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{{short description|Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
[[File:CI types1s 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|{{center|Types of collective intelligence}}]]
{{Group intelligence}}
{{Recommender systems}}

'''Collective intelligence''' ('''CI''') is shared or '''group [[intelligence]]''' ('''GI''') that [[Emergence|emerges]] from the [[collaboration]], collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in [[consensus decision making]]. The term appears in [[sociobiology]], [[political science]] and in context of mass [[peer review]] and [[crowdsourcing]] applications. It may involve [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]], [[social capital]] and '''formalisms''' such as [[voting systems]], [[social media]] and other means of quantifying mass activity.<ref name="Suran2020">{{cite journal |last1=Suran |first1=Shweta |last2=Pattanaik |first2=Vishwajeet |last3=Draheim |first3=Dirk |title=Frameworks for Collective Intelligence: A Systematic Literature Review |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |date=5 February 2020 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=14:1–14:36 |doi=10.1145/3368986|s2cid=211040820 }}</ref> Collective [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to [[bacteria]] and animals.<ref name="Nguyen2011">{{cite book|author=Ngoc Thanh Nguyen|title=Transactions on Computational Collective Intelligence III|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUxv25JFTkkC&pg=PA63|access-date=11 June 2013|date=25 July 2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-19967-7|pages=63, 69}}</ref>

It can be understood as an [[emergent property]] from the [[synergies]] among:
#data-[[information]]-knowledge
#software-hardware
#individuals (those with new insights as well as recognized authorities) that continually learn from feedback to produce just-in-time knowledge for better decisions than these three elements acting alone<ref name="Suran2020"/><ref>Glenn, Jerome C. Collective Intelligence&nbsp;– One of the Next Big Things, Futura 4/2009, Finnish Society for Futures Studies, Helsinki, Finland</ref> 
Or it can be more narrowly understood as an emergent property between people and ways of processing information.<ref>Glenn, Jerome C. Chapter 5, 2008 State of the Future. The Millennium Project, Washington, DC 2008</ref> This notion of collective intelligence is referred to as "symbiotic intelligence" by Norman Lee Johnson.<ref>Norman Lee Johnson, [http://CollectiveScience.com Collective Science site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006221737/http://collectivescience.com/ |date=6 October 2011 }}</ref> The concept is used in [[sociology]], [[business administration|business]], [[computer science]] and mass communications: it also appears in [[science fiction]]. [[Pierre Lévy]] defines collective intelligence as, "It is a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and resulting in the effective mobilization of skills. I'll add the following indispensable characteristic to this definition: The basis and goal of collective intelligence is mutual recognition and enrichment of individuals rather than the cult of fetishized or [[Wiktionary:hypostatize|hypostatized]] communities."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levy|first=Pierre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPNGswEACAAJ|title=Collective Intelligence|date=1999-12-10|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7382-0261-7|pages=14|oclc=249995946}}</ref> According to researchers Pierre Lévy and [[Derrick de Kerckhove]], it refers to capacity of networked [[ICTs]] (Information communication technologies) to enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding the extent of human interactions.{{sfn|Flew|2008|p=21}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lévy|first1=Pierre|last2=Farley|first2=Art|last3=Lollini|first3=Massimo|date=2019-12-31|title=Collective Intelligence, the Future of Internet and the IEML: Interview to Pierre Lévy by Art Farley and Massimo Lollini|url=http://journals.oregondigital.org/index.php/hsda/article/view/4620|journal=Humanist Studies & the Digital Age|volume=6|issue=1|pages=5–31|doi=10.5399/uo/hsda.6.1.2|issn=2158-3846|doi-access=free|access-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101022431/http://journals.oregondigital.org/index.php/hsda/article/view/4620|archive-date=1 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> A broader definition was provided by [[Geoff Mulgan]] in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards<ref>lecture series in Adelaide on 'Collective Intelligence about Collective Intelligence and 
http://www.thinkers.sa.gov.au/images/Mulgan_Final_Report.pdf</ref> and in the book Big Mind<ref>{{cite book |first=Geoff |last=Mulgan |title=Big Mind: How Collective Intelligence Can Change Our World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDUmDwAAQBAJ |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8851-1}}</ref> which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc.), learning loops and forms of organisation. The aim was to provide a way to diagnose, and improve, the collective intelligence of a city, business, NGO or parliament.

Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. According to [[Eric S. Raymond]] in 1998 and JC Herz in 2005,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raymond |first=E. S. |author-link=Eric S. Raymond |title=Homesteading the Noosphere |journal=First Monday |date=5 October 1998 |volume=3 |issue=10 |doi=10.5210/fm.v3i10.621 |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Herz |first=J. C. |chapter=Harnessing the hive |editor-last=Hartley |editor-first=J. |title=Creative industries |year=2005 |pages=327–41 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing}}</ref> [[open-source intelligence]] will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations.{{sfn|Flew|2008}} Media theorist [[Henry Jenkins]] sees collective intelligence as an 'alternative source of media power', related to convergence culture. He draws attention to education and the way people are learning to participate in knowledge cultures outside formal learning settings. Henry Jenkins criticizes schools which promote 'autonomous problem solvers and self-contained learners' while remaining hostile to learning through the means of collective intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Jenkins |chapter=Conclusion |title=Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlRVNikT06YC&pg=PA259 |date=2006 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-4307-2 |pages=259}}</ref> Both Pierre Lévy and Henry Jenkins support the claim that collective intelligence is important for [[democratization]], as it is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lévy |first=Pierre |chapter=Société du savoir et développement humain |editor-last=Imbert |editor-first=Patrick |title=Le Canada et la société des savoirs |series=Enjeux sociaux et culturels dans une société du savoir |year=2007 |pages=115–175 |language=fr}}</ref>{{sfn|Jenkins|2008}}

Similar to the [[G factor (psychometrics)|''g'' factor (''g'')]] for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor '''c factor''' for groups indicating a group's ability to perform a wide range of tasks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Woolley|first1=Anita Williams|last2=Chabris|first2=Christopher F.|last3=Pentland|first3=Alex|last4=Hashmi |first4=Nada |last5=Malone|first5=Thomas W.|s2cid=74579|date=2010-10-29|title=Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor in the Performance of Human Groups |journal=Science|volume=330|issue=6004|pages=686–688|doi=10.1126/science.1193147|pmid=20929725|bibcode=2010Sci...330..686W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from ''g''. Similarly as ''g'' is highly interrelated with the concept of [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Arthur, R.|date=1992|title=Understanding g in terms of information processing|journal=Educational Psychology Review |volume=4 |issue=3|pages=271–308|doi=10.1007/bf01417874|s2cid=54739564}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The g factor: The science of mental ability.|last=Jensen|first=Arthur, R.|publisher=Praeger|year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PIN9AAAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-275-96103-9}}</ref> this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Causes for ''c'' and predictive validity are investigated as well.

Writers who have influenced the idea of collective intelligence include [[Francis Galton]], [[Douglas Hofstadter]] (1979), Peter Russell (1983), [[Tom Atlee]] (1993), [[Pierre Lévy (philosopher)|Pierre Lévy]] (1994), [[Howard Bloom]] (1995), [[Francis Heylighen]] (1995), [[Douglas Engelbart]], Louis Rosenberg, [[Cliff Joslyn]], [[Ron Dembo]], [[Gottfried Mayer-Kress]] (2003), and [[Geoff Mulgan]].

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== History ==
[[File:World Brain HG Wells 1938.jpg|left|thumb|H.G. Wells ''World Brain'' (1936–1938)]]
The concept (although not so named) originated in 1785 with the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], whose [[Condorcet's jury theorem|"jury theorem"]] states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases with the number of members of the group.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Landemore|first1=Hélène|title=Landemore, Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many|date=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-6YNnIIlE8C|isbn=978-0691155654}}</ref> Many theorists have interpreted [[Aristotle]]'s statement in the ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' that "a feast to which many contribute is better than a dinner provided out of a single purse" to mean that just as many may bring different dishes to the table, so in a deliberation many may contribute different pieces of information to generate a better decision.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Waldron|first1=Jeremy|title=The Wisdom of the Multitude: Some Reflections on Book 3, Chapter 11 of Aristotle's Politics|journal=Political Theory|date=1995 |volume=23|issue=4 |pages=563–584 |doi=10.1177/0090591795023004001 |s2cid=154578834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Josiah |last=Ober |title=Democracy and Knowledge: Innovation and Learning in Classical Athens |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jge0MlZTKhQC&pg=PA110 |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-2880-7 |pages=110–4}}</ref> Recent scholarship,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cammack|first1=Daniela|title=Aristotle and the Virtue of the Multitude|journal=Political Theory |date=2013|volume=41|issue=2|pages=175–202|doi=10.1177/0090591712470423|s2cid=220724879|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1063691}}</ref> however, suggests that this was probably not what Aristotle meant but is a modern interpretation based on what we now know about team intelligence.<ref>{{cite book |first=Scott E. |last=Page |title=The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJRu4O8q1xwC |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3028-2}}</ref>

A precursor of the concept is found in entomologist [[William Morton Wheeler]]'s observation in 1910 that seemingly independent individuals can cooperate so closely as to become indistinguishable from a single organism.<ref>Wheeler, W. M. (1910). Ants: their structure, development and behavior (Vol. 9). Columbia University Press.</ref> Wheeler saw this collaborative process at work in [[ant]]s that acted like the cells of a single beast he called a [[superorganism]].

In 1912 [[Émile Durkheim]] identified society as the sole source of human logical thought. He argued in "[[The Elementary Forms of Religious Life]]" that society constitutes a higher intelligence because it transcends the individual over space and time.<ref>Émile Durkheim, ''The Elementary Forms of Religious Life'', 1912.</ref> Other antecedents are [[Vladimir Vernadsky]] and [[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]]'s concept of "[[noosphere]]" and [[H. G. Wells]]'s concept of "[[world brain]]".<ref>See also [[global brain]].</ref> Peter Russell, [[Elisabet Sahtouris]], and [[Barbara Marx Hubbard]] (originator of the term "conscious evolution")<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://barbaramarxhubbard.com/book/|title=About the Book – Foundation for Conscious Evolution|newspaper=Foundation for Conscious Evolution|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218124636/http://barbaramarxhubbard.com/book/|archive-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> are inspired by the visions of a noosphere&nbsp;– a transcendent, rapidly evolving collective intelligence&nbsp;– an informational cortex of the planet. The notion has more recently been examined by the philosopher Pierre Lévy. In a 1962 research report, [[Douglas Engelbart]] linked collective intelligence to organizational effectiveness, and predicted that pro-actively 'augmenting human intellect' would yield a multiplier effect in group problem solving: "Three people working together in this augmented mode [would] seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is one augmented person working alone".<ref>Engelbart, Douglas (1962) [http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html#3b9 Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504035147/http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html#3b9 |date=4 May 2011 }} – section on Team Cooperation</ref> In 1994, he coined the term 'collective IQ' as a measure of collective intelligence, to focus attention on the opportunity to significantly raise collective IQ in business and society.<ref>Engelbart, Douglas (1994)[https://archive.org/stream/boostingcollecti00drdo#page/n9/mode/2up Boosting Collective IQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192002/http://www.archive.org/stream/boostingcollecti00drdo#page/n9/mode/2up |date=2 July 2016 }} (Slide Handouts)&nbsp;– 'Collective IQ' defined on Slide 4; also (1994) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdIWQZtEq04&t=1016 BBN Distinguished Guest Lecture]  (Video)&nbsp;– 'Collective IQ' defined @16:56 "CoDIAK"</ref>

The idea of collective intelligence also forms the framework for contemporary democratic theories often referred to as [[epistemic democracy]]. Epistemic democratic theories refer to the capacity of the populace, either through deliberation or aggregation of knowledge, to track the truth and relies on mechanisms to synthesize and apply collective intelligence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Landemore|first1=Helene|title=Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-6YNnIIlE8C|isbn=978-0691155654}}</ref>

Collective intelligence was introduced into the machine learning community in the late 20th century,<ref name="Wolpert arXiv:cs/9905004">{{Cite book|last1=Wolpert|first1=David H.|last2=Tumer|first2=Kagan|last3=Frank|first3=Jeremy|date=1999-05-10|chapter=Using Collective Intelligence to Route Internet Traffic|title=Advances in Information Processing Systems |editor1=M. Kearns |editor2=S. Solla |editor2-link=Sara Solla|editor3=D. Cohn |publisher=MIT Press|volume=11|arxiv=cs/9905004}}</ref> and matured into a broader consideration of how to design "collectives" of self-interested adaptive agents to meet a system-wide goal.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Tumer|first2=Kagan|last1=Wolpert|first1=David|title=Collective Intelligence, Data Routing and Braess' Paradox |volume=16|pages=359–387|date=2004|journal=Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research|doi=10.1613/jair.995|s2cid=15861702|doi-access=free|arxiv=1106.1821}}</ref><ref>{{cite book  |first1=Kagan |last1=Tumer |first2=David |last2=Wolpert |title=Collectives and the Design of Complex Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnnkBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR4 |date=2012 |orig-date=2004 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8909-3 }}</ref> This was related to single-agent work on "reward shaping"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ng |first1=A.Y. |last2=Harada |first2=D. |last3=Russell |first3=S.J. |chapter=Policy Invariance Under Reward Transformations: Theory and Application to Reward Shaping |title=ICML '99 Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Conference on Machine Learning |date=1999 |isbn=1558606122 |pages=278–287 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann Publishers |citeseerx=10.1.1.30.9261}}</ref> and has been taken forward by numerous researchers in the game theory and engineering communities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marden |first1=J.R. |last2=Shamma |first2=J.S. |chapter=Game-Theoretic Learning in Distributed Control |chapter-url=https://www.ece.ucsb.edu/~jrmarden/files/Learning-Chapter.pdf |title=Handbook of Dynamic Game Theory |publisher=Springer |date=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-27335-8 |pages=511–546 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-27335-8_9-1 |hdl=10754/626970 |access-date=8 January 2019 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200817/https://www.ece.ucsb.edu/~jrmarden/files/Learning-Chapter.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Dimensions ==
[[File:Complex adaptive system.gif|thumb|Complex adaptive systems model]]
[[Howard Bloom]] has discussed mass behavior – [[collective behavior]] from the level of quarks to the level of bacterial, plant, animal, and human societies. He stresses the biological adaptations that have turned most of this earth's living beings into components of what he calls "a learning machine". In 1986 Bloom combined the concepts of [[apoptosis]], [[parallel distributed processing]], [[group selection]], and the superorganism to produce a theory of how collective intelligence works.<ref>{{cite book |first=Howard |last=Bloom |title=The Lucifer Principle: A Scientific Expedition into the Forces of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4GKAgAAQBAJ |date=2013 |orig-date=1995 |publisher=Open Road |isbn=978-0-8021-9218-9}}</ref> Later he showed how the collective intelligences of competing bacterial colonies and human societies can be explained in terms of computer-generated "[[complex adaptive systems]]" and the "[[genetic algorithms]]", concepts pioneered by [[John Henry Holland|John Holland]].<ref name="bloom2000"/>

Bloom traced the evolution of collective intelligence to our bacterial ancestors 1 billion years ago and demonstrated how a multi-species intelligence has worked since the beginning of life.<ref name="bloom2000">{{cite book |first=Howard |last=Bloom |title=Global Brain: The Evolution of Mass Mind from the Big Bang to the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_IgAQAAIAAJ |date=2000 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-29584-6}}</ref> [[Ant colony|Ant societies]] exhibit more intelligence, in terms of technology, than any other animal except for humans and co-operate in keeping livestock, for example [[aphid]]s for "milking".<ref name="bloom2000" /> Leaf cutters care for fungi and carry leaves to feed the fungi.<ref name="bloom2000" />

[[David Skrbina]]<ref>{{cite thesis |first=D. |last=Skrbina |title=Participation, Organization, and Mind: Toward a Participatory Worldview |chapter=Ch. 8 |date=2001 |degree=PhD |publisher=Centre for Action Research in Professional Practice, School of Management, University of Bath |url=https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/participation-organization-and-mind-toward-a-participatory-worldv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604164440/http://www.bath.ac.uk/carpp/publications/doc_theses_links/pdf/dt_ds_chapter8.pdf |archive-date=4 June 2011 |id=uk.bl.ethos.760771  |chapter-url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/carpp/publications/doc_theses_links/pdf/dt_ds_chapter8.pdf}}</ref> cites the concept of a 'group mind' as being derived from Plato's concept of [[panpsychism]] (that mind or consciousness is omnipresent and exists in all matter). He develops the concept of a 'group mind' as articulated by [[Thomas Hobbes]] in ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]'' and [[Gustav Fechner|Fechner]]'s arguments for a [[collective consciousness]] of mankind. He cites [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim]] as the most notable advocate of a "collective consciousness"<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Er3lCAAAQBAJ&q=david+skrbina+durkheim&pg=PP1|title=Authenticity, Autonomy and Multiculturalism|last=Levey|first=Geoffrey Brahm|date=2015-05-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317535928}}</ref> and [[Teilhard de Chardin]] as a thinker who has developed the philosophical implications of the group mind.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Panpsychism in the West|last=Skrbina|first=David F.|date=2007-01-26|publisher=The MIT Press|isbn=9780262693516|edition=1}}</ref>

Tom Atlee focuses primarily on humans and on work to upgrade what Howard Bloom calls "the group IQ". Atlee feels that collective intelligence can be encouraged "to overcome '[[groupthink]]' and individual [[cognitive bias]] in order to allow a collective to cooperate on one process – while achieving enhanced intellectual performance." George Pór defined the collective intelligence phenomenon as "the capacity of human communities to evolve towards higher order complexity and harmony, through such innovation mechanisms as differentiation and integration, competition and collaboration."<ref>George Pór, [http://www.community-intelligence.com/blogs/public Blog of Collective Intelligence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040802231025/http://www.community-intelligence.com/blogs/public |date=2 August 2004 }}</ref> Atlee and Pór state that "collective intelligence also involves achieving a single focus of attention and standard of metrics which provide an appropriate threshold of action".<ref name=":20">{{cite web|url=http://community-intelligence.com/files/Atlee%20-%20Por%20-%20CI%20as%20a%20Field%20of%20multidisciplinary%20study%20and%20practice%20.pdf|title=Collective Intelligence as a Field of Multi-disciplinary Study and Practice|last=Atlee|first=Tom|website=Community Intelligence|publisher=CommunityIntelligence. Ltd|access-date=11 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220200827/http://community-intelligence.com/files/Atlee%20-%20Por%20-%20CI%20as%20a%20Field%20of%20multidisciplinary%20study%20and%20practice%20.pdf|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Their approach is rooted in [[scientific community metaphor]].<ref name=":20" />

The term group intelligence is sometimes used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Anita Woolley presents Collective intelligence as a measure of group intelligence and group creativity.<ref name=":0" /> The idea is that a measure of collective intelligence covers a broad range of features of the group, mainly group composition and group interaction.<ref name=":11" /> The features of composition that lead to increased levels of collective intelligence in groups include criteria such as higher numbers of women in the group as well as increased diversity of the group.<ref name=":11"/>

Atlee and Pór suggest that the field of collective intelligence should primarily be seen as a human enterprise in which mind-sets, a willingness to share and an openness to the value of distributed intelligence for the common good are paramount, though group theory and [[artificial intelligence]] have something to offer.<ref name=":20" /> Individuals who respect collective intelligence are confident of their own abilities and recognize that the whole is indeed greater than the sum of any individual parts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leimeister |first=Jan Marco |date= 2010|title=Collective Intelligence |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220618525 |journal=Business & Information Systems Engineering |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=245–248 |doi=10.1007/s12599-010-0114-8 |s2cid=7575575 |doi-access=free}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Maximizing collective intelligence relies on the ability of an organization to accept and develop "The Golden Suggestion", which is any potentially useful input from any member.<ref name=":21" /> Groupthink often hampers collective intelligence by limiting input to a select few individuals or filtering potential Golden Suggestions without fully developing them to implementation.<ref name=":20" />

[[Robert David Steele Vivas]] in ''The New Craft of Intelligence'' portrayed all citizens as "intelligence minutemen", drawing only on legal and ethical sources of information, able to create a "public intelligence" that keeps public officials and corporate managers honest, turning the concept of "national intelligence" (previously concerned about spies and secrecy) on its head.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The New Craft of Intelligence: Personal, Public, & Political—Citizen's Action Handbook for Fighting Terrorism, Genocide, Disease, Toxic Bombs, & Corruption|last=Steele|first=Robert David|date=2002-04-08|publisher=Oss Pr|isbn=9780971566118|location=Oakton, Va.}}</ref>

[[File:Mass_collaboration.jpg|thumb|Stigmergic collaboration: a theoretical framework for mass collaboration]]
According to [[Don Tapscott]] and [[Anthony D. Williams (author)|Anthony D. Williams]], collective intelligence is [[mass collaboration]]. In order for this concept to happen, four principles need to exist:<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />

*Openness – [[idea sharing|Sharing ideas]] and [[intellectual property]]: though these resources provide the edge over competitors more benefits accrue from allowing others to share ideas and gain significant improvement and scrutiny through collaboration.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />
*Peering – Horizontal organization as with the 'opening up' of the Linux program where users are free to modify and develop it provided that they make it available for others. Peering succeeds because it encourages [[self-organization]]&nbsp;– a style of production that works more effectively than hierarchical management for certain tasks.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />
*[[Sharing]] – Companies have started to share some ideas while maintaining some degree of control over others, like potential and critical [[patent rights]]. Limiting all intellectual property shuts out opportunities, while sharing some expands markets and brings out products faster.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />
*Acting globally – The advancement in communication technology has prompted the rise of global companies at low overhead costs. The [[internet]] is widespread, therefore a globally integrated company has no geographical boundaries and may access new markets, ideas and technology.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008">Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. D. (2008). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=DVomiOeBg_YC&q=%22collective%20intelligence%22 Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110041604/http://books.google.com/books?id=DVomiOeBg_YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22collective%20intelligence%22 |date=10 November 2011 }}'', USA: Penguin Group</ref>

== Collective intelligence factor ''c'' ==
[[File:Scree plot showing percent of explained variance for the first five factors in Woolley et al.'s (2010) two original studies as well as the individual intelligence test for all participants (assessed with Wonderlic Personnel Test).png|thumb|[[Scree plot]] showing percent of explained variance for the first factors in Woolley et al.'s two original studies in 2010<ref name=":0"/>]]
A new scientific understanding of collective intelligence defines it as a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks.<ref name=":0" /> Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are similar to the [[G factor (psychometrics)|psychometric approach of general individual intelligence]]. Hereby, an individual's performance on a given set of cognitive tasks is used to measure general cognitive ability indicated by the general intelligence [[G factor (psychometrics)|factor ''g'']] proposed by English psychologist [[Charles Spearman]] and extracted via [[factor analysis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spearman|first=Charles, E.|date=1904|title="General intelligence," objectively determined and measured|journal=American Journal of Psychology |volume=15 |issue=2|pages=201–293|doi=10.2307/1412107|jstor=1412107}}</ref> In the same vein as ''g'' serves to display between-individual performance differences on cognitive tasks, collective intelligence research aims to find a parallel intelligence factor for groups {{'}}''c'' factor'<ref name=":0" /> (also called 'collective intelligence factor' (''CI'')<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|author1=Engel, D. |author2=Woolley, A. W. |author3=Jing, L. X. |author4=Chabris, C. F. |author5= Malone, T. W. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014|title=Reading the Mind in the Eyes or reading between the lines? Theory of Mind predicts collective intelligence equally well online and face-to-face|journal=PLOS ONE |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=e115212|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0115212|pmid=25514387 |pmc=4267836|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k5212E |doi-access=free }}</ref>) displaying between-group differences on task performance. The collective intelligence score then is used to predict how this same group will perform on any other similar task in the future. Yet tasks, hereby, refer to mental or intellectual tasks performed by small groups<ref name=":0" /> even though the concept is hoped to be transferable to other performances and any groups or crowds reaching from families to companies and even whole cities.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Woolley |first1=A. |last2=Malone |first2=T. |title=Defend your research: What makes a team smarter? More women |journal=Harvard Business Review |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=32–33 |date=June 2011 |pmid=21714385 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51453001}}</ref> Since individuals' ''g'' factor scores are highly correlated with full-scale [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] scores, which are in turn regarded as good estimates of ''g'',<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> this measurement of collective intelligence can also be seen as an intelligence indicator or quotient respectively for a group (Group-IQ) parallel to an individual's intelligence quotient (IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se.

Mathematically, ''c'' and ''g'' are both variables summarizing positive correlations among different tasks supposing that performance on one task is comparable with performance on other similar tasks.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=Kamphaus |first1=R.W. |last2=Winsor |first2=A.P. |last3=Rowe |first3=E.W. |last4=Kim |first4=S. |chapter=A history of intelligence test interpretation |editor1-first=D.P. |editor1-last=Flanagan |editor2-first=E.M. |editor2-last=McDonough |edition=4th |title=Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5pxgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |date=2018 |publisher=Guilford  |isbn=978-1-4625-3597-2 |pages=56–72}}</ref> ''c'' thus is a source of variance among groups and can only be considered as a group's standing on the ''c'' factor compared to other groups in a given relevant population.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van der Maas|first1=Han L. J.|last2=Dolan|first2=Conor V.|last3=Grasman|first3=Raoul P. P. P.|last4=Wicherts|first4=Jelte M.|last5=Huizenga|first5=Hilde M.|last6=Raijmakers|first6=Maartje E. J.|date=2006-10-01|title=A dynamical model of general intelligence: the positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism|journal=Psychological Review|volume=113|issue=4|pages=842–861|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.113.4.842|pmid=17014305}}</ref> The concept is in contrast to competing hypotheses including other correlational structures to explain group intelligence,<ref name=":0" /> such as a composition out of several equally important but independent factors as found in [[Big Five personality traits|individual personality research]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=McCrae, R. R.|author2=Costa Jr., P. T.|date=1987|title=Validation of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Across Instruments and Observers|url=http://webs.wofford.edu/steinmetzkr/teaching/Psy150/Lecture%20PDFs/FiveFactorModel.pdf|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=52|issue=1|pages=81–90|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.81|pmid=3820081|s2cid=7893185 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421014207/https://webs.wofford.edu/steinmetzkr/teaching/Psy150/Lecture%20PDFs/FiveFactorModel.pdf|archive-date=21 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Besides, this scientific idea also aims to explore the causes affecting collective intelligence, such as group size, collaboration tools or group members' interpersonal skills.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://cci.mit.edu/research_developing.html|title=MIT Center for Collective Intelligence|website=cci.mit.edu|access-date=2016-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330091237/http://cci.mit.edu/research_developing.html|archive-date=30 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[MIT Center for Collective Intelligence]], for instance, announced the detection of ''The Genome of Collective Intelligence''<ref name=":3" /> as one of its main goals aiming to develop a "taxonomy of organizational building blocks, or genes, that can be combined and recombined to harness the intelligence of crowds".<ref name=":3" />

=== Causes ===
Individual intelligence is shown to be genetically and environmentally influenced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Briley|first1=Daniel A.|last2=Tucker-Drob|first2=Elliot M.|date=2014-09-01|title=Genetic and environmental continuity in personality development: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=140|issue=5|pages=1303–1331|doi=10.1037/a0037091|pmc=4152379|pmid=24956122}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Deary|first1=Ian J.|last2=Spinath|first2=Frank M.|last3=Bates|first3=Timothy C.|date=2006-01-01|title=Genetics of intelligence|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=14|issue=6|pages=690–700|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201588|pmid=16721405|doi-access=free}}</ref> Analogously, collective intelligence research aims to explore reasons why certain groups perform more intelligently than other groups given that ''c'' is just moderately correlated with the intelligence of individual group members.<ref name=":0" /> According to Woolley et al.'s results, neither team cohesion nor motivation or satisfaction is correlated with ''c''. However, they claim that three factors were found as significant correlates: the variance in the number of speaking turns, group members' average social sensitivity and the proportion of females. All three had similar predictive power for ''c'', but only social sensitivity was statistically significant (b=0.33, P=0.05).<ref name=":0" />

The number speaking turns indicates that "groups where a few people dominated the conversation were less collectively intelligent than those with a more equal distribution of conversational turn-taking".<ref name=":4" /> Hence, providing multiple team members the chance to speak up made a group more intelligent.<ref name=":0" />

Group members' social sensitivity was measured via the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Hill J, Raste Y, Plumb I |date=2001|title=The ''Reading the Mind in the Eyes'' Test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism|journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=2|pages=241–251|doi=10.1017/s0021963001006643|pmid=11280420}}</ref> (RME) and correlated .26 with ''c''.<ref name=":0" /> Hereby, participants are asked to detect thinking or feeling expressed in other peoples' eyes presented on pictures and assessed in a multiple choice format. The test aims to measure peoples' [[Theory of mind|theory of mind (ToM)]], also called 'mentalizing'<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Apperly|first=Ian A.|date=2012-05-01|title=What is "theory of mind"? Concepts, cognitive processes and individual differences|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=65|issue=5|pages=825–839|doi=10.1080/17470218.2012.676055|pmid=22533318|s2cid=7212563}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baron-Cohen | first1 = Simon | last2 = Leslie | first2 = Alan M. | last3 = Frith | first3 = Uta | title = Does the autistic child have a "theory of mind"? | journal = [[Cognition (journal)|Cognition]] | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 37&ndash;46 | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8 | pmid = 2934210 | date = October 1985 | s2cid = 14955234}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20170928145836/http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/images/personal-alan-leslie/publications/Baron-Cohen%20Leslie%20%26%20Frith%201985.pdf Pdf.]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flavell|first=J. H.|date=1999-01-01|title=Cognitive development: children's knowledge about the mind|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=50|pages=21–45|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.21|pmid=10074674}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Premack|first1=David|last2=Woodruff|first2=Guy|date=1978-12-01|title=Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=1|issue=4|pages=515–526|doi=10.1017/S0140525X00076512|doi-access=free}}</ref> or 'mind reading',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heyes|first1=Cecilia M.|last2=Frith|first2=Chris D.|date=2014-06-20|title=The cultural evolution of mind reading|journal=Science|volume=344|issue=6190|pages=1243091|doi=10.1126/science.1243091|pmid=24948740|s2cid=3139981}}</ref> which refers to the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires or intents, to other people and in how far people understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions or perspectives different from their own ones.<ref name=":6" /> RME is a ToM test for adults<ref name=":6" /> that shows sufficient test-retest reliability<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hallerbäck|first1=Maria Unenge|last2=Lugnegård|first2=Tove|last3=Hjärthag|first3=Fredrik|last4=Gillberg|first4=Christopher|date=2009-03-01|title=The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test: Test–retest reliability of a Swedish version|journal=Cognitive Neuropsychiatry|volume=14|issue=2|pages=127–143|doi=10.1080/13546800902901518|pmid=19370436|s2cid=28946179}}</ref> and constantly differentiates control groups from individuals with functional [[autism]] or [[Asperger syndrome|Asperger Syndrome]].<ref name=":6" /> It is one of the most widely accepted and well-validated tests for ToM within adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pinkham|first1=Amy E.|last2=Penn|first2=David L.|last3=Green|first3=Michael F.|last4=Buck|first4=Benjamin|last5=Healey|first5=Kristin|last6=Harvey|first6=Philip D.|date=2014-07-01|title=The Social Cognition Psychometric Evaluation Study: Results of the Expert Survey and RAND Panel|url= http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/4/813|journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin|volume=40|issue=4|pages=813–823|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbt081|pmc=4059426|pmid=23728248|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101212140/http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/4/813|archive-date=1 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> ToM can be regarded as an associated subset of skills and abilities within the broader concept of [[emotional intelligence]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name="Yip 48–55">{{Cite journal|last1=Yip|first1=Jeremy A.|last2=Côté|first2=Stéphane|date=2013-01-01|title=The Emotionally Intelligent Decision Maker Emotion-Understanding Ability Reduces the Effect of Incidental Anxiety on Risk Taking|journal=Psychological Science|volume=24|issue=1|pages=48–55|doi=10.1177/0956797612450031|pmid=23221020|s2cid=33438475}}</ref>

The proportion of females as a predictor of ''c'' was '''largely mediated by social sensitivity ([[Sobel test|Sobel]] z = 1.93, P= 0.03)'''<ref name=":0" /> which is in line with previous research showing that women score higher on social sensitivity tests.<ref name=":6" /> While a [[Mediation (statistics)|mediation]], statistically speaking, clarifies the mechanism underlying the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable,<ref>{{cite book |first=D.P. |last=MacKinnon |title=Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHUVYKfrdtYC |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-8058-3974-6}}</ref> Wolley agreed in an interview with the ''[[Harvard Business Review]]'' that these findings are saying that groups of women are smarter than groups of men.<ref name=":7" /> However, she relativizes this stating that the actual important thing is the high social sensitivity of group members.<ref name=":7" />

It is theorized that the collective intelligence factor ''c'' is an emergent property resulting from bottom-up as well as top-down processes.<ref name=":11">{{cite journal | last1=Woolley | first1=Anita Williams | last2=Aggarwal | first2=Ishani | last3=Malone | first3=Thomas W. | title=Collective Intelligence and Group Performance | journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=24 | issue=6 | year=2015 | issn=0963-7214 | doi=10.1177/0963721415599543 | pages=420–424 | s2cid=146673541 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286512331}}</ref> Hereby, bottom-up processes cover aggregated group-member characteristics. Top-down processes cover group structures and norms that influence a group's way of collaborating and coordinating.<ref name=":11" />

=== Processes ===
[[File:Causes for c.png|thumb|Predictors for the collective intelligence factor ''c''. Suggested by Woolley, Aggarwal & Malone<ref name=":11"/> (2015)]]

==== Top-down processes ====
Top-down processes cover group interaction, such as structures, processes, and norms.<ref name=":11"/> An example of such top-down processes is conversational turn-taking.<ref name=":0" /> Research further suggest that collectively intelligent groups communicate more in general as well as more equally; same applies for participation and is shown for face-to-face as well as online groups communicating only via writing.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":9" />

==== Bottom-up processes ====
Bottom-up processes include group composition,<ref name=":11"/> namely the characteristics of group members which are aggregated to the team level.<ref name=":11" /> An example of such bottom-up processes is the average social sensitivity or the average and maximum intelligence scores of group members.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, collective intelligence was found to be related to a group's cognitive diversity<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|author1=Aggarwal, I. |author2=Woolley, A. W. |author3=Chabris, C. F. |author4= Malone, T. W. |name-list-style=amp |date=2015|title=Cognitive diversity, collective intelligence, and learning in teams.|journal=Paper Presented at the 2015 Collective Intelligence Conference, Santa Clara, CA.}}</ref> including thinking styles and perspectives.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Kozhevnikov, M. |author2=Evans, C. |author3= Kosslyn, S. M. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014 |title=Cognitive style as environmentally sensitive individual differences in cognition: A modern synthesis and applications in education, business, and management|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=3–33 |doi=10.1177/1529100614525555 |pmid=26171827 |s2cid=20559112 |hdl=10871/15317 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Groups that are moderately diverse in [[cognitive style]] have higher collective intelligence than those who are very similar in cognitive style or very different. Consequently, groups where members are too similar to each other lack the variety of perspectives and skills needed to perform well. On the other hand, groups whose members are too different seem to have difficulties to communicate and coordinate effectively.<ref name=":12" />

==== Serial vs Parallel processes ====

For most of human history, collective intelligence was confined to small tribal groups in which opinions were aggregated through real-time parallel interactions among members.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Moral tribes: emotion, reason, and the gap between us and them |last=Greene |first=Joshua David |isbn=978-0143126058 |oclc=871336785 |date=2014-12-30 |publisher=Penguin |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/moraltribesemoti0000gree}}</ref> In modern times, mass communication, mass media, and networking technologies have enabled collective intelligence to span massive groups, distributed across continents and time-zones. To accommodate this shift in scale, collective intelligence in large-scale groups been dominated by serialized polling processes such as aggregating up-votes, likes, and ratings over time. While modern systems benefit from larger group size, the serialized process has been found to introduce substantial noise that distorts the collective output of the group. In one significant study of serialized collective intelligence, it was found that the first vote contributed to a serialized voting system can distort the final result by 34%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Muchnik|first1=Lev|last2=Aral|first2=Sinan|last3=Taylor|first3=Sean J.|date=2013-08-09|title=Social Influence Bias: A Randomized Experiment|journal=Science|volume=341|issue=6146|pages=647–651|doi=10.1126/science.1240466|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23929980|bibcode=2013Sci...341..647M|s2cid=15775672}}</ref>

To address the problems of serialized aggregation of input among large-scale groups, recent advancements collective intelligence have worked to replace serialized votes, polls, and markets, with parallel systems such as "[[Swarm intelligence|human swarms]]" modeled after synchronous swarms in nature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20161215-why-bees-could-be-the-secret-to-superhuman-intelligence|title=Why bees could be the secret to superhuman intelligence|last=Oxenham|first=Simon|access-date=2017-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525175211/http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20161215-why-bees-could-be-the-secret-to-superhuman-intelligence|archive-date=25 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rosenberg |first1=L. |last2=Baltaxe|first2=D.|last3=Pescetelli|first3=N.|title=2016 Swarm/Human Blended Intelligence Workshop (SHBI) |chapter=Crowds vs swarms, a comparison of intelligence |date=2016-10-01|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/SHBI.2016.7780278|isbn=978-1-5090-3502-1|s2cid=12725324}}</ref> Based on natural process of [[Swarm Intelligence]], these artificial swarms of networked humans enable participants to work together in parallel to answer questions and make predictions as an emergent collective intelligence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Metcalf|first1=Lynn|last2=Askay|first2=David A.|last3=Rosenberg|first3=Louis B.|date=2019|title=Keeping Humans in the Loop: Pooling Knowledge through Artificial Swarm Intelligence to Improve Business Decision Making|journal=California Management Review|volume=61|issue=4|pages=84–109 |doi=10.1177/0008125619862256|s2cid=202323483 |issn=0008-1256 |url=https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1105&context=it_fac}}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |last1=Salminen |first1=Juho |title=Collective Intelligence in Humans: A Literature Review |date=2012 |class=cs.CY |eprint=1204.3401}}</ref> In one high-profile example, a human swarm challenge by CBS Interactive to predict the Kentucky Derby. The swarm correctly predicted the first four horses, in order, defying 542–1 odds and turning a $20 bet into $10,800.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/artificial-intelligence-turns-20-11000-kentucky-derby-bet-457783|title=Artificial intelligence turns $20 into $11,000 in Kentucky Derby bet|date=2016-05-10|work=Newsweek|access-date=2017-05-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604063846/http://www.newsweek.com/artificial-intelligence-turns-20-11000-kentucky-derby-bet-457783|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The value of parallel collective intelligence was demonstrated in medical applications by researchers at [[Stanford University School of Medicine]] and [[Unanimous A.I.|Unanimous AI]] in a set of published studies wherein groups of human doctors were connected by real-time swarming algorithms and tasked with diagnosing chest x-rays for the presence of pneumonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/ai-human-hive-mind-diagnoses-pneumonia|title=AI-Human "Hive Mind" Diagnoses Pneumonia|last=Scudellari|first=Megan|date=2018-09-13|website=IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News|access-date=2019-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720160349/https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-human-os/biomedical/diagnostics/ai-human-hive-mind-diagnoses-pneumonia|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stanforddaily.com/2018/09/27/artificial-swarm-intelligence-diagnoses-pneumonia-better-than-individual-computer-or-doctor/|title=Artificial swarm intelligence diagnoses pneumonia better than individual computer or doctor|last=Liu|first=Fan|date=2018-09-27|website=The Stanford Daily|access-date=2019-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720160348/https://www.stanforddaily.com/2018/09/27/artificial-swarm-intelligence-diagnoses-pneumonia-better-than-individual-computer-or-doctor/|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> When working together as "human swarms", the groups of experienced radiologists demonstrated a 33% reduction in diagnostic errors as compared to traditional methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.radiologytoday.net/archive/rt0119p12.shtml|title=A Swarm of Insight – Radiology Today Magazine|website=radiologytoday.net|access-date=2019-07-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720160350/https://www.radiologytoday.net/archive/rt0119p12.shtml|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Rosenberg|first1=Louis|last2=Lungren|first2=Matthew|last3=Halabi|first3=Safwan|last4=Willcox|first4=Gregg|last5=Baltaxe |first5=David |last6=Lyons|first6=Mimi|title=2018 IEEE 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) |chapter=Artificial Swarm Intelligence employed to Amplify Diagnostic Accuracy in Radiology |date=November 2018|location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=IEEE |pages=1186–1191 |doi=10.1109/IEMCON.2018.8614883|isbn=9781538672662|s2cid=58675679}}</ref>

=== Evidence ===
[[File:Standardized Regression Coefficients.png|alt=Standardized Regression Coefficients for the collective intelligence factor ''c'' and group member intelligence regressed on the two criterion tasks as found in Woolley et al.'s (2010) two original studies.|thumb|Standardized Regression Coefficients for the collective intelligence factor ''c'' as found in Woolley et al.'s<ref name=":0"/> (2010) two original studies. ''c'' and average (maximum) member intelligence scores are regressed on the criterion tasks.]]
Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, & Malone (2010),<ref name=":0" /> the originators of this scientific understanding of collective intelligence, found a single statistical factor for collective intelligence in their research across 192 groups with people randomly recruited from the public. In Woolley et al.'s two initial studies, groups worked together on different tasks from the [[The Circumplex Model of Group Tasks|McGrath Task Circumplex]],<ref>{{cite book |first=J.E. |last=McGrath |title=Groups: Interaction and Performance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4pzZAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-13-365700-5}}</ref> a well-established taxonomy of group tasks. Tasks were chosen from all four quadrants of the circumplex and included visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments, and negotiating over limited resources. The results in these tasks were taken to conduct a [[factor analysis]]. Both studies showed support for a general collective intelligence factor ''c'' underlying differences in group performance with an initial eigenvalue accounting for 43% (44% in study 2) of the variance, whereas the next factor accounted for only 18% (20%). That fits the range normally found in research regarding a [[G factor (psychometrics)|general individual intelligence factor ''g'']] typically accounting for 40% to 50% percent of between-individual performance differences on cognitive tests.<ref name=":5" />

Afterwards, a more complex task was solved by each group to determine whether ''c'' factor scores predict performance on tasks beyond the original test. Criterion tasks were playing [[Draughts|checkers (draughts)]] against a standardized computer in the first and a complex architectural design task in the second study. In a [[regression analysis]] using both individual intelligence of group members and ''c'' to predict performance on the criterion tasks, ''c'' had a significant effect, but average and maximum individual intelligence had not. While average (r=0.15, P=0.04) and maximum intelligence (r=0.19, P=0.008) of individual group members were moderately correlated with ''c'', ''c'' was still a much better predictor of the criterion tasks. According to Woolley et al., this supports the existence of a collective intelligence factor ''c,'' because it demonstrates an effect over and beyond group members' individual intelligence and thus that ''c'' is more than just the aggregation of the individual IQs or the influence of the group member with the highest IQ.<ref name=":0" />

Engel et al.<ref name=":4" /> (2014) replicated Woolley et al.'s findings applying an accelerated battery of tasks with a first factor in the factor analysis explaining 49% of the between-group variance in performance with the following factors explaining less than half of this amount. Moreover, they found a similar result for groups working together online communicating only via text and confirmed the role of female proportion and social sensitivity in causing collective intelligence in both cases. Similarly to Wolley et al.,<ref name=":0" /> they also measured social sensitivity with the RME which is actually meant to measure people's ability to detect mental states in other peoples' eyes. The online collaborating participants, however, did neither know nor see each other at all. The authors conclude that scores on the RME must be related to a broader set of abilities of social reasoning than only drawing inferences from other people's eye expressions.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Engel|first1=David|last2=Woolley|first2=Anita Williams|last3=Aggarwal|first3=Ishani|last4=Chabris|first4=Christopher F.|last5=Takahashi|first5=Masamichi|last6=Nemoto|first6=Keiichi|last7=Kaiser|first7=Carolin|last8=Kim|first8=Young Ji|last9=Malone|first9=Thomas W.|title=Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Collective Intelligence in Computer-Mediated Collaboration Emerges in Different Contexts and Cultures |date=2015-01-01|series=CHI '15|location=New York, NY, US|publisher=ACM|pages=3769–3778|doi=10.1145/2702123.2702259  |doi-access=free |isbn=9781450331456|s2cid=14303201}}</ref>

A collective intelligence factor ''c'' in the sense of Woolley et al.<ref name=":0" /> was further found in groups of MBA students working together over the course of a semester,<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|author1=Aggarwal, I. |author2= Woolley, A.W. |name-list-style=amp |date=2014|title=The effects of cognitive diversity on collective intelligence and team learning.|journal=Symposium Presented at the 50th Meeting of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology, Columbus, OH.}}</ref> in online gaming groups<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|author1=Kim, Y. J. |author2=Engel, D. |author3=Woolley, A. W. |author4=Lin, J. |author5=McArthur, N. |author6= Malone, T. W. |name-list-style=amp |date=2015|title=Work together, play smart: Collective intelligence in League of Legends teams|journal=Paper Presented at the 2015 Collective Intelligence Conference, Santa Clara, CA.}}</ref> as well as in groups from different cultures<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|author1=Engel, D. |author2=Woolley, A. W. |author3=Aggarwal, I. |author4=Chabris, C. F. |author5=Takahashi, M. |author6=Nemoto, K. |author7=Malone, T. W. |title=Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Collective Intelligence in Computer-Mediated Collaboration Emerges in Different Contexts and Cultures |date=2015|chapter-url=https://dl.acm.org/ft_gateway.cfm?id=2702259&type=pdf|pages=3769–3778 |doi=10.1145/2702123.2702259 |isbn=9781450331456 |s2cid=14303201 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and groups in different contexts in terms of short-term versus long-term groups.<ref name=":10" /> None of these investigations considered team members' individual intelligence scores as control variables.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" />

Note as well that the field of collective intelligence research is quite young and published empirical evidence is relatively rare yet. However, various proposals and working papers are in progress or already completed but (supposedly) still in a [[scholarly peer review]]ing publication process.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/a/stern.nyu.edu/collective-intelligence-conference/|title=Collective Intelligence 2016|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2016-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805043627/https://sites.google.com/a/stern.nyu.edu/collective-intelligence-conference/|archive-date=5 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/collectiveintelligence/posters/|title=Posters – Collective Intelligence 2015|website=sites.lsa.umich.edu|access-date=2016-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731181615/http://sites.lsa.umich.edu/collectiveintelligence/posters/|archive-date=31 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://collective.mech.northwestern.edu/?page_id=217|title=Proceedings – Collective Intelligence 2014|website=collective.mech.northwestern.edu|access-date=2016-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404215108/http://collective.mech.northwestern.edu/?page_id=217|archive-date=4 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite arXiv|eprint=1204.2991|last1= Malone|first1= Thomas W.|title= Collective Intelligence 2012: Proceedings|author2= Luis von Ahn|class= cs.SI|year= 2012}}</ref>

=== Predictive validity ===
Next to predicting a group's performance on more complex criterion tasks as shown in the original experiments,<ref name=":0" /> the collective intelligence factor ''c'' was also found to predict group performance in diverse tasks in MBA classes lasting over several months.<ref name=":8" /> Thereby, highly collectively intelligent groups earned significantly higher scores on their group assignments although their members did not do any better on other individually performed assignments. Moreover, highly collective intelligent teams improved performance over time suggesting that more collectively intelligent teams learn better.<ref name=":8" /> This is another potential parallel to individual intelligence where more intelligent people are found to acquire new material quicker.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Schmidt, F.L. |author2= Hunter, J.E. |name-list-style=amp |date=1998|title=The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings|journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=124 |issue= 2 |pages=262–274|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.262|citeseerx= 10.1.1.172.1733 |s2cid= 16429503 }}</ref>

Individual intelligence can be used to predict plenty of life outcomes from school attainment<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nathan, B.|date=1997|title=Intelligence, Schooling, and Society|journal=American Psychologist |volume=52 |issue=10 |pages=1046–1050|doi=10.1037/0003-066x.52.10.1046}}</ref> and career success<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Strenze|first=Tarmo|date=2007-09-01|title=Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research|journal=Intelligence|volume=35|issue=5|pages=401–426|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004}}</ref> to health outcomes<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |author1=Deary, I.J. |author2=Weiss, A. |author3=Batty, D.G. |name-list-style=amp |date=2010 |title=Intelligence and Personality as Predictors of Illness and Death. How Researchers in Differential Psychology and Chronic Disease Epidemiology Are Collaborating to Understand and Address Health Inequalities |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=53–79 |doi=10.1177/1529100610387081 |pmid=26168413 |hdl=20.500.11820/134d66d9-98db-447a-a8b2-5b019b96a7bb |s2cid=13106622 |url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/8895401/intelligence_and_personality_as_predictors.pdf |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719215714/https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/8895401/intelligence_and_personality_as_predictors.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and even mortality.<ref name=":14" /> Whether collective intelligence is able to predict other outcomes besides group performance on mental tasks has still to be investigated.

=== Potential connections to individual intelligence  ===
Gladwell<ref>{{Cite book|title=Outliers. The Story of Success|last=Gladwell, M.|publisher=Little, Brown and Company|year=2008|isbn=978-0-316-01792-3|location=New York, NY|url=https://archive.org/details/outliersstoryofs00glad}}</ref> (2008) showed that the relationship between individual IQ and success works only to a certain point and that additional IQ points over an estimate of IQ 120 do not translate into real life advantages. If a similar border exists for Group-IQ or if advantages are linear and infinite, has still to be explored. Similarly, demand for further research on possible connections of individual and collective intelligence exists within plenty of other potentially transferable logics of individual intelligence, such as, for instance, the development over time<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hedden|first1=Trey|last2=Gabrieli|first2=John D. E.|date=2004-02-01|title=Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive neuroscience|journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience|volume=5|issue=2|pages=87–96|doi=10.1038/nrn1323|pmid=14735112|s2cid=9398942}}</ref> or the question of improving intelligence.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Shipstead|first1=Zach|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S|last3=Engle|first3=Randall W.|date=2010-10-01|title=Does working memory training generalize?|journal=Psychologica Belgica|volume=50|issue=3–4|doi=10.5334/pb-50-3-4-245|pages=245|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|author1=Buschkuehl, M. |author2=Jaeggi, S.M.|date=2010|title=Improving intelligence a literature review|journal=[[Swiss Medical Weekly]] |volume=140 |issue=19 |pages=266–72|doi=10.4414/smw.2010.12852 |pmid=20349365|s2cid=5921557 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Whereas it is controversial whether human intelligence can be enhanced via training,<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> a group's collective intelligence potentially offers simpler opportunities for improvement by exchanging team members or implementing structures and technologies.<ref name=":7" /> Moreover, social sensitivity was found to be, at least temporarily, improvable by reading [[literary fiction]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kidd|first1=David Comer|last2=Castano|first2=Emanuele|date=2013-10-18|title=Reading Literary Fiction Improves Theory of Mind|journal=Science|volume=342|issue=6156|pages=377–380|doi=10.1126/science.1239918|pmid=24091705|bibcode=2013Sci...342..377K|s2cid=5929573|hdl=11572/289277|hdl-access=free}}</ref> as well as watching drama movies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Black|first1=Jessica|last2=Barnes|first2=Jennifer L.|title=Fiction and social cognition: The effect of viewing award-winning television dramas on theory of mind|journal=Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts|volume=9|issue=4|pages=423–429|doi=10.1037/aca0000031|year=2015}}</ref> In how far such training ultimately improves collective intelligence through social sensitivity remains an open question.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Collective Intelligence|author1=Malone, T. W. |author2= Bernstein, M.S. |name-list-style=amp |publisher=MIT Press|year=2015|location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref>

There are further more advanced concepts and factor models attempting to explain individual cognitive ability including the categorization of intelligence in [[fluid and crystallized intelligence]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of intelligence. In R.L. Linn (Ed.), Intelligence: Measurement, theory, and public policy (pp. 29–73).|last=Horn, J.|publisher=University of Illinois Press.|year=1989|location=Urbana, IL}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=R.B. |last=Cattell |title=Intelligence: Its Structure, Growth and Action |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=flX770mG2HcC |date=1 July 1987 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-086689-5 |edition=Revised |series=Advances in Psychology |volume=35}}</ref> or the [[Three-stratum theory|hierarchical model of intelligence differences]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies.|last=Carroll, J.B.|publisher=Cambridge University Press.|year=1993|isbn=9780521387125|location=Cambridge, England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jp9dt4_0_cIC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Wendy|last2=Bouchard Jr.|first2=Thomas J.|date=2005-07-01|title=The structure of human intelligence: It is verbal, perceptual, and image rotation (VPR), not fluid and crystallized|journal=Intelligence|volume=33|issue=4|pages=393–416|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2004.12.002}}</ref> Further supplementing explanations and conceptualizations for the factor structure of the '''Genomes''' of collective intelligence besides a general {{'}}''c'' factor', though, are missing yet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cci.mit.edu/research_developing.html|title=MIT Center for Collective Intelligence|website=cci.mit.edu|access-date=2016-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330091237/http://cci.mit.edu/research_developing.html|archive-date=30 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Controversies and Counter-Evidence for Collective Intelligence ===
Other scholars explain team performance by aggregating team members' general intelligence to the team level<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LePine|first=Jeffery A.|title=Adaptation of Teams in Response to Unforeseen Change: Effects of Goal Difficulty and Team Composition in Terms of Cognitive Ability and Goal Orientation|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=90|issue=6|pages=1153–1167|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1153|year=2005|pmid=16316271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tziner|first1=Aharon|last2=Eden|first2=Dov|title=Effects of crew composition on crew performance: Does the whole equal the sum of its parts?|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=70|issue=1|pages=85–93|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.70.1.85|year=1985}}</ref> instead of building an own overall collective intelligence measure. Devine and Philips<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Devine|first1=Dennis J.|last2=Philips|first2=Jennifer L.|date=2001-10-01|title=Do Smarter Teams Do Better A Meta-Analysis of Cognitive Ability and Team Performance|journal=Small Group Research|volume=32|issue=5|pages=507–532|doi=10.1177/104649640103200501|s2cid=145635205}}</ref> (2001) showed in a meta-analysis that mean cognitive ability predicts team performance in laboratory settings (0.37) as well as field settings (0.14) – note that this is only a small effect. Suggesting a strong dependence on the relevant tasks, other scholars showed that tasks requiring a high degree of communication and cooperation are found to be most influenced by the team member with the lowest cognitive ability.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=O'Brien, G.  |author2=Owens, A.|date=1969|title=Effects of organizational structure on correlations between member abilities and group productivity|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=53 |issue=6|pages=525–530|doi=10.1037/h0028659}}</ref> Tasks in which selecting the best team member is the most successful strategy, are shown to be most influenced by the member with the highest cognitive ability.<ref name="Yip 48–55"/>

Since Woolley et al.'s<ref name=":0" /> results do not show any influence of group satisfaction, [[group cohesiveness]], or motivation, they, at least implicitly, challenge these concepts regarding the importance for group performance in general and thus contrast meta-analytically proven evidence concerning the positive effects of [[Group cohesiveness|group cohesion]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=Charles R.|last2=Dion|first2=Kenneth L.|date=1991-05-01|title=Group Cohesion and Performance A Meta-Analysis|journal=Small Group Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=175–186|doi=10.1177/1046496491222002|s2cid=145344583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gully|first1=Stanley M.|last2=Devine|first2=Dennis J.|last3=Whitney|first3=David J.|date=2012-12-01|title=A Meta-Analysis of Cohesion and Performance Effects of Level of Analysis and Task Interdependence|journal=Small Group Research|volume=43|issue=6|pages=702–725|doi=10.1177/1046496412468069|s2cid=220319732}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beal|first1=Daniel J.|last2=Cohen|first2=Robin R.|last3=Burke|first3=Michael J.|last4=McLendon|first4=Christy L.|title=Cohesion and Performance in Groups: A Meta-Analytic Clarification of Construct Relations.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=88|issue=6|pages=989–1004|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.88.6.989|pmid=14640811|date=December 2003|s2cid=1342307 }}</ref> motivation<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=O'leary-kelly|first1=Anne M.|last2=Martocchio|first2=Joseph J.|last3=Frink|first3=Dwight D.|date=1994-10-01|title=A Review of the Influence of Group Goals on Group Performance|url=http://amj.aom.org/content/37/5/1285|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=37|issue=5|pages=1285–1301|doi=10.2307/256673|jstor=256673}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kleingeld|first1=Ad|last2=Mierlo|first2=Heleen van|last3=Arends|first3=Lidia|title=The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=96|issue=6|pages=1289–1304|doi=10.1037/a0024315|pmid=21744940|year=2011|s2cid=22191705 }}</ref> and satisfaction<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Duffy, M. K. |author2=Shaw, J. D. |author3= Stark, E. M. |name-list-style=amp |date=2000|title=Performance and satisfaction in conflicted interdependent groups: When and how does selfesteem make a difference?|journal=Academy of Management Journal |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=772–782|doi=10.2307/1556367 |jstor=1556367 }}</ref> on group performance.

Some scholars have noted that the evidence for collective intelligence in the body of work by Wolley et al.<ref name=":0" /> is weak and may contain errors or misunderstandings of the data.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |last1=Credé |first1=Marcus |last2=Howardson |first2=Garett |title=The Structure of Group Task Performance—A Second Look at "Collective Intelligence": Comment on Woolley et al. (2010) |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2017-45139-001.pdf |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=psycnet.apa.org}}</ref> For example, Woolley et al.<ref name=":0" /> stated in their findings that the maximum individual score on the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guru |first=Test |date=2020-03-15 |title=Wonderlic Test Scoring. What's a Good Score? What's Average? |url=https://wonderlictestpractice.com/wonderlic-test-scoring/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Wonderlic Test Practice}}</ref> an individual intelligence test used in their research) was 39, but also that the maximum averaged team score on the same test was also a 39. This indicates that their sample seemingly had a team composed entirely of people who, individually, got exactly the same score on the WPT, and also all happened to all have achieved the highest scores on the WPT found in Woolley et al.<ref name=":0" /> This was noted by scholars as particularly unlikely to occur.<ref name=":30" /> Other anomalies found in the data indicate that results may be driven in part by low-effort responding.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":30" /> For instance, Woolley et al.'s<ref name=":0" /> data indicates that at least one team scored a 0 on a task in which they were given 10 minutes to come up with as many uses for a brick as possible. Similarly, Woolley et al.'s<ref name=":0" /> data show that at least one team had an average score of 8 out of 50 on the WPT. Scholars have noted that the probability of this occurring with study participants who are putting forth effort is nearly zero.<ref name=":30" /> This may explain why Woolley et al.<ref name=":0" /> found that the group's individual intelligence scores were not predictive of performance. In addition, low effort on tasks in human subjects research may inflate evidence for a supposed collective intelligence factor based on similarity of performance across tasks, because a team's low effort on one research task may generalize to low effort across many tasks.<ref name=":30" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Credé |first=Marcus |date=August 2010 |title=Random Responding as a Threat to the Validity of Effect Size Estimates in Correlational Research |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0013164410366686 |journal=Educational and Psychological Measurement|volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=596–612 |doi=10.1177/0013164410366686 |s2cid=145075745 |issn=0013-1644}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=J. L. |last2=Liu |first2=M. |last3=Bowling |first3=N. A. |date=2015 |title=Insufficient effort responding: Examining an insidious confound in survey data. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-55441-001.html |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=100 |issue=3 |pages=828–845 |doi=10.1037/a0038510 |pmid=25495093 |via=APA PsychNet}}</ref> It is notable that such a phenomenon is present merely because of the low stakes setting of laboratory research for research participants and not because it reflects how teams operate in organizations.<ref name=":30" />

Noteworthy is also that the involved researchers among the confirming findings widely overlap with each other and with the authors participating in the original first study around Anita Woolley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" />

On 3 May 2022, the authors of "Quantifying collective intelligence in human groups",<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last1=Riedl |first1=Christoph |last2=Kim |first2=Young Ji |last3=Gupta |first3=Pranav |last4=Malone |first4=Thomas W. |last5=Woolley |first5=Anita Williams |date=2021-05-25 |title=Quantifying collective intelligence in human groups |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=118 |issue=21 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2005737118 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8166150 |pmid=34001598|bibcode=2021PNAS..11805737R }}</ref> who include Riedl and Woolley from the original 2010 paper on Collective Intelligence,<ref name=":0" /> issued a correction to the article after mathematically impossible findings reported in the article were noted publicly by researcher Marcus Credé. Among the corrections is an admission that the average variance extracted (AVE)--that is to say, the evidence for collective intelligence—was only 19.6% from their Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Notable is that an AVE of at least 50% is generally required to demonstrate evidence for convergent validity of a single factor, with greater than 70% generally indicating good evidence for the factor.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last1=Fornell |first1=Claes |last2=Larker |first2=David |date=1981 |title=Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error: Algebra and Statistics |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313 |journal=Journal of Marketing Research|volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=382–388 |doi=10.1177/002224378101800313 |hdl=2027.42/35622 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Therefore, the evidence for collective intelligence referred to as "robust" in Riedl et al.<ref name=":32" /> is in fact quite weak or nonexistent, as their primary evidence does not meet or near even the lowest thresholds of acceptable evidence for a latent factor.<ref name=":33" /> Curiously, despite this and several other factual inaccuracies found throughout the article, the paper has not been retracted, and these inaccuracies were apparently not originally detected by the author team, peer reviewers, or editors of the journal.<ref name=":32" />

== Alternative mathematical techniques ==
=== Computational collective intelligence ===
[[File:Computational collective intelligence.jpg|thumb|Computational Collective Intelligence, by Tadeusz Szuba]]
In 2001, Tadeusz (Tad) Szuba from the [[Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza|AGH University]] in Poland proposed a formal model for the phenomenon of collective intelligence. It is assumed to be an unconscious, random, parallel, and distributed computational process, run in mathematical logic by the social structure.<ref name="szuba">Szuba T., ''Computational Collective Intelligence'', 420 pages, Wiley NY, 2001</ref>

In this model, beings and information are modeled as abstract information molecules carrying expressions of mathematical logic.<ref name="szuba" /> They are quasi-randomly displacing due to their interaction with their environments with their intended displacements.<ref name="szuba" /> Their interaction in abstract computational space creates multi-thread inference process which we perceive as collective intelligence.<ref name="szuba" /> Thus, a non-[[Alan Turing|Turing]] model of computation is used. This theory allows simple formal definition of collective intelligence as the property of [[social structure]] and seems to be working well for a wide spectrum of beings, from bacterial colonies up to human social structures. Collective intelligence considered as a specific computational process is providing a straightforward explanation of several social phenomena. For this model of collective intelligence, the formal definition of IQS (IQ Social) was proposed and was defined as "the probability function over the time and domain of N-element inferences which are reflecting inference activity of the social structure".<ref name="szuba" /> While IQS seems to be computationally hard, modeling of social structure in terms of a computational process as described above gives a chance for approximation.<ref name="szuba" /> Prospective applications are optimization of companies through the maximization of their IQS, and the analysis of drug resistance against collective intelligence of bacterial colonies.<ref name="szuba"/>

=== Collective intelligence quotient ===
One measure sometimes applied, especially by more artificial intelligence focused theorists, is a "collective intelligence quotient"<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tHmKrpSeEQC&q=collective+intelligence+quotient&pg=PA141|title=Computational Collective Intelligence. Semantic Web, Social Networks and Multiagent Systems: First International Conference, ICCCI 2009, Wroclaw, Poland, October 5–7, 2009, Proceedings|last=Kowalczyk|first=Ryszard|date=2009-09-23|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9783642044403}}</ref> (or "cooperation quotient") – which can be normalized from the "individual" [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ)<ref name="auto"/> – thus making it possible to determine the marginal intelligence added by each new individual participating in the [[collective action]], thus using [[Metric (mathematics)|metrics]] to avoid the hazards of [[group think]] and [[stupidity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/collective-iq.html|title=About Collective IQ&nbsp;-&nbsp;Doug Engelbart Institute|last=Administrator|website=dougengelbart.org|access-date=2016-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229024342/http://www.dougengelbart.org/about/collective-iq.html|archive-date=29 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Applications ==

There have been many recent applications of collective intelligence, including in fields such as crowd-sourcing, citizen science and prediction markets. The Nesta Centre for Collective Intelligence Design<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nesta.org.uk/project/centre-collective-intelligence-design/|title = Centre for Collective Intelligence Design}}</ref> was launched in 2018 and has produced many surveys of applications as well as funding experiments. In 2020 the UNDP Accelerator Labs<ref>{{cite web |url=https://acceleratorlabs.undp.org/ |title=Home |website=acceleratorlabs.undp.org}}</ref> began using collective intelligence methods in their work to accelerate innovation for the [[Sustainable Development Goals]].

=== Elicitation of point estimates ===
Here, the goal is to get an estimate (in a single value) of something. For example, estimating the weight of an object, or the release date of a product or probability of success of a project etc. as seen in prediction markets like Intrade, HSX or InklingMarkets and also in several implementations of crowdsourced estimation of a numeric outcome such as the [[Delphi method]]. Essentially, we try to get the average value of the estimates provided by the members in the crowd.

=== Opinion aggregation ===
In this situation, opinions are gathered from the crowd regarding an idea, issue or product. For example, trying to get a rating (on some scale) of a product sold online (such as Amazon's star rating system). Here, the emphasis is to collect and simply aggregate the ratings provided by customers/users.

=== Idea Collection ===
In these problems, someone solicits ideas for projects, designs or solutions from the crowd. For example, ideas on solving a [[data science]] problem (as in [[Kaggle]]) or getting a good design for a T-shirt (as in [[Threadless]]) or in getting answers to simple problems that only humans can do well (as in Amazon's Mechanical Turk). The objective is to gather the ideas and devise some selection criteria to choose the best ideas.

[[James Surowiecki]] divides the advantages of disorganized decision-making into three main categories, which are cognition, cooperation and coordination.<ref name="Surowiecki"/>

=== Cognition ===
==== Market judgment ====
Because of the Internet's ability to rapidly convey large amounts of information throughout the world, the use of collective intelligence to predict stock prices and stock price direction has become increasingly viable.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Craig A.|title=2001 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. E-Systems and e-Man for Cybernetics in Cyberspace (Cat.No.01CH37236)|year=2001|url=http://www.iqco.com/consulting/Kaplan_TESADI_Final.pdf|volume=5|pages=2893–2898|doi=10.1109/ICSMC.2001.971949|isbn=978-0-7803-7087-6|chapter=Collective intelligence: A new approach to stock price forecasting|s2cid=4836176|access-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610153216/http://www.iqco.com/consulting/Kaplan_TESADI_Final.pdf|archive-date=10 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Websites aggregate stock market information that is as current as possible so professional or amateur stock analysts can publish their viewpoints, enabling amateur investors to submit their financial opinions and create an aggregate opinion.<ref name=":22" /> The opinion of all investor can be weighed equally so that a pivotal premise of the effective application of collective intelligence can be applied: the masses, including a broad spectrum of stock market expertise, can be utilized to more accurately predict the behavior of financial markets.<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-15420-1|last1=Ma|first1=Ying|last2=Li|first2=Guanyi|last3=Dong|first3=Yingsai|last4=Qin|first4=Zengchang|chapter=Agents and Data Mining Interaction |title=Agents and Data Mining Interaction, 6th International Workshopon Agents and Data Mining Interaction, ADMI 2010|volume=5980|year=2010|chapter-url=http://icmll.buaa.edu.cn/publications/Conference%20Papers/LectureNotesCS/ADMI.pdf|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-642-15419-5|bibcode=2010LNCS.5980.....C|s2cid=36758062|access-date=2 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021040736/http://icmll.buaa.edu.cn/publications/Conference%20Papers/LectureNotesCS/ADMI.pdf|archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-23935-9_24|last1=Yu|first1=Du|last2=Dong|first2=Yingsai|last3=Qin|first3=Zengchang|last4=Wan|first4=Tao|title=Computational Collective Intelligence. Technologies and Applications |chapter=Exploring Market Behaviors with Evolutionary Mixed-Games Learning Model |volume=6922|year=2011|url=http://dsd.future-lab.cn/research/publications/2011/ICCCI-springer.pdf|pages=244–253|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-642-23934-2|access-date=10 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919180051/http://dsd.future-lab.cn/research/publications/2011/ICCCI-springer.pdf|archive-date=19 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Collective intelligence underpins the [[efficient-market hypothesis]] of [[Eugene Fama]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fama | first1 = E.F. | year = 1970 | title = Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work | journal = Journal of Finance | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 383–417 | doi=10.2307/2325486| jstor = 2325486 }}</ref>&nbsp;– although the term collective intelligence is not used explicitly in his paper. Fama cites research conducted by [[Michael C. Jensen|Michael Jensen]]<ref name=":23">{{cite journal | last1 = Jensen | first1 = M.C | year = 1967 | title = The Performance of Mutual Funds in the Period 1945–1964 | journal = Journal of Finance | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 389–416 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-6261.1968.tb00815.x| hdl = 10.1111/j.1540-6261.1968.tb00815.x | hdl-access = free }}</ref> in which 89 out of 115 selected funds underperformed relative to the index during the period from 1955 to 1964. But after removing the loading charge (up-front fee) only 72 underperformed while after removing brokerage costs only 58 underperformed. On the basis of such evidence [[index fund]]s became popular investment vehicles using the collective intelligence of the market, rather than the judgement of professional fund managers, as an investment strategy.<ref name=":23" />

==== Predictions in politics and technology ====
[[File:U.S. states (and territories) by election methods, 2016.svg|thumb|Voting methods used in the United States 2016]]
Political parties mobilize large numbers of people to form policy, select candidates and finance and run election campaigns.<ref name=":24">{{cite web|url=http://politics.stackexchange.com/questions/11168/vote-amount-according-to-intelligence|title=Vote amount according to "intelligence"|website=politics.stackexchange.com|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220093535/http://politics.stackexchange.com/questions/11168/vote-amount-according-to-intelligence|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Knowledge focusing through various [[voting]] methods allows perspectives to converge through the assumption that uninformed voting is to some degree random and can be filtered from the decision process leaving only a residue of informed consensus.<ref name=":24" /> Critics point out that often bad ideas, misunderstandings, and misconceptions are widely held, and that structuring of the decision process must favor experts who are presumably less prone to random or misinformed voting in a given context.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9907.html|title=Landemore, H.: Democratic Reason: Politics, Collective Intelligence, and the Rule of the Many. (eBook and Paperback)|isbn=9780691176390|access-date=2016-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220050449/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9907.html|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live|last1=Landemore|first1=Hélène|date=28 February 2017|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>

Companies such as Affinnova (acquired by Nielsen), [[Google]], [[InnoCentive]], [[Marketocracy]], and [[Threadless]]<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Bonabeau|first=E|year=2009|title=The power of collective intelligence|journal=MIT Sloan Management Review|volume=50|pages=45–52|id={{ProQuest|224962498}}}}</ref> have successfully employed the concept of collective intelligence in bringing about the next generation of technological changes through their research and development (R&D), customer service, and knowledge management.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite report|last1=Malone|first1=Thomas W.|last2=Laubacher|first2=Robert|last3=Dellarocas|first3=Chrysanthos|date=2009-02-03|title=Harnessing Crowds: Mapping the Genome of Collective Intelligence|ssrn=1381502|location=Rochester, NY|publisher=Social Science Research Network|id=MIT Sloan Research Paper No. 4732-09}}</ref> An example of such application is Google's Project Aristotle in 2012, where the effect of collective intelligence on team makeup was examined in hundreds of the company's R&D teams.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/magazine/what-google-learned-from-its-quest-to-build-the-perfect-team.html|title=What Google Learned From Its Quest to Build the Perfect Team|last=Duhigg|first=Charles|date=2016-02-25|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=2016-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223084955/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/28/magazine/what-google-learned-from-its-quest-to-build-the-perfect-team.html|archive-date=23 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cooperation ===
==== Networks of trust ====
[[File:Application of collective intelligence in Millennium Project.png|thumb|left|Application of collective intelligence in the Millennium Project]]
In 2012, the ''Global Futures Collective Intelligence System'' (GFIS) was created by [[The Millennium Project]],<ref name=GFIS/> which epitomizes collective intelligence as the synergistic intersection among data/information/knowledge, software/hardware, and expertise/insights that has a recursive learning process for better decision-making than the individual players alone.<ref name=GFIS>{{cite web|url=http://www.millennium-project.org/millennium/GFIS.html|title=Global Futures Intelligence System|website=millennium-project.org|access-date=2016-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225025210/http://www.millennium-project.org/millennium/GFIS.html|archive-date=25 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[New media]] are often associated with the promotion and enhancement of collective intelligence. The ability of new media to easily store and retrieve information, predominantly through databases and the Internet, allows for it to be shared without difficulty. Thus, through interaction with new media, knowledge easily passes between sources{{sfn|Flew|2008}} resulting in a form of collective intelligence. The use of interactive new media, particularly the internet, promotes online interaction and this distribution of knowledge between users.

[[Francis Heylighen]], [[Valentin Turchin]], and Gottfried Mayer-Kress are among those who view collective intelligence through the lens of computer science and [[cybernetics]]. In their view, the Internet enables collective intelligence at the widest, planetary scale, thus facilitating the emergence of a [[global brain]].

The developer of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], aimed to promote sharing and publishing of information globally. Later his employer opened up the technology for free use. In the early '90s, the Internet's potential was still untapped, until the mid-1990s when 'critical mass', as termed by the head of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Dr. [[J.C.R. Licklider]], demanded more accessibility and utility.<ref name="Weiss, A. 2005 pp. 19-23">Weiss, A. (2005). The Power of Collective Intelligence. Collective Intelligence, pp. 19–23</ref> The driving force of this Internet-based collective intelligence is the digitization of information and communication. [[Henry Jenkins]], a key theorist of new media and media convergence draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture.{{sfn|Flew|2008}} He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contribute to the development of such skills.<ref name=":25">{{cite web |first=Henry |last=Jenkins |title=Interactive audiences? The collective intelligence of media fans |date=2002  |work=The new media book |url=https://scholar.archive.org/work/f3fexvnpd5babcjfnqbyckwyvu/access/wayback/https://labweb.education.wisc.edu/curric606/readings/Jenkins2002.pdf}}</ref> Collective intelligence is not merely a quantitative contribution of information from all cultures, it is also qualitative.<ref name=":25" />

[[Pierre Lévy|Lévy]] and [[Derrick de Kerckhove|de Kerckhove]] consider CI from a mass communications perspective, focusing on the ability of networked information and communication technologies to enhance the community knowledge pool. They suggest that these communications tools enable humans to interact and to share and collaborate with both ease and speed.{{sfn|Flew|2008}} With the development of the [[Internet]] and its widespread use, the opportunity to contribute to knowledge-building communities, such as [[Wikipedia]], is greater than ever before. These computer networks give participating users the opportunity to store and to retrieve knowledge through the collective access to these databases and allow them to "harness the hive"{{sfn|Flew|2008}} Researchers at the [[MIT Center for Collective Intelligence]] research and explore collective intelligence of groups of people and computers.<ref>[http://cci.mit.edu/people/index.html MIT Center for Collective Intelligence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611041615/http://cci.mit.edu/people/index.html |date=11 June 2010 }}. Cci.mit.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-13.</ref>

In this context collective intelligence is often confused with [[shared knowledge]]. The former is the sum total of information held individually by members of a community while the latter is information that is believed to be true and known by all members of the community.<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Jenkins |title=Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZgUCgAAQBAJ |date=2008 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-4295-2}}</ref> Collective intelligence as represented by [[Web 2.0]] has less user engagement than [[collaborative intelligence]]. An art project using Web 2.0 platforms is "Shared Galaxy", an experiment developed by an anonymous artist to create a collective identity that shows up as one person on several platforms like MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Second Life. The password is written in the profiles and the accounts named "Shared Galaxy" are open to be used by anyone. In this way many take part in being one.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scardamalia|first1=Marlene|last2=Bereiter|first2=Carl|date=1994-07-01|title=Computer Support for Knowledge-Building Communities|journal=Journal of the Learning Sciences|volume=3|issue=3|pages=265–283|doi=10.1207/s15327809jls0303_3|citeseerx=10.1.1.600.463}}</ref> Another art project using collective intelligence to produce artistic work is Curatron, where a large group of artists together decides on a smaller group that they think would make a good collaborative group. The process is used based on an algorithm computing the collective preferences<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vocativ.com/culture/art-culture/math-takes-guessing-art-curation/|title=Math Takes the Guessing Out of Artistic Collaboration|date=9 July 2014|access-date=30 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001052839/http://www.vocativ.com/culture/art-culture/math-takes-guessing-art-curation/|archive-date=1 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In creating what he calls 'CI-Art', Nova Scotia based artist Mathew Aldred follows Pierry Lévy's definition of collective intelligence.<ref>Mathew Aldred, May 2016. {{cite web|title=What is Collective Intelligence Art?|year=2016|url=http://www.collectiveintelligenceart.ca/collective-intelligence-art.html|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002024912/http://www.collectiveintelligenceart.ca/collective-intelligence-art.html|archive-date=2 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Aldred's CI-Art event in March 2016 involved over four hundred people from the community of Oxford, Nova Scotia, and internationally.<ref>Amherst News Citizen Record, 17 March 2016. {{cite web|title=Community creation taking place in Oxford|year=2016|url=http://www.cumberlandnewsnow.com/News/Local/2016-03-17/article-4469315/Community-creation-taking-place-in-Oxford/1|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006015018/http://www.cumberlandnewsnow.com/News/Local/2016-03-17/article-4469315/Community-creation-taking-place-in-Oxford/1|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Oxford Regional Education Centre{{cite web|title=Nexus OREC|year=2016|url=http://www.goldenbears.ca/nexus-orec.html|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014256/http://www.goldenbears.ca/nexus-orec.html|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Later work developed by Aldred used the UNU [[swarm intelligence]] system to create digital drawings and paintings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Artwork from an emergent "Hive Mind" |date=23 May 2016 |url=http://unu.ai/ci-art/|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005002146/http://unu.ai/ci-art/|archive-date=5 October 2016|url-status=dead |first1=Mathew |last1=Aldred }}</ref> The Oxford Riverside Gallery (Nova Scotia) held a public CI-Art event in May 2016, which connected with online participants internationally.<ref>{{cite web|title=CI-Art event at Oxford Riverside Gallery 'Nexus' opening|date=22 May 2016 |website=Oxford Riverside Gallery |url=http://www.oxfordriversidegallery.ca/news/ci-art-event-at-oxford-riverside-gallery-nexus-opening|access-date=1 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002104037/http://www.oxfordriversidegallery.ca/news/ci-art-event-at-oxford-riverside-gallery-nexus-opening|archive-date=2 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Collaborative tagging.png|thumb|Parenting social network and collaborative tagging as pillars for automatic IPTV content blocking system]]
In [[social bookmarking]] (also called collaborative tagging),<ref name=":26">{{Cite book|last1=Millen|first1=David R.|last2=Feinberg|first2=Jonathan|last3=Kerr|first3=Bernard|title=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Dogear |date=2006-01-01|series=CHI '06|location=New York, NY, US|publisher=ACM|pages=111–120|doi=10.1145/1124772.1124792|isbn=978-1595933720|s2cid=18423803}}</ref> users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this [[crowdsourcing]] process. The resulting information structure can be seen as reflecting the collective knowledge (or collective intelligence) of a community of users and is commonly called a "[[Folksonomy]]", and the process can be captured by [[models of collaborative tagging]].<ref name=":26" />

Recent research using data from the social bookmarking website [[Delicious (website)|Delicious]], has shown that collaborative tagging systems exhibit a form of [[complex system]]s (or [[Self-organization|self-organizing]]) dynamics.<ref name="WWW07-ref" >Harry Halpin, Valentin Robu, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1242572.1242602 The Complex Dynamics of Collaborative Tagging], Proceedings 6th International Conference on the World Wide Web (WWW'07), Banff, Canada, pp. 211–220, ACM Press, 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1145/1460563.1460600|last1=Fu|first1=Wai-Tat|title=Proceedings of the 2008 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work |chapter=The microstructures of social tagging: A rational model |date=2008 |journal=ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction|pages=229–238|isbn=9781605580074|s2cid=2202814}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fu|first1=Wai-Tat|title=2009 International Conference on Computational Science and Engineering |chapter=A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tag Choices |pages=66–72|date=August 2009|doi=10.1109/CSE.2009.382|isbn=978-1-4244-5334-4|s2cid=10229043}}</ref> Although there is no central controlled vocabulary to constrain the actions of individual users, the distributions of tags that describe different resources has been shown to converge over time to a stable [[power law]] distributions.<ref name="WWW07-ref" /> Once such stable distributions form, examining the [[correlation]]s between different tags can be used to construct simple folksonomy graphs, which can be efficiently partitioned to obtained a form of community or shared vocabularies.<ref name="TWEB-ref" >Valentin Robu, Harry Halpin, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1594173.1594176 Emergence of consensus and shared vocabularies in collaborative tagging systems], ACM Transactions on the Web (TWEB), Vol. 3(4), article 14, ACM Press, September 2009.</ref> Such vocabularies can be seen as a form of collective intelligence, emerging from the decentralised actions of a community of users. The Wall-it Project is also an example of social bookmarking.<ref>Carlos J. Costa, January 2012. {{cite web|title=Article on Wall-it project|year=2012|url=http://masteropensource.wordpress.com/2012/01/21/wall-it/|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218122446/http://masteropensource.wordpress.com/2012/01/21/wall-it/|archive-date=18 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== P2P business ====
Research performed by Tapscott and Williams has provided a few examples of the benefits of collective intelligence to business:<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />

;Talent utilization
:At the rate technology is changing, no firm can fully keep up in the innovations needed to compete. Instead, smart firms are drawing on the power of mass collaboration to involve participation of the people they could not employ. This also helps generate continual interest in the firm in the form of those drawn to new idea creation as well as investment opportunities.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />
;Demand creation
:Firms can create a new market for complementary goods by engaging in open-source community. Firms also are able to expand into new fields that they previously would not have been able to without the addition of resources and collaboration from the community. This creates, as mentioned before, a new market for complementary goods for the products in said new fields.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />
;Costs reduction
:Mass collaboration can help to reduce costs dramatically. Firms can release a specific software or product to be evaluated or debugged by online communities. The results will be more personal, robust and error-free products created in a short amount of time and costs. New ideas can also be generated and explored by collaboration of online communities creating opportunities for free R&D outside the confines of the company.<ref name="Tapscott, D. 2008" />

==== Open-source software ====
Cultural theorist and online community developer, John Banks considered the contribution of online fan communities in the creation of the [[Trainz]] product. He argued that its commercial success was fundamentally dependent upon "the formation and growth of an active and vibrant online fan community that would both actively promote the product and create content- extensions and additions to the game software".<ref name="jbanks">John A.L. Banks. ''Negotiating Participatory Culture in the New Media Environment: Auran and the Trainz Online Community&nbsp;– An (Im)possible Relation'', The University of Queensland. School of English, Media Studies and Art History. MelbourneDAC2003</ref>

The increase in user created content and interactivity gives rise to issues of control over the game itself and ownership of the player-created content. This gives rise to fundamental legal issues, highlighted by Lessig<ref>L, Lessig (2006) Code Version 2.0 (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.</ref> and Bray and Konsynski,<ref>Bray, DA & Konsynski, BR, 2007, ''Virtual Worlds, Virtual Economies, Virtual Institutions'', viewed 10 October 2008, p. 1-27 <http://ssrn.com/abstract=962501></ref> such as [[intellectual property]] and property ownership rights.

Gosney extends this issue of Collective Intelligence in videogames one step further in his discussion of [[alternate reality gaming]]. This genre, he describes as an "across-media game that deliberately blurs the line between the in-game and out-of-game experiences"<ref name=":27">Gosney, J.W, 2005, ''Beyond Reality: A Guide to Alternate Reality Gaming'', Thomson Course Technology, Boston.</ref> as events that happen outside the game reality "reach out" into the player's lives in order to bring them together. Solving the game requires "the collective and collaborative efforts of multiple players"; thus the issue of collective and collaborative team play is essential to ARG. Gosney argues that the Alternate Reality genre of gaming dictates an unprecedented level of collaboration and "collective intelligence" in order to solve the mystery of the game.<ref name=":27" />

==== Benefits of co-operation ====
Co-operation helps to solve most important and most interesting multi-science problems. In his book, James Surowiecki mentioned that most scientists think that benefits of co-operation have much more value when compared to potential costs. Co-operation works also because at best it guarantees number of different viewpoints. Because of the possibilities of technology global co-operation is nowadays much easier and productive than before. It is clear that, when co-operation goes from university level to global it has significant benefits.

For example, why do scientists co-operate? Science has become more and more isolated and each science field has spread even more and it is impossible for one person to be aware of all developments. This is true especially in experimental research where highly advanced equipment requires special skills. With co-operation scientists can use information from different fields and use it effectively instead of gathering all the information just by reading by themselves."<ref name="Surowiecki">{{cite book | last=Surowiecki | first=James | title=The wisdom of crowds: why the many are smarter than the few | publisher=Abacus | publication-place=London | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-349-11605-1 | oclc=58997957}}</ref>

=== Coordination ===
==== Ad-hoc communities ====
Military, trade unions, and corporations satisfy some definitions of CI – the most rigorous definition would require a capacity to respond to very arbitrary conditions without orders or guidance from "law" or "customers" to constrain actions. Online advertising companies are using collective intelligence to bypass traditional marketing and creative agencies.<ref>Lee, Sang M., et al. "Success factors of platform leadership in web 2.0 service business." Service Business 4.2 (2010): 89–103.</ref>

The [https://web.archive.org/web/20151103044224/http://unu.ai/ UNU] open platform for "human swarming" (or "social swarming") establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified collective intelligence.<ref name="Human Swarms">{{cite web|url=http://news.discovery.com/human/life/swarms-of-humans-power-a-i-platform-150603.htm|title=Swarms of Humans Power A.I. Platform|last=DNews|date=3 June 2015|access-date=21 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621165834/http://news.discovery.com/human/life/swarms-of-humans-power-a-i-platform-150603.htm|archive-date=21 June 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html|first1=Louis B.|title=07/20/2015-07/24/2015|last1=Rosenberg|first2=Unanimous|last2=A.I.|first3=San|last3=Francisco|last4=California|last5=USA|date=1 January 2016|volume=13|pages=658–659|doi=10.7551/978-0-262-33027-5-ch117|isbn=9780262330275|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027132802/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html|archive-date=27 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> When connected to UNU, groups of distributed users collectively answer questions and make predictions in real-time.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Rosenberg |first=Louis B. |date=September 2015 |title=Human swarming, a real-time method for parallel distributed intelligence |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7321685/ |conference=Swarm/Human Blended Intelligence Workshop (SHBI)  |publisher=IEEE |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1109/SHBI.2015.7321685 |isbn=978-1-4673-6522-2}}</ref> Early testing shows that human swarms can out-predict individuals.<ref name="Human Swarms"/> In 2016, an UNU swarm was challenged by a reporter to predict the winners of the Kentucky Derby, and successfully picked the first four horses, in order, beating 540 to 1 odds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/artificial-intelligence-turns-20-11000-kentucky-derby-bet-457783|title=Artificial intelligence turns $20 into $11,000 in Kentucky Derby bet|website=[[Newsweek]]|date=10 May 2016|access-date=4 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604063846/http://www.newsweek.com/artificial-intelligence-turns-20-11000-kentucky-derby-bet-457783|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/06/02/what-happened-when-an-ai-hive-mind-answered-reddits-burning-politics-questions/|title=What happened when an A.I. hive mind answered Reddit's burning politics questions|first=Abby|last=Ohlheiser|date=2 June 2016|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=4 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604022928/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/06/02/what-happened-when-an-ai-hive-mind-answered-reddits-burning-politics-questions/|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Specialized information sites such as Digital Photography Review<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dpreview.com/|title=Digital Photography Review|website=dpreview.com|access-date=2016-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209013719/https://www.dpreview.com/|archive-date=9 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> or Camera Labs<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cameralabs.com/|title=Camera reviews, DSLR reviews, lens reviews, photography guides |website=Cameralabs |access-date=2016-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210142203/http://cameralabs.com/|archive-date=10 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> is an example of collective intelligence. Anyone who has an access to the internet can contribute to distributing their knowledge over the world through the specialized information sites.

In [[learner-generated context]] a group of users marshal resources to create an ecology that meets their needs often (but not only) in relation to the co-configuration, co-creation and co-design of a particular learning space that allows learners to create their own context.<ref>Luckin, R., du Boulay, B., Smith, H., Underwood, J., Fitzpatrick, G., Holmberg, J., Kerawalla, L., Tunley, H., Brewster, D. and Pearce, D. (2005), '[http://srodev.sussex.ac.uk/403/1/jime.pdf Using Mobile Technology to Create Flexible Learning Contexts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200742/http://srodev.sussex.ac.uk/403/1/jime.pdf |date=8 January 2019 }} '. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 22.</ref><ref>Luckin, R. (2006), Understanding Learning Contexts as Ecologies of Resources: From the Zone of Proximal Development to Learner Generated Contexts. Paper presented at the Proceedings of World Conference on Elearning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2006.</ref><ref>Luckin, R., Shurville, S. and Browne, T. (2007), '[https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/13334/blankfile.xxxx?sequence=1 Initiating e-learning by stealth, participation and consultation in a late majority institution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826191959/https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/13334/blankfile.xxxx?sequence=1 |date=26 August 2019 }}'. {{open access}} ''Journal of Organisational Transformation and Social Change'', '''3''' (3), 317–332. {{doi|10.1386/jots.3.3.317_1}}</ref> Learner-generated contexts represent an ''ad hoc'' community that facilitates coordination of collective action in a network of trust. An example of learner-generated context is found on the Internet when collaborative users pool knowledge in a "shared intelligence space". As the Internet has developed so has the concept of CI as a shared public forum. The global accessibility and availability of the Internet has allowed more people than ever to contribute and access ideas.{{sfn|Flew|2008}}

Games such as ''[[The Sims]]'' Series, and ''[[Second Life]]'' are designed to be non-linear and to depend on collective intelligence for expansion. This way of sharing is gradually evolving and influencing the mindset of the current and future generations.<ref name="Weiss, A. 2005 pp. 19-23"/> For them, collective intelligence has become a norm. In Terry Flew's discussion of '[[interactivity]]' in the online games environment, the ongoing interactive dialogue between users and game developers,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Flew |first1=Terry |last2=Humphreys |first2=Sal |year=2005 |chapter=Games: Technology, Industry, Culture |editor-first=Terry |editor-last=Flew |title=New Media: An Introduction |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=South Melbourne |pages=101–114}}</ref> he refers to Pierre Lévy's concept of Collective Intelligence{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} and argues this is active in videogames as clans or guilds in [[MMORPG]] constantly work to achieve goals. [[Henry Jenkins]] proposes that the participatory cultures emerging between games producers, media companies, and the end-users mark a fundamental shift in the nature of media production and consumption. Jenkins argues that this new participatory culture arises at the intersection of three broad new media trends.<ref>{{harvtxt|Jenkins|2002}} in {{harvtxt|Flew|Humphreys|2005}}</ref> Firstly, the development of new media tools/technologies enabling the creation of content. Secondly, the rise of subcultures promoting such creations, and lastly, the growth of value adding media conglomerates, which foster image, idea and narrative flow.

==== Coordinating collective actions ====
[[File:Improvisational_actors.jpg|thumb|The cast of After School Improv learns an important lesson about improvisation and life.]]
Improvisational actors also experience a type of collective intelligence which they term "group mind", as theatrical improvisation relies on mutual cooperation and agreement,<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Vera|first1=Dusya|last2=Crossan|first2=Mary|date=2004-06-01|title=Theatrical Improvisation: Lessons for Organizations|journal=Organization Studies|volume=25|issue=5|pages=727–749|doi=10.1177/0170840604042412|s2cid=144386272}}</ref> leading to the unity of "group mind".<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite journal |first=R. Keith |last=Sawyer|date=2004-06-01|title=Improvised lessons: collaborative discussion in the constructivist classroom|journal=Teaching Education|volume=15|issue=2|pages=189–201|doi=10.1080/1047621042000213610|s2cid=219643591}}</ref>

Growth of the Internet and mobile telecom has also produced "swarming" or "rendezvous" events that enable meetings or even dates on demand.<ref name="Wolpert arXiv:cs/9905004"/> The full impact has yet to be felt but the [[anti-globalization movement]], for example, relies heavily on e-mail, cell phones, pagers, SMS and other means of organizing.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vskz1poDuvoC&q=anti+globalization+collective+intelligence&pg=PR7|title=Globalization / Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide|last1=Held|first1=David|last2=McGrew|first2=Anthony|date=2007-11-19|publisher=Polity|isbn=9780745639116}}</ref> The [[Indymedia]] organization does this in a more journalistic way.<ref name=":19">{{cite web|url=http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2001/09/11129.html|title='Anti-Globals' Use Internet As Collective Intelligence – UK Indymedia|website=indymedia.org.uk|access-date=2016-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122251/http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/2001/09/11129.html|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Such resources could combine into a form of collective intelligence accountable only to the current participants yet with some strong moral or linguistic guidance from generations of contributors – or even take on a more obviously democratic form to advance shared goal.<ref name=":19" />

A further application of collective intelligence is found in the "Community Engineering for Innovations".<ref name="Idea Competitions">Jan Marco Leimeister, Michael Huber, Ulrich Bretschneider, Helmut Krcmar (2009): Leveraging Crowdsourcing: Activation-Supporting Components for IT-Based Ideas Competition. In: Journal of Management Information Systems (2009), Volume: 26, Issue: 1, Publisher: M.E. Sharpe Inc., Pages: 197–224, {{ISSN|0742-1222}}, {{doi|10.2753/MIS0742-1222260108}} [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1653890], Winfried Ebner; Jan Marco Leimeister; Helmut Krcmar (2009): Community Engineering for Innovations&nbsp;– The Ideas Competition as a method to nurture a Virtual Community for Innovations. In: R&D Management, 39 (4), pp 342–356 {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9310.2009.00564.x}} [https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/219672/1/JML_145.pdf]</ref> In such an integrated framework proposed by Ebner et al., idea competitions and virtual communities are combined to better realize the potential of the collective intelligence of the participants, particularly in open-source R&D.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ebner|first1=Winfried|last2=Leimeister|first2=Jan Marco|last3=Krcmar|first3=Helmut|date=2009-09-01|title=Community engineering for innovations: the ideas competition as a method to nurture a virtual community for innovations|journal=R&D Management|volume=39|issue=4|pages=342–356|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9310.2009.00564.x|s2cid=16316321|url=https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/219699/1/JML_173.pdf|access-date=2 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922012931/https://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/219699/1/JML_173.pdf|archive-date=22 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In management theory the use of collective intelligence and crowd sourcing leads to innovations and very robust answers to quantitative issues.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fladerer |first1=Johannes-Paul |last2=Kurzmann |first2=Ernst |title=WISDOM OF THE MANY : how to create self-organisation and how to use collective... intelligence in companies and in society from mana. |date=November 2019 |publisher=BOOKS ON DEMAND |isbn=9783750422421 |url=https://www.bod.de/buchshop/the-wisdom-of-the-many-johannes-paul-fladerer-9783750422421 |language=de |access-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223093505/https://www.bod.de/buchshop/the-wisdom-of-the-many-johannes-paul-fladerer-9783750422421 |archive-date=23 December 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Therefore, collective intelligence and crowd sourcing is not necessarily leading to the best solution to economic problems, but to a stable, good solution.

==== Coordination in different types of tasks ====
Collective actions or tasks require different amounts of coordination depending on the complexity of the task. Tasks vary from being highly independent simple tasks that require very little coordination to complex interdependent tasks that are built by many individuals and require a lot of coordination. In the article written by Kittur, Lee and Kraut the writers introduce a problem in cooperation: "When tasks require high coordination because the work is highly interdependent, having more contributors can increase process losses, reducing the effectiveness of the group below what individual members could optimally accomplish". Having a team too large the overall effectiveness may suffer even when the extra contributors increase the resources. In the end the overall costs from coordination might overwhelm other costs.<ref>Kittur, A., Lee, B. and Kraut, R. E. (2009) '[https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1518928 Coordination in collective intelligence: The role of team structure and task interdependence]', Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems – Proceedings, pp. 1495–1504.</ref>

Group collective intelligence is a property that emerges through coordination from both bottom-up and top-down processes. In a bottom-up process the different characteristics of each member are involved in contributing and enhancing coordination. Top-down processes are more strict and fixed with norms, group structures and routines that in their own way enhance the group's collective work.<ref name=":11"/>

== Alternative views ==
===A tool for combating self-preservation===

Tom Atlee reflects that, although humans have an innate ability to gather and analyze data, they are affected by culture, education and social institutions.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YV4dCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA140|title=In Search of The Black Seed|last=Abdul-Karim|first=Kashif|date=2015-11-23|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781329694897|page=140}}{{self-published source|date=February 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} A single person tends to make decisions motivated by self-preservation. Therefore, without collective intelligence, humans may drive themselves into extinction based on their selfish needs.<ref name=":21">Atlee, T. (2008). [http://www.communicationagents.com/tom_atlee/2008/05/15/reflections_on_the_evolution_of_choice_and_collective_intelligence.htm Reflections on the evolution of choice and collective intelligence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080522033150/http://www.communicationagents.com/tom_atlee/2008/05/15/reflections_on_the_evolution_of_choice_and_collective_intelligence.htm |date=22 May 2008 }}, Retrieved 26 August 2008</ref>

===Separation from IQism===
Phillip Brown and Hugh Lauder quotes Bowles and [[Herbert Gintis|Gintis]] (1976) that in order to truly define collective intelligence, it is crucial to separate 'intelligence' from IQism.<ref name=":28">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/jun/18/socialsciences.highereducation1|title=Capitalism and Social Progress by Phillip Brown and Hugh Lauder (cont... )|date=2001-06-18|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221073908/https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/jun/18/socialsciences.highereducation1|archive-date=21 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> They go on to argue that intelligence is an achievement and can only be developed if allowed to.<ref name=":28" /> For example, earlier on, groups from the lower levels of society are severely restricted from aggregating and pooling their intelligence. This is because the elites fear that the collective intelligence would convince the people to rebel. If there is no such capacity and relations, there would be no infrastructure on which collective intelligence is built.{{sfn|Brown|Lauder|2000|p=230}} This reflects how powerful collective intelligence can be if left to develop.<ref name=":28" />

===Artificial intelligence views===
Skeptics, especially those critical of artificial intelligence and more inclined to believe that risk of [[bodily harm]] and bodily action are the basis of all unity between people, are more likely to emphasize the capacity of a group to take action and withstand harm as one fluid [[mass mobilization]], shrugging off harms the way a body shrugs off the loss of a few cells.<ref name=":29">{{cite web|url=http://www.johnzerzan.net/radio/|title=John Zerzan: anti-civilization theorist, writer and speaker|website=johnzerzan.net|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204210421/http://johnzerzan.net/radio/|archive-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":31">{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=Jason W.|date=2001-01-01|editor-last=Arrighi|editor-first=Giovanni|editor2-last=Silver|editor2-first=Beverly J.|title=Globalization in Historical Perspective|journal=Science & Society|volume=65|issue=3|pages=386–397|doi=10.1521/siso.65.3.386.17767|jstor=40403938}}</ref> This train of thought is most obvious in the [[anti-globalization movement]] and characterized by the works of [[John Zerzan]], [[Carol Moore]], and [[Starhawk]], who typically shun academics.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":31"/> These theorists are more likely to refer to ecological and [[collective wisdom]] and to the role of [[consensus process]] in making ontological distinctions than to any form of "intelligence" as such, which they often argue does not exist, or is mere "cleverness".<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":31"/>

Harsh critics of artificial intelligence on ethical grounds are likely to promote collective wisdom-building methods, such as the [[new tribalists]] and the [[Gaianism|Gaians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metamorphoptics.blogspot.com/|title=metamorphoptics |website=metamorphoptics.blogspot.com|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213143103/http://metamorphoptics.blogspot.com/|archive-date=13 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=December 2021|certain=yes}} Whether these can be said to be collective intelligence systems is an open question. Some, e.g. [[Bill Joy]], simply wish to avoid any form of autonomous artificial intelligence and seem willing to work on rigorous collective intelligence in order to remove any possible niche for AI.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2000/04/joy-2/|title=Why the Future Doesn't Need Us|last=Joy|first=Bill|newspaper=WIRED|access-date=2016-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204003455/https://www.wired.com/2000/04/joy-2/|archive-date=4 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In contrast to these views, companies such as [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]] and [[CrowdFlower]] are using collective intelligence and [[crowdsourcing]] or [[consensus-based assessment]] to collect the enormous amounts of data for [[machine learning]] algorithms.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

=== Similar concepts and applications ===
* [[Citizen science]]
* [[Civic intelligence]]
* [[Collaborative filtering]]
* [[Collaborative innovation network]]
* [[Collective decision-making]]
* [[Collective effervescence]]
* [[Collective memory]]
* [[Collective problem solving]]
* [[Crowd psychology]]
* [[Global Consciousness Project]]
* [[Group behaviour]]
* [[Group mind (science fiction)]]
* [[Knowledge ecosystem]]
* [[:fr:Noogenèse|Noogenesis]]
* [[Open-source intelligence]]
* [[Recommendation system]]
* [[Smart mob]]
* [[Social commerce]]
* [[Social epistemology]]
* [[Social information processing]]
* [[Stigmergy]]
* [[Raymond Cattell#Innovations and accomplishments|Syntality]]
* [[Wisdom of the crowd]]
* [[Think tank]]
* [[Wiki]]
* [[Wikipedia]]

=== Computation and computer science ===
* [[Bees algorithm]]
* [[Cellular automaton]]
* [[Collaborative human interpreter]]
* [[Collaborative software]]
* [[Connectivity (graph theory)]]
* [[Enterprise bookmarking]]
* [[Human-based computation]]
* [[Open-source software]]
* [[Organismic computing]]
* [[Preference elicitation]]

=== Others ===
* [[Customer engagement]]
* [[Dispersed knowledge]]
* [[Distributed cognition]]
* [[Facilitation (business)]]
* [[Facilitator]]
* [[Group cognition]]
* [[Hundredth monkey effect]]
* [[Intersubjectivity]]
* [[Keeping up with the Joneses]]
* [[Library]]
* [[Library of Alexandria]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Open-space meeting]]
* [[Shared intentionality]]
* [[Situated cognition]]

{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book
 | last1=Brown | first1=Philip
 | last2=Lauder | first2=Hugh
 | year=2000
 | chapter=Collective intelligence
 |editor-first=S. |editor-last=Baron |editor2-first=J. |editor2-last=Field |editor3-first=T |editor3-last=Schuller
 | title=Social Capital: Critical Perspectives
 | publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvivgiFfPr0C
| isbn=9780191583247 }}
* {{cite book | last=Flew | first=Terry | year=2008 | title=New media: an introduction |edition=3rd | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=South Melbourne | isbn=978-0-19-555149-5 | oclc=225484017}}
* {{cite book
 | last=Flew | first=Terry
 | year= 2014 |edition=4th
 | title=New Media 
 | publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195577853
}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
 | last1=Brown | first1=Philip
 | last2=Lauder | first2=Hugh
 | year=2001
 | chapter=Collective intelligence
 |editor=Brown |editor2=Lauder
 | title=Capitalism and social progress: the future of society in a global economy
 | publisher=Palgrave
 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8YDAAAQBAJ
| isbn=9780333985380 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last=Fadul | first=Jose A.
 | year=2009
 | title=Collective Learning: Applying Distributed Cognition for Collective Intelligence
 | journal=The International Journal of Learning
 | volume = 16
 | issue = 4
 | pages= 211–220
 | doi=10.18848/1447-9494/cgp/v16i04/46223
}}
* {{cite web |title=The World Factbook |date=2008 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/ |access-date=2008-09-03}}
* {{cite book
| last = Fladerer | first=Johannes-Paul
 | year=2019
 |title=The Wisdom of the Many: How to create Self-Organisation and how to use Collective Intelligence in Companies and in Society From Management to ManagemANT
 | publisher=BoD
 | location=Norderstedt
 | isbn =978-3750422421
}}
* {{cite book
  | last=Hamann | first=Heiko
 | year=2018
 | title=Swarm Robotics: A Formal Approach
 | publisher=Springer
 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnNLDwAAQBAJ
| isbn=9783319745282 }}
* {{cite book
 | last=Hofstadter | first=Douglas
 | author-link=Douglas Hofstadter
 | year=1979 |title-link=Gödel, Escher, Bach
 | title=Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid
 
 | publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02656-2
}}
* {{cite journal
 | last=Leimeister
 | first=Jan Marco
 | year=2010
 | title=Intelligence
 |volume=2
 |issue=4
 |pages=245–8
 |journal=Business & Information Systems Engineering
 | doi=10.1007/s12599-010-0114-8
 | s2cid=7575575
 | url=http://aisel.aisnet.org/bise/vol2/iss4/6/
 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726084723/http://aisel.aisnet.org/bise/vol2/iss4/6/
 | url-status=live
 | archive-date=2011-07-26
 | doi-access=free
 }}
* {{cite report |last1=Leiner |first1=Barry |last2=Cerf |first2=Vinton |author2-link=Vinton Cerf |last3=Clark |first3=David |last4=Kahn |first4=Robert |last5=Kleinrock |first5=Leonard |last6=Lynch |first6=Daniel |last7=Postel |first7=Jon |author7-link=Jon Postel |last8=Roberts |first8=Larry |last9=Wolff |first9=Stephen |title=A Brief History of the Internet |date=2003 |url=http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml |access-date=2008-09-03 |id=Version 3.32}}
* {{cite web |first=Jean-François |last=Noubel |title=Collective Intelligence: the Invisible Revolution |date=2007 |url=http://publishing.yudu.com/Library/Arswi/CollectiveIntelligen/resources/index.htm?skipFlashCheck=true}}
* {{cite book
 | last=Por | first=George
 | year=1995
 | chapter= The Quest for Collective intelligence
 | editor=K. Gozdz |isbn=9780963039057
 | title=Community Building: Renewing Spirit and Learning in Business
 | publisher=New Leaders Press | location=San Francisco
}}
* {{cite book
 | last=Rheingold | first=Howard
 | author-link=Howard Rheingold
 | year=2007 
 | title=Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution
 | publisher=Hachette |isbn=9780465004393
| title-link=Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution }}
* {{cite book
 | editor-last=Ron | editor-first=Sun
 | year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V1RyhTamPkgC
 | title=Cognition and Multi-Agent Interaction
 | publisher=Cambridge University Press
| isbn=9780521839648
 }}
* {{cite book |first=L. |last=Rosenberg |chapter=Human Swarms, a real time method for Collective Intelligence |chapter-url=https://direct.mit.edu/isal/proceedings-pdf/ecal2015/27/658/1903863/978-0-262-33027-5-ch117.pdf |title=Proceedings of the European Conference on Artificial Life (ECAL 2015) |date=2015 |pages=658–9 }}
* {{cite conference
 | last1=Riedl | first1=Christoph
 | last2=Blohm | first2=Ivo
 | last3=Leimeister | first3=Jan Marco
 | last4=Krcmar | first4=Helmut
 | year=2010
 | title=Rating Scales for Collective Intelligence in Innovation Communities: Why Quick and Easy Decision Making Does Not Get It Right
| url=http://home.in.tum.de/~riedlc/res/RiedlEtAl2010-ICIS.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719100838/http://home.in.tum.de/~riedlc/res/RiedlEtAl2010-ICIS.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-19
| book-title=Thirty First International Conference on Information Systems, St. Louis 2010
}}
* {{cite book
 | last=Radakov | first=Dmitriĭ Viktorovich
 | year=1973
 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780470704820
 | title=Schooling in the ecology of fish
}}
* {{cite book|title=Uses and Abuses of Intelligence|editor1-first=Jean|editor1-last=Raven |year=2008|publisher=Royal Fireworks Press|location=Unionville (NY)|isbn=978-0-89824-356-7}}
* {{cite book | last1=Chowdhury | first1=Soudip Roy | last2=Rodriguez | first2=Carlos | last3=Daniel | first3=Florian | last4=Casati | first4=Fabio | year=2010 | title=Wisdom-aware computing: on the interactive recommendation of composition knowledge | pages=[https://archive.org/details/serviceorientedc0000maxi/page/144 144–155] | url=https://archive.org/details/serviceorientedc0000maxi/page/144 | isbn=9783642193934 | series=Icsoc'10 }}
* {{cite book |first1=S.R. |last1=Diasio |first2=N. |last2=Agell |chapter=The evolution of expertise in decision support technologies: A challenge for organizations |title=13th International Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work in Design |date=2009 |pages=692–7 |doi=10.1109/CSCWD.2009.4968139|isbn=978-1-4244-3534-0 |s2cid=14678705 }}
*{{cite book |last1=Kaiser |first1=C. |last2=Kröckel |first2=J. |last3=Bodendorf |first3=F. |chapter=Swarm Intelligence for Analyzing Opinions in Online Communities |title=Proceedings of the 43rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences |date=2010 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1109/HICSS.2010.356 |isbn=978-1-4244-5509-6 |s2cid=10383747 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=Annie Murphy |title=The extended mind: the power of thinking outside the brain |date=2021 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |location=Boston |isbn=9780544947665}}
* {{cite book |last1=Baltzersen |first1=Rolf K. |title=Cultural-historical perspectives on collective intelligence: patterns in problem solving and innovation |date=2022 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781108981361}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kornberger |first1=Martin |title=Strategies for distributed and collective action: connecting the dots |date=2022 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=9780198864301}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Leonard |first1=Naomi Ehrich |last2=Levin |first2=Simon A |title=Collective intelligence as a public good |journal=Collective Intelligence |date=August 2022 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1177/26339137221083293 |doi-access=free}}

{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* [http://ciresearchinstitute.org CIRI&nbsp;– the Collective Intelligence Research Institute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312210952/http://ciresearchinstitute.org/ |date=12 March 2012 }} – a R&D non-profit organization on collective intelligence
* [http://gccsr.org An application of Collective Intelligence for the Global Climate Change Situation Room] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232730/http://gccsr.org/ |date=6 November 2020 }} designed and implemented by The Millennium Project in Gimcheon, South Korea in 2009.
* [http://scripts.mit.edu/~cci/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page MIT Handbook of Collective Intelligence]
* [http://www.scn.org/commnet/civic-intelligence.html Cultivating Society's Civic Intelligence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060216205442/http://www.scn.org/commnet/civic-intelligence.html |date=16 February 2006 }} Doug Schuler ''Journal of Society, Information and Communication'', vol 4 No. 2.
* Jennifer H. Watkins (2007). [http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8mg0p0zc Prediction Markets as an Aggregation Mechanism for Collective Intelligence] Los Alamos National Laboratory article on Collective Intelligence
* [[Hideyasu Sasaki]] (2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101002143636/http://sites.google.com/site/hsasakilab/Home/ijoci/ijoci-vol-1-no-1 International Journal of Organizational and Collective Intelligence (IJOCI)], vol 1 No. 1.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170925233103/http://collectiveintel.net/ The collective intelligence framework], open-source framework for leveraging collective intelligence
* Raimund Minichbauer (2012). [http://eipcp.net/transversal/0112/minichbauer/en Fragmented Collectives. On the Politics of "Collective Intelligence" in Electronic Networks], transversal 01 12, 'unsettling knowledges'
* [https://www.baglamaduasi.net/ask-buyusu/ Aşk büyüsü]
{{Collective animal behaviour}}
{{Human intelligence topics}}
{{Knowledge management}}
{{Semantic Web}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Collective Intelligence}}
[[Category:Collective intelligence| ]]
[[Category:Intelligence by type]]
[[Category:Multi-robot systems]]