View source for Cod Wars

{{Short description|Dispute between Iceland and the UK}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[Cold War]] or the [[Hook and Cod wars]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2018}}
[[File:ISLEEZ.png|thumb|Expansion of the Icelandic [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ).
{{legend|#E32636|Iceland}}
{{legend|#FFFFFF|[[Internal waters]]}}
{{legend|#00FFFF|4 [[Nautical mile|nmi]] expansion 1952}}
{{legend|#00CCCC|12 nmi expansion (current extent of territorial waters) 1958}}
{{legend|#4682B4|50 nmi expansion 1972}}
{{legend|#1034A6|200 nmi expansion (current extent of EEZ) 1975}}
]]
The '''Cod Wars''' ({{langx|is|Þorskastríðin}}; also known as {{lang|is|Landhelgisstríðin}}, {{lit|The Coastal Wars}}; {{langx|de|Kabeljaukriege}}) were a series of 20th-century confrontations between the [[United Kingdom]] (with aid from [[West Germany]]) and [[Iceland]] about [[Exclusive economic zone|fishing rights]] in the [[North Atlantic]]. Each of the disputes ended with an Icelandic victory.<ref name="Habeeb1988">{{Cite book|title = Power and Tactics in International Negotiations: How Weak Nations Bargain with Strong Nations|last = Habeeb|first = William|publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press|year = 1988|chapter=6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cook|first=Bernard A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7-2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Cod+Wars%22+%22Iceland%22+%22victory%22&pg=PT649|title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia|date=27 January 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-17932-8|pages=605|language=en|access-date=22 October 2020|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723203806/https://books.google.com/books?id=P7-2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Cod+Wars%22+%22Iceland%22+%22victory%22&pg=PT649|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Fishing industry in England|Fishing boats from Britain]] had been sailing to waters near Iceland in search of catch since the 14th century. Agreements struck during the 15th century started a centuries-long series of intermittent disputes between the two countries. Demand for seafood and consequent competition for fish stocks grew rapidly in the 19th century. The modern disputes began in 1952 after Iceland expanded its territorial waters from 3 to {{convert|4|nmi|km|0|abbr=off}}. The United Kingdom responded by banning Icelandic ships landing their fish in British ports.<ref>Frost, Natasha (21 \june 2018), 

[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-were-cod-wars "How Iceland Beat the British in the Four Cod Wars"], Gastro Obscura. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519093014/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-were-cod-wars |date=19 May 2022 }}.</ref> In 1958, Iceland expanded its territorial waters to {{convert|12|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} and banned foreign fishing fleets. Britain refused to accept this decision,<ref name = Cabinet>{{cite web |title= Cabinet Papers: The Cod Wars |url= https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/cod-wars.htm |publisher= National Archives (UK) |access-date= 5 December 2020 |archive-date= 15 January 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200115004233/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/cod-wars.htm |url-status= live }}</ref> which led to a series of confrontations over 20 years: 1958–1961, 1972–73 and 1975–76. British fishing boats were escorted to the fishing grounds by the [[Royal Navy]] while the [[Icelandic Coast Guard]] attempted to chase them away and use long [[hawser]]s to [[Net cutter (fisheries patrol)|cut nets]] from the British boats; ships from both sides suffered damage from [[ramming]] attacks.

Each confrontation concluded with an agreement favourable for Iceland. Iceland made threats it would withdraw from [[NATO]], which would have forfeited NATO's access to most of the [[GIUK gap]], a critical [[anti-submarine warfare]] [[chokepoint]] during the [[Cold War]]. In a NATO-brokered agreement in 1976, the United Kingdom accepted Iceland's establishment of a 12-nautical-mile (22&nbsp;km) exclusive zone around its shores and a {{convert|200|nmi|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} Icelandic fishery zone where other nations' fishing fleets needed Iceland's permission. The agreement brought to an end more than 500 years of unrestricted British fishing in these waters and, as a result, British fishing communities were devastated, with thousands of jobs lost.<ref name="Guðmundsson2006" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Ledger|first=John|title=''How the Cod War of 40 years ago left a Yorkshire community devastated''|url=http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/our-region/east-yorkshire/how-the-cod-war-of-40-years-ago-left-a-yorkshire-community-devastated-1-7636401|date=21 December 2015|work=The Yorkshire Post|access-date=13 January 2016|archive-date=2 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161102010528/http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/our-region/east-yorkshire/how-the-cod-war-of-40-years-ago-left-a-yorkshire-community-devastated-1-7636401|url-status=live}}</ref> The UK declared a similar 200-nautical-mile zone around its own waters. Since 1982, a {{convert|200|nmi|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} [[exclusive economic zone]] has been the international standard under the [[Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UN Convention on the Law of the Sea]].

There was one confirmed death during the Cod Wars: an Icelandic engineer, who was accidentally killed in 1973 while repairing damage on the Icelandic patrol boat ''[[ICGV Ægir|Ægir]]'' after a collision with the British frigate ''[[HMS Apollo (F70)|Apollo]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú |last = Jóhannesson |first = Guðni Th. |author-link=Guðni Th. Jóhannesson  |year = 2006 |page = 100}}</ref> Recent studies of the Cod Wars have focused on the underlying economic, legal and strategic drivers for Iceland and the United Kingdom, as well as the domestic and international factors that contributed to the escalation of the dispute.<ref name="Steinsson2016" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Steinsson|first=Sverrir|title=Neoclassical Realism in the North Atlantic: Explaining Behaviors and Outcomes in the Cod Wars|journal=Foreign Policy Analysis|volume=13|issue=3|pages=599–617|doi=10.1093/fpa/orw062|year=2017|url=http://osf.io/26ubp/|access-date=21 December 2020|archive-date=9 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209161805/https://osf.io/26ubp/|url-status=live}}</ref> Lessons drawn from the Cod Wars have been applied to [[international relations theory]].<ref name="Steinsson2016" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Steinsson|first=Sverrir|date=6 June 2017|title=Do liberal ties pacify? A study of the Cod Wars|journal=Cooperation and Conflict|volume=53|issue=3|pages=339–355|doi=10.1177/0010836717712293|s2cid=157673952|issn=0010-8367}}</ref>

==Background==
[[File:Maritime Zones under International Law.png|right|thumb|upright 1.5|Sea areas, in [[international law]], did not become universally recognised until the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] of 1982.]]
Seafood has for centuries been a staple in the diet of inhabitants of the British Isles, Iceland and other [[Nordic countries]], which are surrounded by some of the world's richest fisheries.<ref name="Conversation piece">{{cite news|last1=Forse|first1=Andy|last2=Drakeford|first2=Ben|last3=Potts|first3=Jonathan|date=25 March 2019|title=Fish fights: Britain has a long history of trading away access to coastal waters|newspaper=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|url=http://theconversation.com/fish-fights-britain-has-a-long-history-of-trading-away-access-to-coastal-waters-112988|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=24 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132115/http://theconversation.com/fish-fights-britain-has-a-long-history-of-trading-away-access-to-coastal-waters-112988|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Viking activity in the British Isles|Danish and Norse raiders]] came to Britain in the ninth century bringing one fish species in particular, the [[Atlantic cod#Northeast Atlantic cod|North Sea cod]], into the national diet. Other [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|whitefish]] like [[halibut]], [[hake]] and [[pollock]] also became popular.<ref name="FT cod story">{{cite news|last=Chaffin|first=Joshua|date=18 July 2017|title=North Sea cod completes long journey back to sustainability|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|url=https://www.ft.com/content/c0da63a0-6bc5-11e7-b9c7-15af748b60d0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/c0da63a0-6bc5-11e7-b9c7-15af748b60d0 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=4 March 2020}}</ref>

===Until 1949===
By the end of the 14th century, fishing boats from the east coast of England, then as now home to most of the English fishing fleet, were sailing to Icelandic waters in search of these catches; their landings grew so abundant as to cause political friction between England and [[Denmark]], who ruled Iceland at the time. The Danish [[Eric of Pomerania|King Eric]] banned all Icelandic trade with England in 1414 and complained to his English counterpart, [[Henry V of England|Henry V]], about [[Overfishing|the depletion of fishing stocks]] off the island. Restrictions on British fishing passed by Parliament were generally ignored and unenforced, leading to violence and the [[Anglo-Hanseatic War|Anglo-Hanseatic War (1469–1474)]]. Diplomats resolved these disputes through agreements that allowed British ships to fish Icelandic waters with seven-year licences, a provision that was struck from the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1474)|Treaty of Utrecht]] when it was presented to the Icelandic [[Althing]] for [[ratification]] in 1474.<ref name="Medieval fishiing">{{cite book|last1=Gardiner|first1=Mark|url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/106203799/The_character_of_commercial_fishing_in_Icelandic_waters_in_the_fifteenth_century.pdf|title=Cod and Herring: The Archaeology and History of Medieval Sea Fishing|date=2016|publisher=[[Oxbow Books]]|isbn=9781785702396|editor1-last=Barrett|editor1-first=James Harold|location=Oxford|pages=80–90|chapter=8: The character of commercial fishing in Icelandic waters in the fifteenth century|access-date=4 March 2020|editor2-last=Orton|editor2-first=David C.|archive-date=23 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923112359/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/files/106203799/The_character_of_commercial_fishing_in_Icelandic_waters_in_the_fifteenth_century.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This started a centuries-long series of intermittent disputes between the two countries.<ref name="FishFights2019" /> From the early 16th century onward, English sailors and fishermen were a major presence in the waters off Iceland.<ref name="Þorsteinsson1976">{{Cite book|last=Þorsteinsson|first=Björn|title=Tíu þorskastríð 1415–1976|year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Thór|first=Jón Th.|title=British trawlers and Iceland: 1919–1976|year=1995|publisher=University of Gothenburg|page=9}}</ref>

With the increases in range of fishing that were enabled by [[steam engine|steam power]] in the late 19th century, boat owners and skippers felt pressure to exploit new grounds. Their large catches in Icelandic waters attracted more regular voyages across the [[North Atlantic]]. In 1893, the [[Danish government]], which then governed Iceland and the [[Faroe Islands]], claimed a fishing limit of {{convert|50|nmi|km|abbr=on}} around their shores. British trawler owners disputed the claim and continued to send their ships to the waters near Iceland. The British government did not recognise the Danish claim on the grounds that setting such a precedent would lead to similar claims by the nations around the [[North Sea]], which would damage the British fishing industry.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

In 1896, the United Kingdom made an agreement with Denmark for British vessels to use any Icelandic port for shelter if they stowed their gear and trawl nets. In return, British vessels were not to fish in [[Faxa Bay]] east of a line from Ílunýpa, a promontory near [[Keflavík]] to Þormóðssker ([https://tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?params=64.4334_N_-22.3092_E_ 43.43° N, 22.30° W]).{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}

With many British trawlers being charged and fined by Danish gunboats for fishing illegally within the {{convert|13|nmi|km|abbr=on|0}} limit, which the British government refused to recognise, the [[British press]] began to enquire why the Danish action against British interests was allowed to continue without intervention by the [[Royal Navy]]. The British made a show of naval force ([[gunboat diplomacy]]) in 1896 and 1897.<ref name="auto" />

In April 1899, the steam trawler ''Caspian'' was fishing off the Faroe Islands when a Danish [[gunboat]] tried to arrest her for allegedly fishing illegally inside the limits. The trawler refused to stop and was fired upon first with blank shells and then with live ammunition. Eventually, the trawler was caught, but before the skipper, Charles Henry Johnson, left his ship to go aboard the Danish gunboat, he ordered the mate to make a dash for it after he went on to the Danish ship. The ''Caspian'' set off at full speed. The gunboat fired several shots at the unarmed boat but could not catch up with the trawler, which returned, heavily damaged, to [[Grimsby]], [[England]]. On board the Danish gunboat, the skipper of the ''Caspian'' was lashed to the mast. A court held at [[Thorshavn]] convicted him on several counts including [[illegal fishing]] and attempted assault, and he was jailed for 30 days.<ref>Bale, B. (2010), ''Memories of the: Lincolnshire Fishing Industry'', Berkshire: Countryside Books, p. 35.</ref>

The 'Anglo-Danish Territorial Waters Agreement' of 1901 set a {{convert|3|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} territorial waters limit, measured narrowly, around each party's coastlines: this applied to Iceland as (at the time) part of Denmark and had a term of 50 years.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|title = How 'cod war' came: the origins of the Anglo-Icelandic fisheries dispute, 1958–61*|journal = Historical Research|date = 1 November 2004|issn = 1468-2281|pages = 543–574|volume = 77|issue = 198|doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2004.00222.x|first = Gudni Thorlacius|last = Jóhannesson}}</ref><ref name = Cabinet/>

The Icelandic fisheries grew in importance for the British fishing industry around the end of the 19th century.<ref name="auto"/> The reduction in fishing activity brought about by the hostilities of the [[First World War]] effectively ended the dispute for a time.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015}}

While data is incomplete for the prewar period, one historian argues that the Icelandic fishing grounds were 'very important' to the British fishing industry as a whole.<ref>{{Cite book|title = British Trawlers and Iceland: 1919–1976|last = Thór|first = Jón Th.|year = 1995|pages = 48–50}}</ref> Data from 1919 to 1938 showed a significant increase in the British total catches in Icelandic waters.<ref>{{Cite book|title = British Trawlers and Iceland: 1919–1976|last = Thór|year = 1995|pages = 68, 79}}</ref> The British catches in Iceland were more than twice the combined catches of all other grounds of the British distant water fleet.<ref>{{Cite book|title = British Trawlers and Iceland: 1919–1976|last = Thór|year = 1995|page = 87}}</ref> Icelanders grew increasingly dismayed at the British presence.<ref>{{Cite book|title = British Trawlers and Iceland: 1919–1976|last = Thór|year = 1995|pages = 91–107}}</ref>

=== 1949–1958 ===
In October 1949, Iceland initiated the two-year abrogation process of the agreement made between Denmark and the United Kingdom in 1901. The fishery limits to the north of Iceland were extended to {{convert|4|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}}. However, since the British trawling fleet did not use those grounds, the northern extension was not a source of significant contention between the two states. Initially planning to extend the rest of its fishery limits by the end of the two-year abrogation period, Iceland chose to postpone its extension to wait for the outcome of the [[fisheries case|UK–Norway fisheries case]] in the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), which was decided in December 1951.

Icelanders were satisfied with the ICJ ruling, as they believed that Iceland's preferred extensions were similar to those afforded to Norway in the ICJ ruling. The UK and Iceland tried to negotiate a solution but were unable to reach agreement. The Icelandic government declared, on 19 March 1952, its intention to extend its fishery limits on 15 May 1952.<ref name="Jóhannnesson2007" />

Iceland and the United Kingdom were involved in a dispute from May 1952 to November 1956 over Iceland's unilateral extension of its fishery limits from {{convert|3|to|4|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}}. Unlike in the Cod Wars, the Royal Navy was never sent into Icelandic waters. The British trawling industry, however, implemented costly sanctions on Iceland by imposing a landing ban on Icelandic fish in British ports.<ref name="Jóhannnesson2007">{{Cite book|title = Troubled Waters|last = Jóhannnesson|first = Guðni Th.|publisher = NAFHA|year = 2007}}</ref><ref name="Guðmundsson2006">{{Cite journal|title = The Cod and the Cold War|last = Guðmundsson|first = Guðmundur J.|date = 2006|journal = Scandinavian Journal of History|volume = 31|issue = 2|pages = 97–118|doi = 10.1080/03468750600604184|s2cid = 143956818}}</ref> The landing ban was a major blow to the Icelandic fishing industry (the UK was Iceland's largest export market for fish) and caused consternation among Icelandic statesmen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Troubled Waters|last = Jóhannesson|first = Guðni Th.|year = 2007|page = 104}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Utanríkisþjónusta Íslands og utanríkismál: Sögulegt Yfirlit 1.|last = Thorsteinsson|first = Pétur|year = 1992|page = 440}}</ref> The two sides decided to refer one part of the Icelandic extension to the ICJ in early 1953: the controversial Faxa Bay delimitation.<ref name="Jóhannnesson2007" />

In May 1953, businessman [[George Dawson (businessman)|George Dawson]] signed an agreement with the Icelandic trawler owners to buy fish landed in Britain. Seven landings were made but the merchants who bought from Dawson were blacklisted and he was unable to distribute the fish effectively himself.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last=Jóhannesson |first=Gudni Thorlacius |date=2004 |title=Troubled Waters. Cod War, Fishing Disputes, and Britain's Fight for the Freedom of the High Seas, 1948–1964 |chapter=Any Port in a Storm. The Failure of Economic Coercion, 1953–54 |pages=91–92 |publisher=Queen Mary, University of London |chapter-url=http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/1834 |access-date=30 December 2021 |archive-date=7 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207190537/https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/1834 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Cold War]] politics proved favourable for Iceland, as the [[Soviet Union]], seeking influence in Iceland, stepped in to purchase Icelandic fish. The [[United States]], fearing greater Soviet influence in Iceland, also did so and persuaded [[Spain]] and [[Italy]] to do likewise.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Í eldlínu kalda stríðsins|last = Ingimundarson|first = Valur|year = 1996|page = 288}}</ref><ref name="auto"/>

Soviet and American involvement resulted in weakening the punitive effects of the British landing ban. Some scholars refer to the dispute of 1952 to 1956 as one of the Cod Wars, as the object of the dispute and its costs and risks were all similar to those in the other three Cod Wars.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Þorskastríð og fjöldi þeirra|last = Þorsteinsson|first = Björn|date = 1983|journal = Saga}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Tíunda þorskastríðið 1975–1976|last = Jónsson|first = Björn|date = 1981|journal = Saga}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |title = Why Did the Cod Wars Occur and Why Did Iceland Win Them? A Test of Four Theories |publication-date = 4 May 2015 |url = https://skemman.is/handle/1946/20916?locale=en |hdl = 1946/20916 |date = June 2015 |type = Master's |last1 = Steinsson |first1 = Sverrir |access-date = 14 February 2022 |archive-date = 14 February 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220214131758/https://skemman.is/handle/1946/20916?locale=en |url-status = live }}</ref>

Just as the other Cod Wars, the dispute ended with Iceland achieving its aims, as the Icelandic {{convert|4|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} fishery limits were recognized by the United Kingdom, following a decision by the [[OECD|Organisation of European Economic Co-operation]] in 1956.<ref name="Jóhannnesson2007" />

Two years later, in 1958, the [[United Nations]] convened the first [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea#UNCLOS I|International Conference on the Law of the Sea]], which was attended by 86 states.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1958|url=http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1958/lawofthesea-1958.html|publisher=United Nations|access-date=4 November 2015|archive-date=14 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114124141/http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1958/lawofthesea-1958.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Several countries sought to extend the limits of their territorial waters to {{convert|12|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}}, but the conference did not reach any firm conclusions.<ref name="NationalArchives">*{{cite web|title = The Cod Wars|url = http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/cod-wars.htm|publisher = The National Archives|access-date = 4 November 2015|postscript = none|archive-date = 16 November 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171116074621/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/cod-wars.htm|url-status = live}}
*{{cite web|title=Icy fishing: UK and Iceland fish stock disputes|url=http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06511/SN06511.pdf|publisher=House of Commons Library|access-date=27 February 2016|date=19 December 2012|page=2|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308101008/http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN06511/SN06511.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UN1998">{{cite web|title=The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A historical perspective)|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective.htm|publisher=United Nations|access-date=4 November 2015|date=1998|archive-date=15 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915020937/https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== First Cod War (1958–1961) ==
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = First Cod War
| partof            = the '''Cod Wars'''
| image             = File:CoventryAlbertWestfj.jpg
| caption           = ''Coventry City'' and ICGV ''Albert'' off the [[Westfjords]]
| date              = 1 September 1958&nbsp;– 11 March 1961<br />({{Age in years, months and days|1958|9|1|1961|3|11}})
| place             = Waters surrounding Iceland
| casus             = Icelandic unilateral expansion of territorial waters
| territory         = Iceland expands its territorial waters to {{convert|12|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}}.
| result            = Icelandic victory
*An agreement was reached between the United Kingdom and Iceland in which the UK accepted the Icelandic annexation and Iceland agreed to take further claims before the [[International Court of Justice]], in [[The Hague]].
| combatants_header = States involved
| combatant1        = {{flagu|Iceland}}
| combatant2        = {{ubl|{{flagu|United Kingdom}}|{{flagu|West Germany}}<ref name="Þorskastríðin2006" />}}
| commander1        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Hermann Jónasson]]
  | {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Bjarni Benediktsson (born 1908)|Bjarni Benediktsson]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Captain (naval)|Capt.]] [[P. Sigurðsson]]}}
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} Capt. E.<!--(Eiríkur)--> Kristófersson}}
 }}
| commander2        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Harold Macmillan]]
  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Commodore (Royal Navy)|Cdre.]] B. J. Anderson<ref>Associated people and organisations for [http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/1060023726 "HMS ''Eastbourne'' on fishery protection duties"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006233926/https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/1060023726 |date=6 October 2022 }} (August 1958). Imperial War Museum. Accessed 20 January 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |url=http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1834/1/JOHANNESSONTroubledWaters2004.pdf |title=Troubled Waters: Cod War, Fishing Disputes, and Britain's Fight for the Freedom of the High Seas, 1948–1964 |degree=PhD |publisher=Queen Mary, University of London |first=Gudni Thorlacius |last=Jóhannesson |year=2004 |page=161 |quote=...&nbsp;Barry Anderson, Captain of the Fishery Protection Squadron&nbsp;... |access-date=20 January 2014 |archive-date=19 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219080306/https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1834/1/JOHANNESSONTroubledWaters2004.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/17649889/ ''Tyrone Daily Herald''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007003432/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/17649889/ |date=7 October 2022 }}, 2 September 1958, p.&nbsp;1 ([[Optical character recognition|OCR]] text; accessed 20 January 2014).</ref>}}
 }}
| strength1         = {{unbulleted list |2 large patrol vessels{{sup|a}} |4 small patrol vessels}}<ref name="Magnússon 1959 157">{{Cite book|title = Landhelgisbókin|last = Magnússon|first = Gunnar|publisher = Bókaútgáfan Setberg SF |year = 1959|page = 157}}</ref>
| strength2         = {{unbulleted list |17 [[destroyer]]s |19 [[frigate]]s |1 fast [[minelayer]]<ref name="Magnússon 1959 157"/> |1 [[minesweeper]] |10 [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary|RFA]] supply vessels}}{{Contradictory inline|reason=This is inconsistent with the article text in this section.|date=February 2016}}
| casualties1       = 
| casualties2       = 
| casualties3       = None
| notes             = {{sup|a}} 3 by February 1960.
}}
The First Cod War lasted from 1 September 1958 to 11 March 1961.<ref name="Þorskastríðin2006">{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|publisher = Hafréttarstofnun Íslands|year = 2006|pages = 61–62}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> It began as soon as a new [[Icelandic law]] came into force and expanded the Icelandic fishery zone from {{convert|4|to|12|nmi|km}} at midnight on 1 September 1958.

All members of NATO opposed the unilateral Icelandic extension.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Í eldlínu kalda stríðsins|last = Ingimundarson|year = 1996|page = 377}}</ref> The British declared that their trawlers would fish under protection from their [[warship]]s in three areas: out of the [[Westfjords]], north of Horn and southeast of Iceland. In all, twenty British trawlers, four warships and a supply vessel were inside the newly declared zones. The deployment was expensive; in February 1960, [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], responsible for the [[Royal Navy]], stated that the ships near Iceland had expended half a million pounds sterling worth of oil since the new year and that a total of 53 British warships had taken part in the operations.<ref>Sveinn Sæmundsson, ''Guðmundur skipherra Kjærnested'', Örn og Örlygur. [[Reykjavík]]. 1984. p. 151.</ref> Against that, Iceland could deploy seven patrol vessels<ref>Jón Björnsson, ''Íslensk skip''. vol. III. Reykjavik. 1990 p. 8-142 {{ISBN|9979-1-0375-2}}</ref> and a single [[PBY Catalina|PBY-6A Catalina]] flying boat.<ref>''Svipmyndir úr 70 ára sögu''. Landhelgisgæsla Íslands. Reykjavík. 1996. pp. 30–31, 37–38. {{ISBN|9979-60-277-5}}</ref>

The deployment of the Royal Navy to contested waters led to protests in Iceland. Demonstrations against the British embassy were met with taunts by the British ambassador, [[Andrew Gilchrist]], as he played bagpipe music and military marches on his [[Phonograph|gramophone]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = How 'cod war' came: the origins of the Anglo-Icelandic fisheries dispute, 1958–61|journal = Historical Research|date = 1 November 2004|issn = 1468-2281|pages = 567–568|volume = 77|issue = 198|doi = 10.1111/j.1468-2281.2004.00222.x|first = Gudni Thorlacius|last = Jóhannesson}}</ref> Many incidents followed. The Icelanders were, however, at a disadvantage in patrolling the contested waters because of the size of the area and the limited number of patrol ships. According to one historian, "only the flagship ''Þór'' ({{transliteration|is|[[Thor]]}}) could effectively arrest and, if necessary, tow a trawler to harbour".<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Jóhannesson|first1=Guðni Th.|title=Did He Matter? The Colourful Andrew Gilchrist and the First Cod War|url=http://www.gudnith.is/efni/did_he_matter_colourful_andrew_gilchrist_and_first_cod_war_2003|access-date=28 February 2016|date=2003|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110218/http://www.gudnith.is/efni/did_he_matter_colourful_andrew_gilchrist_and_first_cod_war_2003|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 4 September, ICGV ''Ægir'', an Icelandic patrol vessel built in 1929,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Háskólabókasafn|first=Landsbókasafn Íslands-|title=Tímarit.is|url=https://timarit.is/page/4855736|access-date=13 August 2020|website=timarit.is|language=is|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404060858/https://timarit.is/page/4855736|url-status=live}}</ref> attempted to take a British trawler off the Westfjords, but was thwarted when [[HMS Russell (F97)|HMS ''Russell'']] intervened, and the two vessels collided. On 6 October, V/s ''María Júlía'' fired three shots at the trawler ''Kingston Emerald'', forcing the trawler to escape to sea. On 12 November, V/s ''Þór'' encountered the trawler ''Hackness'', which had not stowed its nets legally. ''Hackness'' did not stop until ''Þór'' had fired two blanks and one live shell off its bow. Once again, HMS ''Russell'' came to the rescue, and its [[captain (nautical)|shipmaster]] ordered the Icelandic [[captain (naval)|captain]] to leave the trawler alone, as it was not within the {{convert|4|nmi|km|abbr=on}} limit recognised by the British government. The captain of ''Þór'', Eiríkur Kristófersson, said that he would not do so and ordered his men to approach the trawler with the gun manned. In response, the ''Russell'' threatened to sink the Icelandic boat if it fired a shot at the ''Hackness''. More British ships then arrived, and the ''Þór'' retreated.

Icelandic officials threatened to withdraw Iceland's membership of NATO and to expel US forces from Iceland unless a satisfactory conclusion could be reached to the dispute.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Í eldlínu kalda stríðsins|last = Ingimundarson|year = 1996|pages = 33–34}}</ref> Even the cabinet members who were pro-Western (proponents of NATO and the US Defence Agreement) were forced to resort to the threats, as that was Iceland's chief leverage, and it would have been political suicide not to use it.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Uppgjör við umheiminn|last = Ingimundarson|first = Valur|year = 2002|pages = 33, 36}}</ref> Thus, NATO engaged in formal and informal mediations to bring an end to the dispute.<ref name="Bakaki 63–78">{{Cite journal|last=Bakaki|first=Zorzeta|date=1 January 2016|title=Deconstructing Mediation: A Case Study of the Cod Wars|journal=Negotiation Journal|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=63–78|doi=10.1111/nejo.12147|issn=1571-9979}}</ref>

Following the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea#UNCLOS II|United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea between 1960 and 1961]],<ref name=NationalArchives /><ref name=UN1998 /><ref>{{cite web|title=Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1960|url=http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1960/lawofthesea-1960.html|publisher=United Nations|access-date=4 November 2015|archive-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025233613/http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1960/lawofthesea-1960.html|url-status=live}}</ref> the UK and Iceland came to a settlement in late February 1961, which stipulated {{convert|12|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} Icelandic fishery limits but that Britain would have fishing rights in allocated zones and under certain seasons in the outer {{convert|6|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} for three years.<ref name="auto" /> The Icelandic [[Althing]] approved the agreement on 11 March 1961.<ref name="Þorskastríðin2006" />

The deal was very similar to one that Iceland had offered in the weeks and days leading up to its unilateral extension in 1958.<ref name="auto" /> As part of the agreement, it was stipulated that any future disagreement between Iceland and Britain in the matter of fishery zones would be sent to the [[International Court of Justice]], in [[the Hague]].

== Second Cod War (1972–1973) ==
{{redirect-distinguish|Second Cod War|Second Cold War}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Second Cod War
| partof            = the '''Cod Wars'''
| image             = File:Klippur.jpg
| caption           = A [[Net cutter (fisheries patrol)|net cutter]], first used in the Second Cod War
| date              = 1 September 1972&nbsp;– 8 November 1973
| place             = Waters surrounding Iceland
| result            = Icelandic victory
*An agreement was reached between the United Kingdom and Iceland in which the UK accepted the Icelandic annexation in exchange for permission to catch 150,000 tons of fish until 1975.
| territory         = Iceland creates {{convert|50|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} exclusive fishery zone.
| combatants_header = States involved
| combatant1        = {{flag|Iceland}}
| combatant2        = {{ubl|{{flagu|United Kingdom}}|{{flagu|West Germany}}<ref>An agreement was not reached with West Germany until 26 November 1975.{{cite book |last=Hart |first=Jeffrey A. |title=The Anglo-Icelandic Cod War of 1972–1973. 1976. P. 48 }}</ref>|{{flagu|Belgium}} (until 7 September 1972)<ref>Hart, p. 28</ref>}}
| commander1        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Ólafur Jóhannesson]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Captain (naval)|Capt.]] P. Sigurðsson}}
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Commander|Cdr.]] [[Guðmundur Kjærnested|G. Kjærnested]]}}
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} Cdr. [[Helgi Hallvarðsson]]}}
 }}
| commander2        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Edward Heath]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)|Adm.]] [[Michael Pollock (Royal Navy officer)|Michael Pollock]]}}
  | {{flagicon|West Germany}} [[Willy Brandt]]
  | {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Gaston Eyskens]]
 }}
| strength1         = {{unbulleted list |3 large patrol vessels |2 small patrol vessels |1 armed [[whaler]]|1 [[Fokker F27 Friendship 200|Fokker F27]] surveillance aircraft<ref>{{cite web |title=Landhelgisgæslan á flugi |url=https://www.lhg.is/um-okkur/sagan/flugdeildin |publisher=Icelandic Coast Guard |access-date=5 May 2021 |language=Icelandic |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505132150/https://www.lhg.is/um-okkur/sagan/flugdeildin |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| strength2         = {{unbulleted list |30 [[frigate]]s |1 [[destroyer]] |11 [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary|RFA]] supply vessels |<hr/> |{{longitem|style=line-height:1.3em|[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Agriculture,<br/>{{pad|20px}}Fisheries and Food]]}} |5 defence tugs}}
| casualties1       = {{nowrap|1 engineer killed<ref name=eng>{{cite web |last=Guðmundsson |first=Guðmundur Hörður |title=15. Annað þorskastríðið. Tímabilið 19. maí 1973 til nóvember 1973. |url=http://www.lhg.is/media/thorskastridin/15._Gudmundur_Hordur_Gudmundsson._Annad_torskastridid._Timabilid_19.mai_1973_til_november_1973..pdf |work=Short essay for history class at University of Iceland |access-date=15 March 2013 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201230906/http://www.lhg.is/media/thorskastridin/15._Gudmundur_Hordur_Gudmundsson._Annad_torskastridid._Timabilid_19.mai_1973_til_november_1973..pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| casualties2       = 1 German trawlerman wounded
| notes             = 
}}
[[File:Klippuemployment.png|thumb|left|The primary objective of the [[Icelandic Coast Guard]] during the last two Cod Wars was to cut nets in this manner.]]

The Second Cod War between the United Kingdom and Iceland lasted from September 1972 until the signing of a temporary agreement, in November 1973.

The Icelandic government again extended its fishing limits, now to {{convert|50|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}}. It had two goals in extending the limits: (1) to conserve fish stocks and (2) to increase its share of total catches.<ref name="Hart1976">{{Cite book|title = The Anglo-Icelandic Cod War of 1972–1973|last = Hart|first = Jeffrey A.|publisher = University of California|year = 1976|location = Berkeley|pages = 19, 24}}</ref> The reasons that Iceland pursued 50 nmi fishery limits, rather than the 200 nmi limits that they had also considered, were that the most fruitful fishing grounds were within the 50 nmi and that patrolling a 200 nmi limit would have been more difficult.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://timarit.is/view_page_init.jsp?pageId=5364327|title = Þorskar í köldu stríði|last = Guðmundsson|first = Guðmundur J.|date = 2000|journal = Ný Saga|pages = 67–68|access-date = 28 September 2015|archive-date = 29 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929062946/http://timarit.is/view_page_init.jsp?pageId=5364327|url-status = live}}</ref>

The British contested the Icelandic extension with two goals in mind: (1) to achieve the greatest possible catch quota for British fishermen in the contested waters and (2) to prevent a ''de facto'' recognition of a unilateral extension of a fishery jurisdiction, which would set a precedent for other extensions.<ref name="Hart1976" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Icelandic Fisheries|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1973/mar/22/icelandic-fisheries|website=Commons and Lords Hansard, the Official Report of debates in Parliament|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=28 February 2016|date=22 March 1973|archive-date=2 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302031822/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1973/mar/22/icelandic-fisheries|url-status=live}}</ref>

All Western European states and the [[Warsaw Pact]] opposed Iceland's unilateral extension.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Uppgjör við umheiminn|last = Inimundarson|year = 2002|pages = 146, 162–163}}</ref> African states declared support for Iceland's extension after a meeting in 1971 where the Icelandic prime minister argued that the Icelandic cause was a part of a broader battle against colonialism and imperialism.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Uppgjör við umheiminn|last = Ingimundarson|year = 2002|page = 147}}</ref>

On 1 September 1972, the enforcement of the law that expanded the Icelandic fishery limits to {{convert|50|nmi|km|abbr=on}} began. Numerous British and West German trawlers continued fishing within the new zone on the first day. The Icelandic leftist coalition then governing ignored the treaty that stipulated the involvement of the [[International Court of Justice]]. It said that it was not bound by agreements made by the previous centre-right government, with [[Lúdvik Jósepsson]], the fisheries minister, stating that "the basis for our independence is economic independence".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEiMDdxtSeA/ |title=History of the Cod Wars Part 3 |work=BBC Four |date=5 December 2010 |via=YouTube |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110023314/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEiMDdxtSeA/ |url-status=live }} Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/YEiMDdxtSeA Ghostarchive].{{cbignore}}</ref> The next day, the brand-new patrol ship [[ICGV Ægir|ICGV ''Ægir'']], built in 1968,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Couhat|first=Jean Labayle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDPf4rKdnkIC&q=%C3%86gir+1968|title=Combat Fleets of the World 1988/89: Their Ships, Aircraft, and Armament|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1988|isbn=0870211943|page=265|access-date=22 October 2020|archive-date=23 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723203802/https://books.google.com/books?id=nDPf4rKdnkIC&q=%C3%86gir+1968|url-status=live}}</ref> chased 16 trawlers, in waters east of the country, out of the 50&nbsp;nmi zone. The [[Icelandic Coast Guard]] started to use [[net cutter (fisheries patrol)|net cutters]] to cut the trawling lines of non-Icelandic vessels fishing within the new exclusion zone.

On 5 September 1972, at 10:25,<ref name="Sæmundsson">Sæmundsson, Sveinn (1984). ''Guðmundur skipherra Kjærnested''. Örn og Örlygur</ref> ICGV ''Ægir'', under [[Guðmundur Kjærnested]]'s command, encountered an unmarked trawler fishing northeast of [[Hornbanki]]. The master of the black-hulled trawler refused to divulge the trawler's name and number and, after being warned to follow the Coast Guard's orders, played ''[[Rule, Britannia!]]'' over the radio.<ref name="Guðmundsson2006" /> At 10:40, the net cutter was deployed into the water for the first time, and ''Ægir'' sailed along the trawler's port side. The fishermen tossed a thick nylon rope into the water as the [[OPV (naval)|patrol ship]] closed in, attempting to disable its propeller. After passing the trawler, ''Ægir'' veered to the trawler's starboard side. The net cutter, {{convert|160|fathom|m|lk=on}} behind the patrol vessel, sliced one of the trawling wires. As ICGV ''Ægir'' came about to circle the unidentified trawler, its angry crew threw coal as well as waste and a large fire axe at the Coast Guard vessel.<ref name="Sæmundsson"/> A considerable amount of swearing and shouting came through the radio, which resulted in the trawler being identified as [[Peter Scott (H103)|''Peter Scott'' (H103)]].<ref name="Sæmundsson"/>

On 25 November 1972, a crewman on the German trawler ''Erlangen'' suffered a head injury as an Icelandic patrol ship cut the trawler's trawling wire, which struck the crewman.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 82}}</ref> On 18 January 1973, the nets of 18 trawlers were cut. That forced the British seamen to leave the Icelandic fishery zone unless they had the protection of the [[Royal Navy]]. The next day large, fast [[tugboat]]s were sent to their defence, the first being the ''Statesman''. The British considered that to be insufficient and formed a special group to defend the trawlers.

On 23 January 1973, the volcano [[Eldfell]] on [[Heimaey]] erupted, forcing the Coast Guard to divert its attention to rescuing the inhabitants of the small island.

On 17 May 1973, the British trawlers left the Icelandic waters, only to return two days later when they were escorted by British frigates.<ref name="Guðmundsson2006"/> The naval deployment was codenamed Operation Dewey.<ref>{{Cite book|title=High Stakes: Britain's Air Arms in Action 1945–1990|last=Flintham|first=Vic|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2008|isbn=978-1844158157|page=347}}</ref> [[Hawker Siddeley Nimrod]] jets flew over the contested waters and notified British frigates and trawlers of the whereabouts of Icelandic patrol ships.<ref name="Jóhannesson 2006 90">{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 90}}</ref> Icelandic statesmen were infuriated by the entry of the Royal Navy and considered to appeal to the UN Security Council or call for Article 5 of the [[North Atlantic Treaty|NATO Charter]] to be implemented. According to [[Frederick Irving]], US ambassador to Iceland at the time, Icelandic prime minister [[Ólafur Jóhannesson]] demanded that the US send jets to bomb the British frigates.<ref name="Jóhannesson 2006 90"/> There were major protests in Reykjavík on 24 May 1973. All the windows of the British embassy in Reykjavík were broken.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 91}}</ref>

On 26 May, ICGV ''Ægir'' ordered the Grimsby trawler ''Everton'' to stop, but the captain of the fishing vessel refused to submit. The incident was followed by a protracted pursuit during which ''Ægir'' fired first blank warning shots, later live rounds in order to disable the trawler. ''Everton'' was hit on her bow by four 57&nbsp;mm shells and water began to rush in, but managed to limp to the protection zone, where she was assisted by the frigate {{HMS|Jupiter|F60|6}}.<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 May 1973|title=Icelandic Ship Shells British Trawler After Chase|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/27/archives/icelandic-ship-shells-british-trawler-after-chase-britain-plans.html|access-date=6 December 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206125032/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/27/archives/icelandic-ship-shells-british-trawler-after-chase-britain-plans.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Emergency repairs were carried out by a naval team from ''Jupiter''. Prime minister Ólafur Jóhannesson said about the incident that this was "a natural and inevitable law‐enforcement action".<ref>{{Cite news|date=28 May 1973|title=A Shelled Trawler Repaired by British|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/28/archives/a-shelled-trawler-repaired-by-british.html|access-date=6 December 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=6 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206125034/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/05/28/archives/a-shelled-trawler-repaired-by-british.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Icelandic lighthouse tender V/s ''Árvakur'' collided with four British vessels on 1 June, and six days later, on 7 June, ICGV ''Ægir'' collided with {{HMS|Scylla|F71|6}}, when the former was reconnoitring for icebergs off the Westfjords, near the edge of the [[Greenland ice sheet]]. The Icelandic Coast Guard reported that ''Scylla'' had been "shadowing and harassing" the Icelandic patrol boat. The British Ministry of Defense claimed that the gunboat intentionally rammed the British frigate.<ref>{{Cite news|date=8 June 1973|title=Iceland Patrol Boat And British Frigate Are in a Collision|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/06/08/archives/iceland-patrol-boat-and-british-frigate-are-in-a-collision-british.html|access-date=6 January 2022|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=6 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106144159/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/06/08/archives/iceland-patrol-boat-and-british-frigate-are-in-a-collision-british.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 29 August<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.napier-chronicles.co.uk/1973.htm |title=1973 |publisher=The Napier Chronicles |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-date=12 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812064805/http://www.napier-chronicles.co.uk/1973.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> the Icelandic Coast Guard suffered the only confirmed fatality of the conflict, when ICGV ''Ægir'' collided with {{HMS|Apollo|F70|6}}. Halldór Hallfreðsson, an engineer on board the Icelandic vessel, died by electrocution from his welding equipment after sea water flooded the compartment in which he was making hull repairs.<ref name=eng/><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Anglo-Icelandic Cod War of 1972–1973|last = Hart|first = Jeffrey A.|year = 1976|page = 44}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://timarit.is/view_page_init.jsp?issId=264803&lang=en |title=Dauðsfall um borð i Ægi: Var það alda frá Statesman, sem grandaði manninum? |trans-title=Death on board the Ægi: Was it the wake of the ''Statesman'' that killed the man? |work=Tíminn |language=is |via=National and University Library of Iceland |access-date=27 February 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304155916/http://timarit.is/view_page_init.jsp?issId=264803&lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 16 September 1973, [[Joseph Luns]], Secretary-General of NATO, arrived in Reykjavík to talk with Icelandic ministers, who had been pressed to leave NATO, as it had been of no help to Iceland in the conflict.<ref name="Bakaki 63–78"/> Britain and Iceland were both NATO members. The Royal Navy made use of bases in Iceland during the Cold War to fulfill its primary NATO duty, guarding the [[GIUK gap|Greenland-Iceland-UK gap]].

After a series of talks within NATO, British warships were recalled on 3 October.<ref name="Jóhannesson 2006 101">{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 101}}</ref> Trawlermen played ''Rule Britannia!'' over their radios, as they had done when the Royal Navy entered the waters. They also played "[[The Party's Over (Willie Nelson song)|The Party's Over]]".<ref name="Jóhannesson 2006 101"/> An agreement was signed on 8 November to limit British fishing activities to certain areas inside the 50&nbsp;nmi limit. The agreement, resolving the dispute, was approved by the Althing on 13 November 1973.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 102}}</ref> The agreement was based on the premise that British trawlers would limit their annual catch to no more than 130,000 [[ton]]s. The Icelanders were reportedly prepared to settle for 156,000 tons in July 1972 but had increased their demands by spring of 1973 and coffered{{clarify|date=February 2022}} 117,000 tons (the British demanded 145,000 tons in spring 1973).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|pages = 88, 94, 101}}</ref> The agreement expired in November 1975, and the third "Cod War" began.

The Second Cod War threatened Iceland's membership in NATO and the US military presence in Iceland. It was the closest that Iceland has come to canceling its bilateral Defence Agreement with the US.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A western cold war: the crisis in Iceland's relations with Britain, the United States, and NATO, 1971–74|journal = Diplomacy & Statecraft|date = 1 December 2003|issn = 0959-2296|pages = 94–136|volume = 14|issue = 4|doi = 10.1080/09592290312331295694|first = Valur|last = Ingimundarson|s2cid = 154735668}}</ref>

Icelandic NATO membership and hosting of US military had considerable importance to Cold War strategy because of Iceland's location in the middle of the [[GIUK gap]].

After the entry of the Royal Navy into the contested waters, at any given time, four frigates and an assortment of tugboats would generally protect the British trawling fleet.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006| page = 89}}</ref> Over the course of this Cod War, a total of 32 British frigates had entered the contested waters.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year = 2006|page = 103}}</ref>

===''C. S. Forester'' incident===
On 19 July 1974,<ref>Jessup, John E. (1998).''An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and conflict resolution, 1945–1996''. Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 130. {{ISBN|0-313-28112-2}}</ref> more than nine months after the signing of the agreement, one of the largest wet fish [[stern trawler]]s in the British fleet, ''C. S. Forester'',<ref>''[[Fishing News international]]'', vol. 14, no. 7–12. A. J. Heighway Publications, 1975</ref> which had been fishing inside the {{convert|12|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} limit, was shelled and captured by the Icelandic gunboat V/s ''Þór'' ({{transliteration|is|"Thor"}}) after a {{convert|100|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} pursuit.<ref name=hull>{{cite web |url=http://www.hulltrawler.net/Stern/C%20S%20FORESTER%20H86.htm |title=C S Forester H86 |publisher=Hulltrawler.net |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425073134/http://www.hulltrawler.net/Stern/C%20S%20FORESTER%20H86.htm |archive-date=25 April 2012 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> ''C. S. Forester'' was shelled with non-explosive ammunition after repeated warnings. The trawler was hit by at least two rounds, which damaged the engine room and a water tank.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1974/jul/29/fishing-industry |title=Commons debate, 29 July 1974 |work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-date=29 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929011228/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1974/jul/29/fishing-industry |date=29 July 1974 |url-status=live }}</ref> She was later boarded and towed to Iceland.<ref>''The Illustrated London News'', vol. 262, no. 2. The Illustrated London News & Sketch Ltd., 1974</ref> Skipper Richard Taylor was sentenced to 30 days imprisonment and fined £5,000.{{efn|About £{{inflation|UK|5000|1974|2020|fmt=c|r=-3}} {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.{{Inflation/fn|UK}}<!-- check documentation for template:inflation first before changing this because the index date needs to match.  The date is usually at least two years ago. --> }} He was released on bail after the owners paid £2,232. Her owners additionally paid a total of £26,300 for the release of the ship. The trawler was allowed to depart with a catch of 200 tons of fish.<ref name=hull/>{{efn|About £{{inflation|UK|26300|1974|2020|r=-3|fmt=c}} {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.{{Inflation/fn|UK}}}}

== Third Cod War (1975–1976) ==
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Third Cod War
| partof            = the '''Cod Wars'''
| image             = File:Scylla-Odinn.jpg
| caption           = Icelandic patrol ship [[ICGV Óðinn|ICGV ''Óðinn'']] and British frigate {{HMS|Scylla|F71|6}} clash in the North Atlantic.
| date              = 16 November 1975&nbsp;– 1 June 1976
| place             = Waters surrounding Iceland
| territory         = Iceland expands its exclusive fishery zone to 200 nautical miles.
| result            = Icelandic victory
*An agreement was reached between the United Kingdom and Iceland in which the former accepted the Icelandic expansion but received a temporary allowable catch for its fishing fleet.
| combatants_header = States involved
| combatant1        = {{flagu|Iceland}}
| combatant2        = {{ubl|{{flagu|United Kingdom}}|{{flagu|West Germany}}<ref name=TED>{{cite web|last1=Kassebaum|first1=David|title=Cod Dispute Between Iceland and the United Kingdom|url=http://mandalaprojects.com/ice/ice-cases/codwar.htm|website=Inventory of Conflict and Environment|publisher=American University|access-date=25 February 2016|date=10 April 1997|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123330/http://mandalaprojects.com/ice/ice-cases/codwar.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|{{flagu|Belgium}}<ref name=TED />}}
| commander1        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Geir Hallgrímsson]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Captain (naval)|Capt.]] P. Sigurðsson}}
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Commander|Cdr.]] [[Guðmundur Kjærnested|G. Kjærnested]]}}
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|Iceland}} Cdr. [[Helgi Hallvarðsson]]}}
 }}
| commander2        = {{unbulleted list
  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Harold Wilson]]
  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[James Callaghan]]
  | {{nowrap|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)|Adm.]] [[Edward Ashmore]]}}
 }}
| strength1         = {{unbulleted list |4 large patrol vessels |2 small patrol vessels |2 [[Naval trawler|armed trawler]]s|1 [[Fokker F27 Friendship 200|Fokker F27]] surveillance aircraft}}
| strength2         = {{unbulleted list |22 [[frigate]]s |7 [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary|RFA]] supply vessels |<hr/> |{{longitem|style=line-height:1.3em|[[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Agriculture,<br/>{{pad|20px}}Fisheries and Food]]}} |6 defence tugs}}
| casualties1       = {{ubl|5 patrol vessels damaged}}
| casualties2       = {{ubl|1 trawlerman wounded<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1976/feb/19/fishing-industry |title=Hansard debates – 19 February 1976 |work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]] |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202095244/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1976/feb/19/fishing-industry |date=19 February 1976 |url-status=live }}</ref>|15 frigates damaged<ref>Jones, Robert (2009) ''Safeguarding the Nation: The Story of the Modern Royal Navy''. Seaforth Publishing, p. 119. {{ISBN|1848320434}}</ref>|1 supply ship damaged}}
| casualties3       = 
| notes             = 
| casus             = Icelandic unilateral expansion of exclusive fishery zone
}}

At the third [[Third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea]] in 1973, several countries supported a {{convert|100|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} limit to territorial waters.<ref name=NationalArchives /><ref name=UN1998 /><ref>{{cite web|title=Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1973–1982|url=http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1982/lawofthesea-1982.html|publisher=United Nations|access-date=4 November 2015|archive-date=29 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029142121/http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/lawofthesea-1982/lawofthesea-1982.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 July 1975, the Icelandic government announced its intention to extend its fishery limits.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Þorskastríðin þrjú|last = Jóhannesson|year=2006|page=112}}</ref> The Third Cod War (November 1975 – June 1976) began after Iceland again extended its fishing limits, now to {{convert|200|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} from its coast. The British government did not recognise the large increase to the exclusion zone and so an issue occurred with British fishermen and their activity in the disputed zone. The conflict, which was the most hard-fought of the Cod Wars, saw British fishing trawlers have their nets cut by the [[Icelandic Coast Guard]], and there were several incidents of [[ramming]] by Icelandic ships and British trawlers, frigates and tugboats.

One of the most serious incidents occurred on 11 December 1975. As reported by Iceland, V/s ''Þór'', under the command of [[Helgi Hallvarðsson]], was leaving port at [[Seyðisfjörður]], where it had been [[minesweeping]], when orders were received to investigate the presence of unidentified foreign vessels at the mouth of the fjord. The vessels were identified as three British ships: ''Lloydsman'', an oceangoing tug three times bigger than V/s ''Þór''; ''Star Aquarius'', an oil rig supply vessel of British [[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food]]; and the latter's sister ship, ''Star Polaris''. They were sheltering from a [[Beaufort scale|force nine]] gale within Iceland's {{convert|12|nmi|km|adj=on}} territorial waters.<ref>Storey, Norman, ''What price cod? A tugmaster's view of the cod wars''. Beverley, North Humberside: Hutton Press. c. 1992. {{ISBN|1-872167-44-6}}</ref> In the Icelandic account, when ordered to leave Icelandic territorial waters by the commander of ''Þór'', the three tugboats initially complied. However, around {{convert|2|nmi|km}} from the coast, ''Star Aquarius'' allegedly veered to starboard and hit ''Þór''{{'s}} port side as the Coast Guards attempted to overtake her. Even as ''Þór'' increased speed, ''Lloydsman'' again collided with its port side. ''Þór'' had suffered considerable damage by these hits and so when ''Star Aquarius'' came about, a blank round was fired from ''Þór''. That did not deter ''Star Aquarius'', as it hit ''Þór'' a second time. Another shot was fired from ''Þór'' as a result, this time a live round that hit the bow of ''Star Aquarius''. The tugboats then retreated. V/s ''Þór'', which was close to sinking after the confrontation, sailed to [[Loðmundarfjörður]] for temporary repairs.<ref>Atli Magnússon, ''Í kröppum sjó : Helgi Hallvarðsson skipherra segir frá sægörpum og svaðilförum''. Örn og Örlygur. [Reykjavík]. 1992. p. 204–206 {{ISBN|9979-55-035-X}}.</ref>

The British reports of the incident differ considerably and maintain that ''Þór'' attempted to board one of the tugboats, and as ''Þór'' broke away, ''Lloydsman'' surged forward to protect ''Star Aquarius''. Captain Albert MacKenzie of ''Star Aquarius'' said that ''Þór'' approached from the stern and hit the support vessel before it veered off and fired a shot from a range of about {{convert|100|yd|m|-1}}. Niels Sigurdsson, the Icelandic Ambassador in London, said that ''Þór'' had been firing in self-defence after it had been rammed by British vessels. Iceland consulted the [[UN Security Council]] over the incident, which declined to intervene.<ref>Guðni Thorlacius Jóhannesson, ''Þorskastríðin þrjú: saga landhelgismálsins 1948–1976'', Hafréttarstofnun Íslands. Reykjavík. 2006. {{ISBN|9979-70-141-2}}.</ref>

[[File:Vs Þór enganging Star Aquarius and Lloydsman on 11 December 1975.jpg|thumb|right|The incident between V/s ''Þór'' and the British [[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)|MAFF]] ships ''Lloydsman'' and ''Star Aquarius'', as seen from an Icelandic maritime surveillance aircraft]]
The immediate Royal Navy response was to dispatch a large frigate force, which was already well on the way to Icelandic waters, before the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, or the Foreign Secretary, Anthony Crosland, were informed.<ref>S. Crosland. Tony Crosland. Cape. London (1982)</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}} The Royal Navy saw the opportunity to demonstrate the capabilities of its older [[Type 12 frigate|Type 12]] and [[Tribal-class frigate|Type 81]] frigates for sustained deployment in the area of the [[Denmark Strait]], where they were expected to deter the passage of Soviet submarines while the Royal Navy was threatened by further serious defence and naval cuts by the Royal Navy's chief ''bête noire'', the Chancellor of Exchequer and former Minister of Defence, [[Denis Healey]].<ref name="Woodward 1992">Admiral Sandy Woodward (1992). ''One Hundred Days: Memoirs of a Falklands Battlegroup Commander''. Naval Institute Press. RI</ref> The Royal Navy saw its strategic aim at the time to be as much fighting Healey as the [[Soviet Navy]].<ref name="Woodward 1992"/> The Second and Third Cod Wars were seen as necessary conflicts by the Royal Navy, like the [[Falklands War]], six years later.<ref>Chris Parry (2013). ''Down South: A Falklands War Diary''. London: Penguin.</ref> To Crosland, also MP for the trawler port of Grimsby, the third war was a more serious threat to the Western Alliance than was the Middle East.<ref>K. Threakston. ''British Foreign Secretaries since 1974''.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Another incident occurred in January 1976, when {{HMS|Andromeda|F57|6}} collided with ''Þór'', which sustained a hole in its hull; the hull of ''Andromeda'' was dented. The British Ministry of Defence said that the collision represented a "deliberate attack" on the British warship "without regard for life". The Icelandic Coast Guard, on the other hand, insisted that ''Andromeda'' had rammed ''Þór'' by "overtaking the boat and then swiftly changing course". After the incident and facing a growing number of ships enduring dockyard repairs, the Royal Navy ordered a "more cautious approach" in dealing with "the enemy cutting the trawlers' warps".<ref>''Ships Monthly'', Vol. 39, p. 35. Endlebury, 2004</ref>

On 19 February 1976, the British Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Fred Preat, announced that a fisherman from Grimsby had become the first British casualty of the Third Cod War, when a [[hawser]] hit and seriously injured him after Icelandic vessels cut a trawl.<ref name="auto1"/> While a British parliamentary source reported in a 1993 debate that a British trawlerman was accidentally killed by a solid shot fired by an Icelandic patrol boat,<ref>{{cite web|title = Tuesday 30 March 1993|url = http://hansardarchiv.es/select-committees/tuesday-30-march-1993.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021627/http://hansardarchiv.es/select-committees/tuesday-30-march-1993.html|url-status = dead|archive-date = 17 November 2015|website = hansardarchiv.es|access-date = 10 November 2015}}</ref> this suggestion has not been corroborated by any other historical source.

Britain deployed a total of 22 frigates and ordered the reactivation from reserve of the [[Leopard-class frigate|Type 41 frigate]] {{HMS|Jaguar|F37|6}} and [[Salisbury-class frigate|Type 61]] {{HMS|Lincoln|F99|6}}, refitting them as specialist ramming craft with reinforced wooden bows. In addition to the frigates, the British also deployed a total of seven supply ships, nine tugboats and three support ships to protect its fishing trawlers, but only six to nine of the vessels were on deployment at any one time.<ref name=Janes/> The Royal Navy was prepared to accept serious damage to its Cold War frigate fleet, costing millions and disabling part of its North Atlantic capacity for more than a year. {{HMS|Yarmouth|F101|6}} had its bow torn off, {{HMS|Diomede|F16|6}} had a 40&nbsp;ft gash ripped through her hull, and {{HMS|Eastbourne|F73|6}} suffered such structural damage from ramming by Icelandic gunboats that it was assessed as being no longer fit for sea service and was reduced to a moored operational training frigate. Iceland deployed four patrol vessels (V/s ''Óðinn'', V/s ''Þór'', V/s ''Týr'', and V/s ''Ægir'') and two armed trawlers (V/s ''Baldur'' and V/s ''Ver'').<ref name="Janes">''Jane's fighting ships: the standard reference of the world's navies''. London.</ref><ref>Atli Magnússon, ''Í kröppum sjó : Helgi Hallvarðsson skipherra segir frá sægörpum og svaðilförum''. Reykjavik: Örn og Örlygur. 1992. pp. 201–202</ref> The Icelandic government tried to acquire US {{sclass|Asheville|gunboat|1}}s and when it was denied by [[Henry Kissinger]], it tried to acquire Soviet {{sclass2|Mirka|frigate|1}}s instead.

A more serious turn of events came when Iceland threatened closure of the NATO base at [[Keflavík]], which would have severely impaired NATO's ability to deny access to the Atlantic Ocean to the Soviet Union. As a result, the British government agreed to have its fishermen stay outside Iceland's {{convert|200|nmi|km|0|abbr=on}} exclusion zone without a specific agreement.

On the evening of 6 May 1976, after the outcome of the Third Cod War had already been decided, [[V/s Týr|V/s ''Týr'']] was trying to cut the nets of the trawler ''Carlisle'' when Captain Gerald Plumer of {{HMS|Falmouth|F113|6}} ordered it rammed. ''Falmouth'', at a speed of more than {{convert|22|kn}}, rammed ''Týr'', almost capsizing her. ''Týr'' did not sink and managed to cut the nets of ''Carlisle'', and ''Falmouth'' rammed it again. ''Týr'' was heavily damaged and found herself propelled by only a single [[screw propellor|screw]] and pursued by the tugboat ''Statesman''. In the dire situation, Captain [[Guðmundur Kjærnested]] gave orders to man the guns, in spite of the overwhelming superiority of firepower HMS ''Falmouth'' enjoyed, to deter any further ramming.<ref>[[Óttar Sveinsson]], ''Útkall: Týr er að sökkva''. Reykjavik: Útkall. 2004. {{ISBN|9979-9569-6-8}}.</ref> In return, ''Falmouth'' suffered heavy bow damage.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Safeguarding the Nation: The Story of the Modern Royal Navy|last=Roberts|first=John|publisher=Seaforth Publishing|year=2010|isbn=978-1848320437|pages=119}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/retro/conflict-sea-during-furious-1970s-cod-wars-1314965 |title=Conflict at sea during furious 1970's<!--sic--> Cod Wars |newspaper=[[The News (Portsmouth)|The News]] |location=Portsmouth |language=en |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201212952/https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/retro/conflict-sea-during-furious-1970s-cod-wars-1314965 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Third Cod War saw 55 ramming incidents altogether.<ref>{{cite web|title = Cod Wars|url = http://britishseafishing.co.uk/the-cod-wars/|website = britishseafishing.co.uk|date = 19 July 2012|access-date = 8 November 2015|archive-date = 14 March 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160314214029/http://britishseafishing.co.uk/the-cod-wars/|url-status = live}}</ref>

In NATO-mediated sessions,<ref name="Bakaki 63–78"/> an agreement was reached between Iceland and the UK on 1 June 1976. The British were allowed to keep 24 trawlers within the 200&nbsp;nmi limit and fish a total of 30,000 tons.<ref>{{Cite book| title = Þorskastríðin þrjú| last = Jóhannesson| year = 2006| page = 145}}</ref>

While Iceland came closest to withdrawing from NATO and expelling US forces in the Second Cod War, Iceland actually took the most serious action in all of the Cod Wars in the Third Cod War by [[Iceland–United Kingdom relations|ending diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom]] on 19 February 1976.<ref name="Guðmundsson2006" /> Although the Icelandic government was firmly pro-Western, the government linked Iceland's NATO membership with the outcomes of the fishery dispute. If a favourable outcome could not be reached, Iceland implied that it would withdraw from NATO. However, the government never explicitly linked the US Defence Agreement to the outcome of the dispute.<ref name="Guðmundsson2006" />

== Results==
Iceland achieved its overall aims. As a result, the already-declining British fisheries were hit hard by being excluded from historical prime fishing grounds<ref>Georg H. Engelhard (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=u20mdaUF3zMC&pg=PA1 "One hundred and twenty years of change in fishing power of English North Sea trawlers"]. In Andy Payne, John Cotter, and Ted Potter (eds.). ''Advances in fisheries science: 50 years on from Beverton and Holt'', John Wiley and Sons, {{ISBN|1-4051-7083-2}}, p. 1 {{doi|10.1002/9781444302653.ch1}}, [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/9781405170833/9781405170833_sample.pdf mirror] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606101941/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/9781405170833/9781405170833_sample.pdf |date=6 June 2011 }}</ref> and the economies of the large northern fishing ports in the United Kingdom, such as [[Grimsby]], [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], and [[Fleetwood]], were severely affected, with thousands of skilled fishermen and people in related trades being put out of work.<ref>Teed, Peter (1992). ''The Dictionary of Twentieth Century History, 1914–1990''. Oxford University Press. p. 95. {{ISBN|0-19-211676-2}}</ref> The cost for repairing the damaged Royal Navy frigates is estimated to have totaled to over £1 million at the time of the incidents.{{efn|About £{{inflation|UK|1|1974|2020}} million {{as of|2020|lc=on}}.{{Inflation/fn|UK}}}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Trawling: the rise and fall of the British trawl fishery|last=Robinson|first=Robb|publisher=University of Exeter Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0859894807|page=243}}</ref>

In 2012, the British government offered a multimillion-pound compensation deal and apology to fishermen who lost their livelihoods in the 1970s. More than 35 years after the workers lost their jobs, the £1,000 compensation offered to 2,500 fishermen was criticised for being insufficient and excessively delayed.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/scotland/article3376266.ece |title= Cod Wars payment is 'too little, too late' |first= Nick |last=Drainey |date= 6 April 2012 |newspaper= [[The Times]] |access-date= 6 April 2012 |archive-date= 10 May 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150510062334/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/scotland/article3376266.ece |url-status= live }}</ref>

== Scholarship ==
The term "Cod War" was coined by a British journalist in early September 1958.<ref>{{Cite book|title = British Trawlers and Iceland 1919–1976|last = Thór|publisher = |year = 1995|page = 182}}</ref> None of the Cod Wars meet the threshold for a conventional [[war]],{{Efn|Iceland has never participated in a full-scale war.<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 July 2017|title=From Iceland – Ask A Historian: Has Iceland Ever Been Involved in Any Wars Or Conflicts|url=https://grapevine.is/mag/interview/2017/07/14/ask-a-historian-has-iceland-ever-been-involved-in-any-wars-or-conflicts/|first=Johanna |last=Eriksson|access-date=17 October 2020|website=The Reykjavik Grapevine|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020151556/https://grapevine.is/mag/interview/2017/07/14/ask-a-historian-has-iceland-ever-been-involved-in-any-wars-or-conflicts/|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=|group=}} and are more accurately described as [[militarised interstate dispute]]s.<ref name="Steinsson2016" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Fishing in the mild West: democratic peace and militarised interstate disputes in the transatlantic community|journal = Review of International Studies|date = 1 July 2008|issn = 1469-9044|pages = 481–506|volume = 34|issue = 3|doi = 10.1017/S0260210508008139|first1 = Gunther|last1 = Hellmann|first2 = Benjamin|last2 = Herborth|s2cid = 144997884}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Time to Fight: Government Type and Conflict Initiation in Parliamentary Systems|jstor = 3176313|journal = The Journal of Conflict Resolution|date = 1 October 2001|pages = 547–568|volume = 45|issue = 5|first1 = Michael J.|last1 = Ireland|first2 = Scott Sigmund|last2 = Gartner|doi = 10.1177/0022002701045005001|s2cid = 154973439}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Institutional Constraints, Political Opposition, And Interstate Dispute Escalation: Evidence from Parliamentary Systems, 1946–89|journal = Journal of Peace Research|date = 1 May 1999|issn = 0022-3433|pages = 271–287|volume = 36|issue = 3|doi = 10.1177/0022343399036003002|first1 = Brandon C.|last1 = Prins|first2 = Christopher|last2 = Sprecher|s2cid = 110394899}}</ref> 

A 2016 review article found that the underlying drivers behind the desire to extend fishery limits were economic and legal for Iceland, but were economic and strategic for the United Kingdom.<ref name="Steinsson2016">{{Cite journal|last=Steinsson|first=Sverrir|date=22 March 2016|title=The Cod Wars: a re-analysis|journal=European Security|volume=25|issue=2|pages=256–275|doi=10.1080/09662839.2016.1160376|s2cid=155242560|issn=0966-2839}}</ref> It, however, argues that "these underlying causes account for the tensions but are not enough to explain why bargaining failure occurred".<ref name="Steinsson2016" /> After all, the outbreak of each Cod War was costly and risky for both sides.

Several factors are mentioned to explain why bargaining failure occurred.<ref name="Steinsson2016" /> The nature of nationalism and party competition for Iceland and pressure from the trawling industry for Britain are reasons that both sides took actions that were of noticeable risk to their broader security interests. Interdepartmental competition and unilateral behaviour by individual diplomats were also factors, with the British Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries influencing the British government's decision "more than the Foreign Office".<ref name="Steinsson2016" />

A 2017 study argues that both a combination of powerful domestic pressures on statesmen to escalate and miscalculation by those statesmen contributed to the outbreak of the Cod Wars.<ref name=":0" /> The study argues that Iceland won each of the Cod Wars because Icelandic statesmen were too greatly constrained by domestic politics to offer compromises to the British, but British statesmen were not as constrained by public opinion at home.<ref name=":0" />

== Lessons drawn for international relations ==
International relations scholars such as [[Robert Keohane]], [[Joseph Nye]], [[Hans Morgenthau]], [[Henry Kissinger]] and [[Richard Ned Lebow|Ned Lebow]] have written on the Cod Wars.<ref name="Steinsson2016" />

The 2016 review article finds that lessons from the Cod Wars have most commonly been applied to [[Liberalism (international relations)|liberal]] and [[Realism (international relations)|realist]] schools of [[international relations theory]] and theories on [[Inequality of bargaining power|asymmetric bargaining]].<ref name="Steinsson2016" /> It claims that the Cod Wars are widely seen as inconsistent with the precepts of the [[Liberalism (international relations)|liberal peace]], since democracy, trade and institutions are supposed to pacify interstate behaviour.<ref name="Steinsson2016" /> A 2017 study argues that the "supposedly pacifying factors of the liberal peace – democracy, trade and institutional ties – effectively made the disputes more contentious".<ref name=":1" /> The Cod Wars are also held up as an example of the decreasing salience of [[hard power]] in international relations, with implications for realist theory which emphasizes the importance of hard power.<ref name="Steinsson2016" /> Theorists on asymmetric bargaining have emphasized how Iceland, lacking structural power, can still have an issue power advantage, with its greater commitment to the cause.<ref name="Steinsson2016" />

[[File:Rockall EEZ topographic map-en.svg|thumb|right|The current [[exclusive economic zone]]s of Iceland, the [[Faroe Islands]], the [[Exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].]]

==Legacy==
The 1976 agreement at the end of the Third Cod War forced the UK to abandon the "open seas" international fisheries policy it had previously promoted.<ref name="FishFights2019" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=7 March 2019|title=Privatising the seas: how the UK turned fishing rights into a commodity|url=https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2019/03/07/fishing-brexit-uk-fleetwood/|access-date=15 October 2020|website=Unearthed|language=en-GB|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017201527/https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2019/03/07/fishing-brexit-uk-fleetwood/|url-status=live}}</ref> The British Parliament passed the [[Fishery Limits Act 1976]], declaring a similar 200-nautical-mile zone around its own shores,<ref name="Robin Churchill UNCLOS opinion">{{cite web |last=Churchill |first=Robin |date=November 2016 |title=Possible EU Fishery Rights in UK Waters And Possible UK Fishery Rights in EU Waters Post-Brexit: An Opinion Prepared for the Scottish Fishermen's Federation |url=http://www.sff.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Opinion-for-SFF-2016.pdf |access-date=26 August 2020 |publisher=Scottish Fishermen's Federation |page=15 |archive-date=18 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018124838/http://www.sff.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Opinion-for-SFF-2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|In practice, the UK's EEZ can only reach its full 200-mile limit off the west coast of Scotland; everywhere else, it is shorter due to the proximity of neighbouring states, such as France, with which the UK has agreed on a boundary.<ref name="Robin Churchill UNCLOS opinion" /> Having joined the [[European Economic Community]] (the forerunner to the EU) in 1972, the UK had agreed to sharing access to its waters with all member states, and gaining access to the waters of other member states in return.<ref name="FishFights2019" /> In 1983, the EEC adopted the [[Common Fisheries Policy]]. The issue of fishing rights played a role in [[Brexit]] in 2016 and the subsequent [[trade negotiation between the UK and the EU]] (see [[Fish for finance]]).<ref name="FishFights2019" />|name=|group=}} a practice later codified into the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] (UNCLOS), which provided similar rights to every sovereign nation.<ref name="FishFights2019">{{Cite web|last1=Forse|first1=Andy|last2=Drakeford|first2=Ben|last3=Potts|first3=Jonathan|title=Fish fights: Britain has a long history of trading away access to coastal waters|url=http://theconversation.com/fish-fights-britain-has-a-long-history-of-trading-away-access-to-coastal-waters-112988|access-date=15 October 2020|website=The Conversation|language=en|date=26 March 2019|archive-date=24 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132115/http://theconversation.com/fish-fights-britain-has-a-long-history-of-trading-away-access-to-coastal-waters-112988|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UN1998" />

The victories in the Cod Wars may have strengthened Icelandic nationalism and boosted the perception that Iceland can succeed through unilateral or bilateral means rather than compromise in multilateral frameworks, such as membership of the [[European Union]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Thorhallsson|first=Baldur|title=Iceland and European Integration: On the Edge|publisher=Routledge|year=2004}}</ref>{{efn|The European Union's [[Common Fisheries Policy]] is also cited by academics as one of the [[Iceland–European Union relations#Explanations for Iceland's non-membership of the European Union|reasons discouraging Iceland from joining the European Union]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ingebritsen|first=Christine|title=The Nordic States and European Unity|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1998}}</ref><ref name=":02"/><ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last=Bergmann|first=Eirikur|title=Nordic Nationalism and Right-Wing Populist Politics|date=1 January 2017|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=9781137567024|pages=93–124|language=en|chapter=Iceland: Ever-Lasting Independence Struggle|doi=10.1057/978-1-137-56703-1_4}}</ref> The 2010 Mackerel War played a role in Iceland's [[Iceland–European Union relations#2013 election and withdrawal of application|withdrawal of its EU membership application the following year]].<ref name="HuffPost piece">{{cite news |last=Kaufman |first=Alexander C. |title=Brexit Could Spark The Next Big Fishing War |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/brexit-england-eu-fish_n_5d4dc719e4b0fd2733f030ef |newspaper=[[Huffington Post]] |date=18 August 2019 |access-date=14 March 2020 |archive-date=25 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525233544/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/brexit-england-eu-fish_n_5d4dc719e4b0fd2733f030ef |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mackerel War">{{cite news |last=Davies |first=Caroline |title=Britain prepares for mackerel war with Iceland and Faroe Islands |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/aug/22/britain-iceland-faroe-islands-mackerel-war |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=22 August 2010 |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928023932/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/aug/22/britain-iceland-faroe-islands-mackerel-war |url-status=live }}</ref>|name=|group=}}

The Cod Wars are often mentioned in Icelandic and British news reporting when either state is involved in a fishery dispute or when there are disputes of some sort between the two countries. The Cod Wars were extensively covered by media during the [[Icesave dispute|Icesave dispute between Iceland and the UK]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loftsdóttir |first=Kristín |date=14 March 2016 |title=Building on Iceland's 'Good Reputation': Icesave, Crisis and Affective National Identities |journal=Ethnos |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=338–363 |doi=10.1080/00141844.2014.931327 |s2cid=144668345 |issn=0014-1844|hdl=20.500.11815/3035 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7C_FAgAAQBAJ&q=%22cod+wars%22+%22icesave%22&pg=PA37 |title=Iceland and the International Financial Crisis: Boom, Bust and Recovery |last=Bergmann |first=E. |date=30 January 2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137332004 |language=en |access-date=22 October 2020 |archive-date=23 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723203733/https://books.google.com/books?id=7C_FAgAAQBAJ&q=%22cod+wars%22+%22icesave%22&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8552971.stm |title=Iceland holds referendum on Icesave repayment plan |publisher=BBC News |language=en-GB |access-date=9 May 2017 |date=6 March 2010 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629150242/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8552971.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> and in preparation for the [[UEFA Euro 2016 knockout phase|Iceland–England match at the round of 16 in Euro 2016]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/06/26/when-tiny-iceland-did-beat-england-its-time-to-brush-up-on-the-cod-wars/ |title=When tiny Iceland did beat England: It's time to brush up on the Cod Wars |newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Sverrir |last=Steinsson |access-date=9 May 2017 |archive-date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307082329/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/06/26/when-tiny-iceland-did-beat-england-its-time-to-brush-up-on-the-cod-wars/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://icelandmag.visir.is/article/celebrate-icelandic-victory-cod-wars-a-coast-guard-open-house-sunday |title=Celebrate Icelandic victory in the Cod Wars at a Coast Guard open house on Sunday |work=Icelandmag |access-date=9 May 2017 |language=en |archive-date=18 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618151849/http://icelandmag.visir.is/article/celebrate-icelandic-victory-cod-wars-a-coast-guard-open-house-sunday |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/euro-2016-england-vs-iceland-ready-to-go-to-war-40-years-after-cod-wars-a7104546.html |title=Iceland invoke the spirit of the Cod Wars in bid to beat England |date=26 June 2016 |work=The Independent|first=Mark |last=Ogden |access-date=9 May 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=16 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116074602/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/international/euro-2016-england-vs-iceland-ready-to-go-to-war-40-years-after-cod-wars-a7104546.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In February 2017, the crews of two ships involved in the Cod Wars, the [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] trawler ''[[Arctic Corsair]]'' and the Icelandic patrol ship [[ICGV Óðinn|ICGV ''Óðinn'']], exchanged bells in a gesture of goodwill and sign of friendship between the cities of Hull and Reykjavík. The event was part of a project by Hull Museums on the history between Iceland and the United Kingdom during and after the Cod Wars.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-39031301 |title=Cod Wars fishing vessels to exchange bells in cooperation gesture |date=20 February 2017 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=9 May 2017 |language=en-GB |archive-date=6 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506031530/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-humber-39031301 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Maritime history of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Turbot War]]
* [[Lobster War]]
* [[Iceland–European Union relations]]
* [[1993 Cherbourg incident]]
* [[English Channel scallop fishing dispute|Scallop War]]
* [[List of wars between democracies]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite web|title=How Iceland Beat the British in the Four Cod Wars|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-were-cod-wars|last=Frost|first=Natasha|date=21 June 2018|website=Atlas Obscura|language=en|access-date=26 May 2020}}
* Ingo Heidbrink: ''"Deutschlands einzige Kolonie ist das Meer" Die deutsche Hochseefischerei und die Fischereikonflikte des 20. Jahrhunderts.'' Hamburg (Convent Vlg) 2004.
* Kurlansky, Mark. ''Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World''. New York: Walker & Company, 1997 (reprint edition: Penguin, 1998). {{ISBN|0-8027-1326-2}}, {{ISBN|0-14-027501-0}}.
* {{cite book|last1=Glantz|first1=Michael H.|title=Climate variability, climate change, and fisheries|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521017824|pages=264–283|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hyXyDaj3T44C&pg=PA264}}
* Jónsson, Hannes (1982). ''Friends in conflict: the Anglo-Icelandic cod wars and the Law of the Sea.'' C. Hurst. {{ISBN|0-208-02000-4}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/20916/1/Steinsson%20%282015%29%20-%20Occurence%20and%20Outcomes%20of%20the%20Cod%20Wars.pdf|title=Why Did the Cod Wars Occur and Why Did Iceland Win Them? A Test of Four Theories|publisher=Faculty of Political Science – School of Social Sciences – University of Iceland|year=2015|pages=31}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110525023712/http://www1.american.edu/TED/icefish.htm Case Study – ''The Cod War'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031219103708/http://home.freeuk.com/nigelhadley/codwar.htm MV Miranda Site] Website of the ''MV Miranda'', a Trawler support vessel
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120416045447/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/RRGP/CodWar.htm Britain's Small Wars] – ''The Cod War''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaselector/check/nationonfilm/00332?size=4x3&bgc=C0C0C0&nbram=1&bbram=1 BBC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320115742/http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaselector/check/nationonfilm/00332?size=4x3&bgc=C0C0C0&nbram=1&bbram=1 |date=20 March 2005 }} Video footage from the BBC
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080109033054/http://www.lhg.is/sagan/thorskastridin/#prof ''Fiskveiðideilur Íslendinga við erlendar þjóðir'', by Guðni Jóhannesson] {{in lang|is}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/20/newsid_2510000/2510837.stm BBC 'On this Day' 1973: ''Royal Navy moves to protect trawlers'']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11/newsid_2546000/2546045.stm BBC 'On this Day' 1975: "Attack on British vessels heightens Cod War"]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g0mcvA0XaTM Henry Kissinger talking about cod war between Iceland and the United Kingdom], AP Archive, 2 February 1973

{{NATO Militarised Interstate Conflicts}}
{{Iceland topics}}
{{United Kingdom topics}}
{{Fishing history}}

[[Category:20th century in Iceland]]
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[[Category:Wars involving Germany]]
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