allies and enemies of runaway slaves.<ref name=":05" /> From the late 1500s and as late as 1627, in southern Bahia, a "syncretic Messianic religion" called [[Santidade]] gained popularity among both indigenous people and runaway slaves, who joined forces and carried out raids in the region, even stealing slaves from Salvador.<ref name=":05" />

==Inland expansion: the ''entradas'' and ''bandeiras''==
{{main|Bandeirantes}}

{{see also|São Paulo (state)#History|Captaincy of São Vicente}}
[[File:Dança dos Tapuias.jpg|thumb|[[Albert Eckhout]] Tapuias dancing, mid. 17th century]]
Since the 16th century the exploration of the Brazilian inland was attempted several times, mostly to try to find mineral riches like the [[silver]] mines found in 1546 by the Spanish in [[Potosí]] (now in [[Bolivia]]). Since no riches were initially found, colonisation was restricted to the coast where the climate and soil were suitable for sugarcane plantations.

Key to understanding inland expansion in Brazil is understanding the colony's economic structure. Brazil was constructed as an [[Exploitation colonialism|export colony]], and less so as a place for permanent European settlement. This led to a culture of extraction that was unsustainable in terms of land and labor uses.

At sugar plantations in the north, land was worked exhaustively with no concern for ensuring its long-term productivity. As soon as the land was exhausted, plantation owners would simply abandon their plots, shifting the sugar frontier to new plots as the supply of land seemed endless to them.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Slavery in Brazil|last=Klein, Herbert S.|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-14192-5|pages=134, 135|oclc=1026039080}}</ref> Economic incentives to increase profits drove this pattern of planting, while the abandoned lands rarely recovered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McNeill|first=J. R.|date=1986-06-01|title=Agriculture, Forests, and Ecological History: Brazil, 1500–1984|journal=Environmental History Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=124|doi=10.2307/3984562|issn=1053-4180|jstor=3984562|s2cid=156161425}}</ref>

The expeditions to inland Brazil are divided into two types: the ''entradas'' and the ''bandeiras''. The ''entradas'' were done in the name of the Portuguese crown and were financed by the colonial government. Its main objective was to find mineral riches, as well as to explore and chart unknown territory. The ''bandeiras'', on the other hand, were private initiatives sponsored and carried out mostly by settlers of the São Paulo region (the ''Paulistas''). The expeditions of the ''[[bandeirantes]]'', as these adventurers were called, were aimed at obtaining native slaves for trade and finding mineral riches. ''Banderia'' expeditions often consisted of a field officer, his slaves, a chaplain, a scribe, a mapmaker, white colonists, livestock, and medical professionals, among others.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Taming the Wilderness, Minas Gerais, Brazil|last=Pamplona|first=Inácio Correia|work=Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc|year=2002|editor-last=Mills|editor-first=Kenneth|location=Lanham|pages=335|editor-last2=Taylor|editor-first2=William B|editor-last3=Lauderdale Graham|editor-first3=Sandra}}</ref> In several-month-long marches, such groups entered lands that were not yet occupied by colonizers by were doubtless part of the homelands of Amerindians.<ref name=":02" /> The ''bandeirantes'', who at the time were mostly of mixed Portuguese and native ancestry, knew all the old indigenous pathways (the {{lang|pt|peabirus}}) through the Brazilian inland and were acclimated to the harsh conditions of these journeys.<ref>Richard M. Morse, ed. ''The Bandereintes: The Historical Role of the Brazilian Pathfinders''. New York 1965.</ref>

At the end of the 17th century, the ''bandeirantes''' expeditions discovered gold in central Brazil, in the region of Minas Gerais, which started a [[Brazilian Gold Rush|gold rush]] that led to a dramatic urban development of inland Brazil during the 18th century. Additionally, inland expeditions led to westward expansion of the frontiers of colonial Brazil, beyond the limits established by the Treaty of Tordesillas.

=== Race mixing and cultural exchange along the frontier ===
When white fugitives fleeing tax collectors, military enlistment, and the law entered the backlands of the [[Atlantic Forest]], they formed racially-mixed settlements that became sites of "cultural and genetic exchange".<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-20886-5|location=Berkeley|pages=91–116|oclc=1048765486}}</ref>

Some tribes like the [[Caiapo]] managed to fend off the Europeans for years, while adopting Old World agricultural practices.<ref name=":15"/> However, the expansion of the mining frontier pushed many indigenous tribes off their land.<ref name=":15"/> An increasing number of them went to the ''aldeias'' to evade the threat of enslavement by colonists or conflicts with other indigenous groups.<ref name=":15"/> In 1755, in an attempt to transform this wandering population into a more productive, assimilated peasantry modeled on Europe's own peasants, the [[Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal|marquis of Pombal]] abolished the enslavement of natives and legal discrimination against the Europeans who married them, banning the use of the term ''caboclo'', a pejorative used to refer to a mestizo or a [[detribalized]] indigenous person.<ref name=":15"/>

Along the frontier, racial mixing between people of indigenous, European, and African ancestry resulted in various physical spaces for cultural interchange that historian Warren Dean has called the "caboclo frontier".<ref name=":15"/> Portuguese colonial authorities were characterized by their refusal to cooperate or negotiate with ''quilombos'', seeing them as a threat to the social order,<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=Stuart|date=November 10, 2019|title=Rethinking Palmares: Slave Resistance in Colonial Brazil|journal=The Encyclopedia of the African and the African American Experience|volume=Second Edition|pages=1–12|via=Oxford African American Studies Center}}</ref> but caboclo settlements integrated the indigenous into what Darren describes as "neo-European customs [or an Africanized version of them]".<ref name=":15"/> Runaway slaves, forming ''quilombos'' or finding refuge in the backlands of the forest, came into contact with indigenous people and introduced them to the Portuguese language.<ref name=":15"/> Frontier army agent Guido Thomaz Marlière noted: "a fugitive black can accomplish more among the Indians than all the missionaries together..."<ref name=":15"/> One ''quilombo'' in specific, Piolho, was "officially tolerated" for its ability to pacify indigenous tribes.<ref name=":15"/> At the same time, colonial officials disapproved of unions between runaway black slaves and indigenous people.<ref name=":15"/> In 1771, when an indigenous captain-major of an ''aldeia'' married an African woman, he was dismissed from his position.<ref name=":15"/>

The inhabitants of the caboclo frontier exchanged belief systems, musical traditions, remedies, fishing and hunting techniques, and other customs with each other.<ref name=":15"/> The Tupi language enriched Portuguese with new words for native flora and fauna, as well as for places.<ref name=":15"/> Africanisms, such as the Kimbundu word ''fubá'' (maize meal) also became part of [[Brazilian Portuguese]].<ref name=":15"/>

==== Black Irmandade of Bahia, Brazil ====
The Black Irmandade was the result of the blacks and mulattos beginning to create custom and culture.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Colonial Latin America|last=Mills|first=Kenneth|publisher=SR Books|year=2002}}</ref> Although Blacks were considered of "the lowest rabble", their agricultural skills and that they came from Europe along with the white Europeans gave them an upper hand in social ranking.<ref name=":1" /> These Afro-Portuguese blacks developed a complex culture that can best be highlighted through their celebrations and festivities that took place in Bahia, Brazil.<ref name=":1" /> In these festivities lies a combination of African beliefs and practices with not only a Christian impact but also the impact of living in a new land. The Irmandade put a large value on the extensiveness of one's burial as to die alone and "anonymously" would be a representation of a poor person.<ref name=":1" /> The Irmandade of Bahia, Brazil, highlights the rising racial and cultural complexity that would take place between the native indigenous, African slaves, and white Europeans in the years to come.

== Initial findings of gold (17th century) ==
While the first major gold deposits were found at the end of the 17th century, there is record of gold being found in the area of São Vicente in the end of the 16th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/0z708w58t|title=With broadax and firebrand: the destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|year=1997|publisher=University of California Press|pages=92|isbn=9780520208865}}</ref> In the century or so between these initial sightings of gold and the first findings of major gold deposits, not much revenue was made, but two important modes of interacting with gold in Brazil came into place. Firstly, in the initial goldfields and smelting houses run by the Portuguese monarchy, the crown forced indigenous people into slave labor. Hundreds of thousands of people were shipped from Africa to be enslaved to work in mines by the end of the 17th century,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Russell-Wood|first=A. J. R.|date=1977|title=Technology and Society: The Impact of Gold Mining on the Institution of Slavery in Portuguese America|journal=The Journal of Economic History|volume=37|issue=1|pages=64|doi=10.1017/S002205070009673X|issn=0022-0507|jstor=2119446|s2cid=153680164 }}</ref> but this process began with a couple hundred indigenous people enslaved into the gold industry at the first ventures for gold by the Crown in Brazil a century earlier.<ref name=":0" /> Secondly, people referred to as ''faiscadores'' or ''garimpeiros'' illegally prospected and mined for gold, dodging Portuguese taxes on precious metals. Prospectors illegally mining gold separate from the Portuguese crown was a problem for the monarchy for over a hundred years after the beginning of gold mining in Brazil.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/0z708w58t|title=With broadax and firebrand: the destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|year=1997|publisher=University of California Press|pages=92–95|isbn=9780520208865}}</ref>

==The gold cycle (18th century)==
{{main|Brazilian Gold Rush}}

{{see also|Minas Gerais#History}}
[[File:OuroPretoView.jpg|thumb|View of [[Ouro Preto]], one of the main Portuguese settlements founded during the gold rush in Minas Gerais. The town has preserved its colonial appearance to this day|left]]

The discovery of gold was met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands. A gold rush quickly ensued, with people from other parts of the colony and Portugal flooding the region in the first half of the 18th century. The large portion of the Brazilian inland where gold was extracted became known as Minas Gerais (General Mines). Gold mining in this area became the main economic activity of colonial Brazil during the 18th century. In Portugal, the gold was mainly used to pay for industrialized goods such as textiles and weapons from other European nations (since Portugal lacked an industrial economy) to, especially during the reign of king [[John V of Portugal|John V]], construct [[Baroque]] buildings such as the [[Convent of Mafra]]. Apart from gold, diamond deposits were also found in 1729 around the village of Tijuco, now [[Diamantina, Minas Gerais|Diamantina]]. A famous figure in Brazilian history of this era was [[Chica da Silva|Xica da Silva]], a slave woman who had a long-term relationship in Diamantina with a Portuguese official; the couple had thirteen children and she died a rich woman.<ref>Júnia Ferreira Furtado, ''Chica da Silva: A Brazilian Slave of the Eighteenth Century''. New York: Cambridge University Press 2009.</ref> 

In the hilly landscape of Minas Gerais, gold was present in [[Alluvium|alluvial deposits]] around streams and was extracted using pans and other similar instruments that required little technology. Gold extraction was mostly done by slaves. The gold industry brought hundreds of thousands of Africans to Brazil as slaves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Russell-Wood|first=A. J. R.|date=March 1977|title=Technology and Society: The Impact of Gold Mining on the Institution of Slavery in Portuguese America|journal=The Journal of Economic History|volume=37|issue=1|pages=59–83|doi=10.1017/s002205070009673x|s2cid=153680164 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref> The Portuguese Crown allowed particulars to extract the gold, requiring a fifth (20%) of the gold (the ''quinto'') to be sent to the colonial government as tax. To prevent smuggling and extract the ''quinto'', the government ordered all gold to be cast into bars in the ''Casas de Fundição'' (Casting Houses) in 1725, and sent armies to the region to prevent disturbances and oversee the mining process. The Royal tax was very unpopular in Minas Gerais, and gold was frequently hidden from colonial authorities. Eventually, the ''quinto'' contributed to rebellious movements like the [[Vila Rica Revolt|Vila Rica revolt]], in 1720, and the [[Inconfidência Mineira|Minas Gerais conspiracy]], in 1789.
[[File:Mapa de rendimento do ouro nas Reais Casas de Fundição em Minas Gerais, entre julho e setembro de 1767..tif|thumb|Map of gold yield in the Real Casting Houses in Minas Gerais, between July and September 1767, [[Brazilian National Archives|National Archives of Brazil]]]]
Several historians have noted that the trade deficit of Portugal in relation to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] while the [[Methuen Treaty]] was in force served to redirect much of the gold mined in Brazil during the 18th century to Britain. The Methuen Treaty was a trade treaty signed between the British and Portuguese, by which all woolen cloth imported from Britain would be tax-free in Portugal, whereas Portuguese wine exported to Britain would be taxed at one-third of the previous import tax on wines. [[Port wine]] had become increasingly popular in Britain at that time, but cloth amounted to a larger share of the trade value than wines, hence Portugal eventually incurred a [[trade deficit]] with the British.<ref>Frey, Linda and Frey, Martha ''The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: an Historical and Critical Dictionary Greenwood Press 1995 p. 290''</ref>

The large number of adventurers coming to Minas Gerais led to the foundation of several settlements, the first of which was created in 1711: [[Ouro Preto|Vila Rica de Ouro Preto]], [[Sabará]] and [[Mariana, Minas Gerais|Mariana]], followed by [[São João del Rei|São João del-Rei]] (1713), [[Serro]], [[Caeté]] (1714), [[Pitangui]] (1715) and São José do Rio das Mortes (1717, now [[Tiradentes, Minas Gerais|Tiradentes]]). In contrast to other regions of colonial Brazil, people coming to Minas Gerais settled mostly in villages instead of the countryside.

In 1763, the capital of colonial Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, which was located closer to the mining region and provided a harbor to ship the gold to Europe.

According to historian Maria Marcílio, "In 1700 Portugal had a population of about two million people. During the eighteenth century, approximately 400,000 left for [the Portuguese colony of] Brazil, despite efforts by the crown to place severe restrictions on emigration."<ref>Marcílio, Maria Luiza. "The Population of Colonial Brazil." ''The Cambridge History of Latin America''. Edited by Leslie Bethell. Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 47. (in English). {{ISBN| 978-0-521-23223-4}}.</ref>

Gold production declined towards the end of the 18th century, beginning a period of relative stagnation of the Brazilian hinterland.

===Colonization of the South===
{{main|Colonia del Sacramento}}

{{see also|Guaraní War}}
{{missing information|colonization of the north: captaincies of Maranhao, Para (Grao-Para), Rio Negro|date=March 2014}}[[File:Fortaleza Sao Jose-Florianopolis-Brasil.JPG|thumb|250px|18th century-São José Fortress near [[Florianópolis]], southern Brazil|left]] In an attempt to expand the borders of colonial Brazil and profit from the silver mines of Potosí, the Portuguese Overseas Council (the ''Conselho Ultramarino'') ordered colonial governor Manuel Lobo to establish a settlement on the shore of the [[Río de la Plata|River Plate]], in a region that legally belonged to Spain. In 1679, Manuel Lobo founded [[Colonia del Sacramento|Colónia do Sacramento]] on the margin opposite to [[Buenos Aires]]. The fortified settlement quickly became an important point of illegal commerce between the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Spain and Portugal fought over the enclave on several occasions (1681, 1704, 1735).

In addition to Colónia do Sacramento, several settlements were established in Southern Brazil in the late 17th and 18th century, some with peasants from the [[Azores Islands]]. The towns founded in this period include [[Curitiba]] (1668), [[Florianópolis]] (1675), [[Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul|Rio Grande]] (1736), [[Porto Alegre]] (1742) and others, and helped keep southern Brazil firmly under Portuguese control.

The conflicts over the Southern colonial frontiers led to the signing of the [[Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)|Treaty of Madrid (1750)]], in which Spain and Portugal agreed to a considerable Southwestward expansion of colonial Brazil. According to the treaty, Colónia do Sacramento was to be given to Spain in exchange for the territories of ''[[Misiones Orientales|São Miguel das Missões]]'', a region occupied by [[Jesuit reduction|Jesuit missions]] dedicated to evangelizing the [[Guaraní people|Guaraní natives]]. Resistance by the Jesuits and the Guaraní led to the [[Guaraní War]] (1756), in which Portuguese and Spanish troops destroyed the missions. Colónia do Sacramento kept changing hands until 1777, when it was definitively conquered by the colonial governor of Buenos Aires.

[[File:Tiradentes escuartejado (Tiradentes supliciado) by Pedro Américo 1893.jpg|thumb|200px|Quartered body of [[Tiradentes]], by Brazilian painter [[Pedro Américo]] (1893)]]

===''Inconfidência Mineira''===
{{main|Inconfidência Mineira}}

In 1788/89, Minas Gerais was the setting of the most important conspiracy against colonial authorities, the so-called ''Inconfidência Mineira'', inspired by the ideals of the French [[Liberalism|liberal]] philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the successful [[American Revolution]] of 1776. The conspirators largely belonged to the white upper class of Minas Gerais.<ref>Kenneth P. Maxwell, ''Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750–1808''. New York: Cambridge University Press 1973.</ref> Many had studied in Europe, especially in the [[University of Coimbra]], and some had large debts with the colonial government. In the context of declining gold production, the intention of the Portuguese government to impose the obligatory payment of all debts (the ''derrama'') was a leading cause behind the conspiracy. The conspirators wanted to create a republic in which the leader would be chosen through democratic elections. The capital would be [[São João del Rei|São João del-Rei]], and [[Ouro Preto]] would become a university town. The structure of the society, including the right to property and the ownership of slaves, would be kept intact.

The conspiracy was discovered by the Portuguese colonial government in 1789, before the planned military rebellion could take place. Eleven of the conspirators were exiled to Portuguese colonial possessions in [[Angola]], but [[Tiradentes|Joaquim José da Silva Xavier]], nicknamed Tiradentes, was sentenced to death. Tiradentes was hanged in Rio de Janeiro in 1792, drawn and quartered, and his body parts displayed in several towns. He later became a symbol of the struggle for Brazilian independence and liberty from Portuguese rule.

The Inconfidência Mineira was not the only rebellious movement in colonial Brazil against the Portuguese. Later, in 1798, there was the ''[[1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates|Inconfidência Baiana]]'' in Salvador. In this episode, which had more participation of common people, four people were hanged, and 41 were jailed. Members included slaves, middle-class people and even some landowners.

== Colonial transformation of the Brazilian environment ==
Colonial practices destroyed much of the Brazilian forest.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-20886-5|location=Berkeley|pages=116|oclc=1048765486}}</ref> This was made possible in part by colonial view of the natural world as a disposable collection of utilities with no inherent value.<ref name=":12" />

Mining practices significantly harmed the land. To facilitate the extraction of gold, large swaths of forest along hillsides were burned in some regions.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last=McNeill|first=J. R.|date=1986-06-01|title=Agriculture, Forests, and Ecological History: Brazil, 1500–1984|journal=Environmental History Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=125|doi=10.2307/3984562|issn=1053-4180|jstor=3984562|s2cid=156161425}}</ref> 4,000 square kilometers of the Atlantic Forest region were denuded for mining, leaving the terrain "bald and deserted".<ref name=":62" /> This massive destruction of the natural environment was a consequence of the colonial culture of extraction and unsustainability.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-91908-2|location=Berkeley|oclc=43476630}}</ref>

As the gold rush subsided, many Portuguese colonists abandoned mining for farming and animal husbandry.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-91908-2|location=Berkeley|pages=92|oclc=43476630}}</ref> Farming practices extended inland expansion farther into the Brazilian forest.<ref name=":32" /> The colonists began to set in motion what became a nearly unstoppable trend with profound cumulative effects.<ref name=":32" /> The Portuguese colonists' decisions to pursue the economic strategy of agriculture and to adopt particular agricultural practices significantly transformed the Brazilian environment. The Portuguese colonists viewed farming as a beneficial taming of the frontier, urging mestizos, mulattoes, and indigenous peoples to abandon life in the wild forest and adopt agriculture.<ref>{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-91908-2|location=Berkeley|pages=100|oclc=43476630}}</ref> Colonial farming practices in the forest were unsustainable, greatly exploiting the land. Slash-and-burn practices were used liberally, and colonial responses to the presence of the [[Atta (genus)|ant genus ''Atta'']] encouraged both large-scale abandonment of fields and extensive clearing of additional lands.<ref name=":22" /> ''Atta'' effectively resisted agriculture. In only a few years, the ants constructed elaborate and complex colonies that colonists found nearly impossible to destroy and that made hoeing and plowing extremely difficult.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-91908-2|location=Berkeley|pages=110|oclc=43476630}}</ref> Instead of fighting the ants, colonists ceded their fields to the ants, created new fields through burning, then a few years later ceded their new fields to the ants.<ref name=":42" />

This environmental transformation contrasted sharply with Brazilian Amerindian land-management concepts and practices. Unlike in many areas of Central and South America, in Brazil Amerindians did not significantly disrupt and damage biotic communities.<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last=McNeill|first=J. R.|date=1986-06-01|title=Agriculture, Forests, and Ecological History: Brazil, 1500–1984|journal=Environmental History Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=123–133|doi=10.2307/3984562|issn=1053-4180|jstor=3984562|s2cid=156161425}}</ref> Amerindians maintained very small communities, and their total numbers were small. In addition, they prioritized the long-term agricultural productivity of the land, utilizing cultivation, hunting, and gathering practices that were sustainable.<ref name=":52" />

The introduction of European livestock—cattle, horses, and pigs—also radically transformed the land.<ref name=":62" /> Indigenous flora in the interior of Brazil withered and died in the face of repeated trampling by cattle; the flora were replaced by grasses able to adapt to such abuse.<ref name=":62" /> Cattle also overgrazed fertile fields, killing vegetation that was able to survive extensive trampling.<ref name=":12" /> Scrubby noxious plants, some of which were poisonous, replaced this vegetation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-20886-5|location=Berkeley|pages=112|oclc=1048765486}}</ref> Colonists responded to these unwanted plants by burning innumerable large pastures, a practice that killed countless small animals and greatly damaged soil nutrients.<ref>{{Cite book|title=With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest|last=Dean|first=Warren|publisher=University of California Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-520-20886-5|location=Berkeley|pages=113|oclc=1048765486}}</ref>

=== Challenges to the sustainability and the growth of agriculture ===
The mining of gold and diamonds shaped the internal economy of agriculture.<ref name=":15"/> Although slash-and-burn agriculture was able to feed the mining region throughout the 1700s, deforestation and the degradation of the land made farming increasingly difficult in the long term and forced farmers to look for grasses further away from these mining centers.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, by 1800, foodstuffs were carried on mule trains by [[Tropeiro|''tropeiros'']] as far as 100 kilometers just to reach [[Ouro Preto]].<ref name=":15" /> Although the colonial authorities encouraged the mining industry, like the Jesuits before them, they also noticed the negative effects of slash-and-burn agriculture.<ref name=":15" />

In 1765, Luís António de Sousa Botelho became the governor of the captaincy of São Paulo.<ref name=":15" /> He attempted to stop slash-and-burn agriculture through the imposition of a village social order.<ref name=":15" /> Botelho encouraged mestizos, mulattos, assimilated indigenous people, and ''Paulista'' farmers to take up the plow and use the manure of draft animals as fertilizer, but his reforms did not work for several reasons.<ref name=":15" /> Botelho's propositions did not appeal to farmers because farmers would have to work more hours without any guarantee or probability of actually increasing their harvest.<ref name=":15" /> The colonial land policy favored the elite, who could afford purchasing expensive land titles.<ref name=":15" /> Because these small-scale farmers were unable to attain land titles to make their fields their property, they were uninvested in sustainable farming practices.<ref name=":15" /> Botelho also saw slavery as a hindrance to the agricultural development of the region.<ref name=":15" /> Although his reforms were unsuccessful and he was not able to implement all of his ideas, Botelho did recognize that mercantilism and militarism impeded the growth of agriculture.<ref name=":15" />

Other impediments to the growth of agriculture, included the criminalization and vilification of the poor. Heavy taxes were expected in cash from poor farmers.<ref name=":15" /> While reimbursements could be delayed for years, when taxes were not paid, the family's young men were forced into military service.<ref name=":15" /> One governor in Minas Gerais noted with dismay that white settlers seemed to reject all forms of intensive manual labor in the hopes of increasing their chances at upward social mobility.<ref name=":15" /> Botelho, himself, "conscripted almost 5,000 men from an adult population that could not have numbered more than 35,000."<ref name=":15" /> Unemployed men were designated as [[Vagrancy|''vadios'']] or [[Vagrancy|''vagabundos'']] and enlisted in the military or sent to the frontier along convicts.<ref name=":15" /> Some of the men managed to escape the authorities and found refuge in the Atlantic forest, where they became subsistence farmers or prospectors; these men would later come to form part of the "caboclo frontier."<ref name=":15" />

The pests and plagues that invaded farmers' crops were a significant barrier to the growth of agriculture.<ref name=":15" /> Rodents, insects, and birds ate many crops, but the most pervasive pests were the [[Leafcutter ant|leaf-cutting ants]], or [[Leafcutter ant|''saúva'']] (in [[Tupi language|Tupi]]).<ref name=":15" /> These ants are difficult to eliminate as, even today, they are difficult to study because they work at night and live below the ground.<ref name=":15" /> Farmers at that time, were unsure on how to deal with ''saúva'', and unfortunately, resorted to countermeasures, like slash-and-burn, that only exacerbated the problem.<ref name=":15" />

==== Cattle raising ====
As with agriculture, the mining economy shaped the cattle raising industry from its outset. Beef was eaten by miners and was "the preferred source of protein in the neo-European diet" of Colonial Brazil.<ref name=":15" /> Cattle raising spread from São Paulo to the [[Guarapuava]] plains.<ref name=":15" />

Cattle were not particularly cared for.<ref name=":15" /> No fodder was provided, and even castrating and branding were often neglected.<ref name=":15" /> As a result, there was a severe mortality rate during the dry season, and it took several years for cattle to reach a sellable weight.<ref name=":15" /> Salt served as a poor dietary supplement for cattle, and this inadequate use, simply made salt-preserved meats and dairy products "unnecessarily expensive."<ref name=":15" /> Cattle suffered from intestinal parasites and ticks.<ref name=":15" /> In their attempts to escape pests and threats, they often moved into forest margins, disrupting their ecosystems.<ref name=":15" /> As mentioned, cattle raising changed the native landscape from palatable grasses to "scrubby, noxious" plants, but trying to eliminate them by burning only worked temporarily.<ref name=":15" /> In the long term, burning these grasses caused erosion, reduced soil permeability, and produced degraded, innutritious pasture prone to becoming hosting ticks and poisonous plant species.<ref name=":15" /> Cattle took longer to reach their weight, and by choosing the largest animals, herders only worsened the breed through "negative selective pressure."<ref name=":15" /> Although they were edible and fire-resistant, the African grasses that eventually replaced native ones were not as nutritious because they were not planted in variety to provide a more balanced diet.<ref name=":15" />

Because of degraded grasslands, high mortality rate, slow growth, and low population, like agriculture, the cattle raising industry in Colonial Brazil was not very productive. In fact, hunter-gatherers in this area could have attained more meat than the cattle breeders, who annually produced a maximum of "five kilograms of meat per hectare."<ref name=":15" /> Thus, wasteful agricultural practices and irresponsible cattle raising methods not only led to the degradation of the native landscape; they also did little for the long-term economic development of the region.<ref name=":15" /> Historian Warren Dean acknowledges the effects that [[colonialism]] and [[capitalism]] had on the seemingly "useless" and "wasteful" exploitation of the Atlantic Forest, yet he also warns the reader against ascribing the whole blame on colonialism and capitalism.<ref name=":15" /> According to Dean, there is evidence to suggest colonists accepted "regal authority" only when it supported their interests and that "colonies were not necessarily condemned to [lower] levels of capital formation."<ref name=":15" /> "Resistance to the demands of imperialism," says Dean, can have as "forceful and determinant [of an effect on] the formation of states and nations as imperialism itself."<ref name=":15" />

==The Royal Court in Brazil (1808–1821)==
{{Main|Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil}}

[[File:Imperios Español y Portugués 1790.svg|thumb|The Spanish and Portuguese empires in 1790]][[File:Declaração de guerra feita por D. João a Napoleão Bonaparte e todos os seus vassalo.jpg|left|thumb|Declaration of war made by Prince Regent John to Napoleon Bonaparte and all his vassals, 1808]]The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula set off major changes there and in both Portugal's and Spain's overseas empires. In 1807 French troops of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] invaded Britain's ally, Portugal. Prince Regent [[John VI of Portugal|John]] (future king John VI), who had governed since 1792 on behalf of his mother, queen [[Maria I of Portugal|Maria I]], ordered the transfer of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil before he could be deposed by the invading army. In January 1808, prince John and his court arrived in Salvador, where he signed a commercial regulation that opened commerce between Brazil and friendly nations (Britain). This important law broke the colonial pact that, until then, allowed Brazil to maintain direct commercial relations with Portugal only.<ref>A.J.R. Russell-Wood, ed. ''From Colony to Nation: Essays on the Independence of Brazil''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1975.</ref><ref>José Honório Rodrigues. ''Independência: Revoluçāo e contra-revolução''. Rio de Janeiro 1976.</ref>

In March 1808, the court arrived in Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, during the [[Congress of Vienna]], Prince John created the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]] by elevating Brazil to the rank of kingdom and increasing its administrative autonomy.

In 1816, with the death of queen Maria, prince John succeeded as monarch, and the ceremony of his acclamation was held in Rio de Janeiro in February 1818.

Among the important measures taken by prince John in his years in Brazil were incentives to commerce and industry, the permission to print newspapers and books, the creation of two medicine schools, military academies, and the first [[Banco do Brasil|bank of Brazil]]. In Rio de Janeiro he also created a powder factory, a [[Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden|Botanical Garden]], an art academy (''[[Escola Nacional de Belas Artes]]'') and an opera house (''Teatro São João''). All these measures greatly advanced the independence of Brazil in relation to Portugal and made the later political separation between the two countries inevitable.
[[File:0200 years Biblioteca Nacional in Rio de Janeiro city.jpg|thumb|[[National Library of Brazil]], established by [[John VI of Portugal|Dom João VI]] in the 19th century, has one of the richest literary collections in the world.]]
[[File:PacoImperial1.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Paço Imperial]], an 18th-century colonial palace located in Rio de Janeiro, used as a dispatch house by King [[John VI of Portugal|João VI of Portugal]] and later by his son, Emperor [[Pedro I of Brazil]].]] Due to the absence of the king and the economic independence of Brazil, Portugal entered a severe crisis that obliged John VI and the royal family to return to Portugal in 1821: a [[Liberal Revolution of 1820|Liberal Revolution]] had broken out in Portugal in 1820, and the royal governors who ruled Portugal in the king's name had been replaced by a revolutionary Council of Regency formed to govern the European portion of the united kingdom until the king's return. Indeed, the king's immediate return to Lisbon was one of the main demands of the revolutionaries. Under the revolutionary Council of Regency, a constituent assembly, known as the Portuguese Constitutional Courts (''Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas''), was elected to abolish the absolute monarchy and replace it with a constitutional one. King John VI, then, yielding to pressure, returned to Europe. Brazilian representatives were elected to join the deliberations of the Constitutional ''Cortes'' of the kingdom.

The heir of John VI, prince [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro]], remained in Brazil. The Portuguese ''Cortes'' demanded that Brazil return to its former condition of colony and that the heir return to Portugal. Prince Pedro, influenced by the Rio de Janeiro Municipal Senate (''Senado da Câmara''), refused to return to Portugal in the famous ''[[Dia do Fico]]'' (January 9, 1822). Political independence came on 7 September 1822, and the prince was crowned emperor in Rio de Janeiro as [[Pedro I of Brazil|Dom Pedro I]], ending 322 years of dominance of Portugal over Brazil.

==Territorial evolution of colonial Brazil==
{{lacking overview|section|date=March 2014}}
<gallery>
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1534.png|1534<br />''[[Capitanias hereditárias]]''
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1574.png|1574<br />Two states
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1647.png|1647<br />Dutch invasion
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1709.png|1709<br />Inland expansion
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1750.png|1750<br />Treaty of Madrid
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1817.png|1817<br />At the time of the ''[[Pernambucan revolt]]''
File:Brasil 1821 - América Portuguesa.jpg|Dimension of Brazil (date: 1821) with Kingdom of Portugal Brazil and Algarves (Preserved map in National Library of Portugal)
File:Mapa_do_Brasil_em_1823.png|1822<br />At date of independence
</gallery>

==Administrative evolution==
{{prose|section|date=February 2025}}

Colonial entities, ordered by the date of establishment, earlier to later:

*[[Captaincy Colonies of Brazil]] (Private and autonomous colonies 1534–1549)
*[[Captaincies of Brazil]] (Colonial provincial districts from 1549 to 1815)
*[[Governorate General of Brazil]] (1549–1572 / 1578–1607 / 1613–1621)
**[[Governorate General of Bahia]] (1572–1578 / 1607–1613)
**[[Governorate General of Rio de Janeiro]] (1572–1578 / 1607–1613)
*[[State of Brazil]] (1621–1815)
*[[state of Maranhão (colonial)|State of Maranhão]] (1621–1751)
*[[State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão]] (1751–1772)
*[[State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro]] (1772–1775)
*[[State of Maranhão and Piauí]] (1772–1775)
* In 1808 the queen and the Prince Regent of Portugal arrive in Brazil and the Prince Regent's Government assumes direct control of the administration of the State of Brazil;
* In 1815, the State of Brazil is elevated to the rank of a kingdom (the [[Kingdom of Brazil]]) and with the simultaneous formation of the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]], marking the formal end of the colonial era.
* In 1822, Brazil secedes from the United Kingdom and the independent [[Empire of Brazil]] is founded. The separation is recognized by Portugal in 1825 after the [[Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)|Treaty of Rio de Janeiro]].

The detailed history of the administrative changes in the administration of colonial Brazil is as follows:

From 1534 (immediately after the start the Portuguese attempts to effectively colonize Brazil) until 1549, Brazil was divided by the Portuguese Crown in private and autonomous colonies known as ''hereditary captaincies'' (''capitanias hereditárias''), or ''captaincy colonies'' (''colónias capitanias'').

In 1549, Portuguese King John III abolished the system of private colonies, and the fifteen existing hereditary captaincies were incorporated into a single Crown colony, the Governorate General of Brazil.

The individual captaincies, now under the administration of the Portuguese Crown (and no longer called colonies or hereditary captaincies, but simply captaincies of Brazil), continued to exist as provinces or districts within the colony until the end of the colonial era in 1815.

The unified Governorate General of Brazil, with its capital city in Salvador, existed during three periods: from 1549 to 1572, from 1578 to 1607 and from 1613 to 1621. Between 1572 and 1578 and again between 1607 and 1613, the colony was split in two, and during those periods the Governorate General of Brazil did not exist, being replaced by two separate Governorates: the Governorate General of Bahia, in the North, with its seat in the city of Salvador, and the Governorate General of Rio de Janeiro, in the South, with its seat in the city of Rio de Janeiro.

In 1621, an administrative reorganization took place, and the Governorate General of Brazil became known as the State of Brazil (''Estado do Brasil''), keeping Salvador as its capital city. With this administrative remodeling, the unity of the colony was once again interrupted, as a portion of territory in the northern part of modern Brazil became an autonomous colony, separate from the State of Brazil: the State of Maranhão, with its capital city in São Luiz.

In 1652, the State of Maranhão was extinguished, and its territory was briefly added to the State of Brazil, reunifying the colonial administration once more.

However, in 1654, the territories of the former State of Maranhão were again separated from the State of Brazil, and the Captaincy of Grão-Pará was also split from Brazil. In this restructuring, the territories of Grão-Pará and Maranhão, severed from Brazil, were united in a single State, initially named as State of Maranhão and Grão-Pará, having São Luiz as its capital city. This newly created State incorporated territories recently acquired by the Portuguese west of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas|Tordesillas line]].

In 1751, the State of Maranhão and Grão-Pará was renamed as the State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão, and its capital city as transferred from São Luiz (in Maranhão) to Belém (in the part of the State that was then known as Grão-Pará).

In 1763, the capital city of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. At the same time, the title of the King's representative heading the government of the State of Brazil was officially changed from Governor General to Viceroy (Governors coming from the high nobility had been using the title of Viceroy since about 1640). However, the name of Brazil was never changed to Viceroyalty of Brazil. That title, although sometimes used by modern writers, is not proper, as the colony continued to be titled State of Brazil.

In 1772, in a short-lived territorial reorganization, the State of Grão-Pará and Maranhão was split in two: the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro (better known simply as the State of Grão-Pará), with the city of Belém as its capital, and the State of Maranhão and Piauí (better known simply as the State of Maranhão), with its seat in the city of São Luiz.

Thus from 1772 until another territorial reorganization in 1775 there were three distinct Portuguese States in South America: the State of Brazil, the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro, and the State of Maranhão and Piauí.

In 1775, in a final territorial reorganization, the colony was once again reunified: the State of Maranhão and Piauí and the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro were both abolished, and their territories were incorporated into the territory of the State of Brazil. The State of Brazil was thus expanded; it became the sole Portuguese State in South America; and it now included in its territory the whole of the Portuguese possessions in the American Continent. Indeed, with the reorganization of 1775, for the first time since 1654, all the Portuguese territories in the New World were once again united under a single colonial government. Rio de Janeiro, that had become the capital of the State of Brazil in 1763, continued to be the capital, now of the unified colony.

In 1808, the Portuguese Court was transferred to Brazil as direct consequence of the invasion of Portugal during the Napoleonic Wars. The office of Viceroy of Brazil ceased to exist upon the arrival of the royal family in Rio de Janeiro, since the Prince Regent, the future King John VI, assumed personal control of the government of the colony, that became the provisional seat of the whole [[Portuguese Empire]].

In 1815, Brazil ceased to be a colony, upon the elevation of the State of Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, the Kingdom of Brazil, and the simultaneous political union of that kingdom with the Kingdoms of Portugal and the Algarves, forming a single sovereign State, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. That political union would last until 1822 when Brazil declared its independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves and became the Empire of Brazil, a sovereign nation in the territory of the former Kingdom of Brazil. The separation was recognized by Portugal with the signing of the 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro.

With the creation of the Kingdom of Brazil in 1815, the former captaincies of the State of Brazil became provinces within the new Kingdom, and after independence, they became the provinces of the Empire of Brazil.

==See also==
{{commons category|Colonial Brazil}}
'''Colonization'''
* [[Ilha de Vera Cruz]] (Terra de Santa Cruz)
* [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas#Colonization of Brazil]]
* [[Portuguese Empire#Colonization efforts in the Americas]]
* [[Camarão indians' letters]]
'''General history'''
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[Brazil#History]]
* [[History of Portugal]]
* [[Cartography of Latin America]]

==Further reading in English==
{{Div col}}
*Alden, Dauril. ''Royal Government in Colonial Brazil with Special Reference to the Administration of the Marquis of Lavradio, Viceroy 1769–1779''. 1968.
*[[Leslie Bethell|Bethell, Leslie]], ed. ''Colonial Brazil''. 1987.
*[[Charles R. Boxer|Boxer, C. R.]] ''Salvador de Sá and the struggle for Brazil and Angola, 1602–1686.'' [London] University of London, 1952.
*Boxer, C. R. ''The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654''. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1957.
*Boxer, C. R. ''The golden age of Brazil, 1695–1750; growing pains of a colonial society''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962.
*[[Gilberto Freyre|Freyre, Gilberto]]. ''The Masters and the Slaves: A Study of the Development of Brazilian Civilization'', translated by Samuel Putnam. revised edition 1963.
*Hemming, John. ''Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians''. 1978.
*Hemming, John. ''Amazon Frontier: The Defeat of the Brazilian Indians''. London: Macmillan 1987.
*Higgins, Kathleen. ''Licentious Liberty in a Brazilian Gold-Mining Region''. University Park: Penn State Press 1999.
*Kuznesof, Elizabeth. ''Household Economy and Urban Development: São Paulo, 1765–1836''. Boulder: Westview Press 1986.
*Lang, James. ''Portuguese Brazil: The King's Plantation''. 1979.
*Metcalf, Alida C. ''Family and Frontier in Colonial Brazil: Santana de Parnaiba, 1480–1822''. 1991.
*Nazzari, Muriel. ''Disappearance of the dowry: Women, Families and Social Change in São Paulo (1600–1900)''. 1991.
*Prado, Caio Junior. ''The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil''. translated by suzette Macedo. 1967.
*Russell-Wood, A.J.R. ''Fidalgos and Philanthropists: The Santa Casa de Misericórdia of Bahia, 1550–1755''. 1968.
*Russell-Wood, A.J.R. "Archives and Recent Historiography on Colonial Brazil". ''Latin American Research Review'' 36:1(2001): 75–103.
*Russell-Wood, A.J.R. "United States Scholarly Contributions to the Historiography of Colonial Brazil", ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 65:4(1985):683–723.
*Russell-Wood, A.J.R. ''Society and Government in Colonial Brazil, 1500–1822''. 1992.
*Russell-Wood, A.J.R. ''From Colony to Nation: Essays on the Independence of Brazil''. 1975.
*Schultz, Kristin. ''Tropical Versailles: Empire, Monarchy, and the Portuguese Royal Court in Rio de Janeiro''. New York: Routledge 2001.
*[[Stuart B. Schwartz|Schwartz, Stuart B.]], "The Historiography of Early Modern Brazil", in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp.&nbsp;98–131.
*Schwartz, Stuart B., "Somebodies and Nobodies in the Body Politic: Mentalities and Social Structures in Colonial Brazil", ''Latin American Research Review'' 31:1(1996): 112–34.
*Schwartz, Stuart B. ''Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil''. Berkeley: University of California Press 1978.
*Schwartz, Stuart B. ''Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985.
*Schwartz, Stuart B. ''Peasants and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery''. 1992.
*Verger, Pierre. ''Bahia and the West African Trade, 1549–1851''. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press 1964.
*Wadsworth, James E. "In the Name of the Inquisition: The Portuguese Inquisition and Delegated Authority in Colonial Pernambuco", ''The Americas'' 61:1 (2004): 19–52.
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Prado Junior, Caio. ''[http://www.afoiceeomartelo.com.br/posfsa/Autores/Prado%20Jr,%20Caio/Historia%20Economica%20do%20Brasil.pdf História econômica do Brasil]''.
* Furtado, Celso. ''[http://www.afoiceeomartelo.com.br/posfsa/Autores/Furtado,%20Celso/Celso%20Furtado%20-%20Forma%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Econ%C3%B4mica%20do%20Brasil.pdf Formação econômica do Brasil]''.
* Van Groesen, Michiel. (ed.) ''The Legacy of Dutch Brazil''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. {{ISBN?}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070824235316/http://www.multirio.rj.gov.br/historia/index.html "Colonial history of Brazil in the Rio de Janeiro Municipality" website (in Portuguese).]
* [[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' Vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism,'' 1984. {{ISBN?}}
* [https://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf "Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice"]

{{Brazil topics}}
{{Portuguese overseas empire}}

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[[Category:Colonial Brazil| ]]
[[Category:Former colonies in South America|Brazil]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies|Brazil]]
[[Category:Portuguese colonization of the Americas|*]]
[[Category:Portuguese Empire]]
[[Category:Colonial Uruguay]]
[[Category:European colonization of South America|Brazil]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1500]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1815]]
[[Category:16th century in Brazil|*]]
[[Category:17th century in Brazil|*]]
[[Category:18th century in Brazil|*]]
[[Category:1800s in Brazil|*]]
[[Category:1810s in Brazil|*]]
[[Category:1500 establishments in Brazil]]
[[Category:1815 disestablishments in Brazil]]
[[Category:1500 establishments in the Portuguese Empire]]
[[Category:1815 disestablishments in the Portuguese Empire]]