View source for Classical Nahuatl grammar

{{Short description|Grammatical features of Classical Nahuatl}}
<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
YNQ:yes–no question
ANT:antecessive particle;
IN:particle 'in';
V:verb;
S:subject;
O:object;
P:possessive;
R:reflexive;
H:human;
L:linker;
PLUP:pluperfect;
DIR:directional;
LOC:locative;
CISL:cislocative ('towards');
TRSL:translocative ('away from');
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

The '''[[grammar]] of [[Classical Nahuatl]]''' is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]], [[Head-marking language|head-marking]], and makes extensive use of compounding, [[noun incorporation]] and derivation. That is, it can add many different [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es to a root until very long words are formed. Very long verbal forms or nouns created by incorporation, and accumulation of prefixes are common in literary works. New words can thus be easily created.

==Morphophonology==
The phonological shapes of Nahuatl [[morpheme]]s may be altered in particular contexts, depending on the shape of the adjacent morphemes or their position in the word.

===Assimilation===
Where a morpheme ending in a consonant is followed by a morpheme beginning in a consonant, one of the two consonants often undergoes [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]], adopting features of the other consonant.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
| ch
! +
| y
! →
| chch
|style="text-align: left"| {{interlinear|oquich-(tli) + -yō-(tl) → oquichchōtl|man {} -ness {} valor|}}
|-
| l
! +
| tl
! →
| ll
|style="text-align: left"| {{interlinear|cal- + -tl → calli|house {} ABS {} house|}}
|-
| l
! +
| y
! →
| ll
|style="text-align: left"| {{interlinear|cual-(li) + -yō-(tl) → cuallōtl|good {} -ness {} goodness|}}
|-
| x
! +
| y
! →
| xx
|style="text-align: left"| {{interlinear|mix-(tli) + -yoh → mixxoh|cloud {} {covered in} {} cloudy|}}
|-
| z
! +
| y
! →
| zz
|style="text-align: left"| {{interlinear|māhuiz-(tli) + -yō-(tl) → māhuizzōtl|fear {} -ness {} respect|}}
|}
Almost all doubled consonants in Nahuatl are produced by the assimilation of two different consonants from different morphemes. Doubled consonants within a single morpheme are rare, a notable example being the verb {{lang|nci|-itta}} "see", and possibly indicates a fossilized double morpheme.

===Alternations in syllable-coda position===
A number of consonants regularly undergo change when [[Resyllabification|resyllabified]] into the coda position of a syllable due to morphological operations that delete following vowels,{{r|andrews|pp=36-37}} such as the preterite of class 2 verbs, and the possessive singular of some nouns. Examples of each alternation are given below, with each form broken into its syllables and the alternating consonants in bold:

* {{lang|nci|m}} becomes {{lang|nci|n}} which is further devoiced
** {{lang|nci|pā-'''m'''itl}} "flag" — {{lang|nci|to-pā'''n'''}} "our flag"
** {{lang|nci|mo-xī-'''m'''a}} "he shaves" — {{lang|nci|mo-xī'''n'''}} "he shaved"
* {{lang|nci|y}} devoices to {{lang|nci|x}}, or to {{lang|nci|z}} when preceded by /s/ (i.e. {{lang|nci|z}} or {{lang|nci|ce}}, {{lang|nci|ci}}) in the same word
** {{lang|nci|nā-'''y'''i}} "I do — {{lang|nci|ō-nā'''x'''}} "I did"
** {{lang|nci|tla-ce-li-'''y'''a}} "plants are in bud, spring is arriving" — {{lang|nci|tla-ce-li'''z'''}} "plants were in bud"
* {{lang|nci|t}} [[Debuccalization|debuccalizes]] to {{lang|nci|h}}. This alternation does not affect all instances of syllable-final {{lang|nci|t}} and is sensitive to stem choice and position in the word.
** {{lang|nci|ō-ni-ca'''t'''-ca}} "I was" — {{lang|nci|ni-ca'''h'''}} "I am". Here the alternation is mandatory in ''word''-final position, but absent in non-word-final ''syllable''-final position.{{r|andrews|pp=90-91}}
** {{lang|nci|nic-ma-'''t'''i}} "I find out" — {{lang|nci|ō-nic-ma'''h'''}} ''or'' {{lang|nci|ō-nic-ma'''t'''}} "I found out" (the former being more common), but {{lang|nci|ō-tic-ma'''t'''-queh}} "we found out". Here likewise the alternation is absent in non-word-final {{em|syllable}}-final position, but is optional in {{em|word}}-final position.{{r|andrews|pp=90-91}}
** {{lang|nci|ni-tlā-ca-'''t'''i}} "I am born" — {{lang|nci|ō-ni-tlā-ca'''t'''}} "I was born". Here the alternation is always absent.

Additionally, syllable final /kʷ/, spelled {{lang|nci|uc}} maybe sometimes delabialize to {{lang|nci|c}} with no conditioning factors, as in the word {{lang|nci|[[Xipe Totec|Totēc]]}}, from {{lang|nci|to-tēuc}} "our lord".

==Subject marking==
Every [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] takes an obligatory prefix marking the person and number of its subject, except for the third person that has no prefix, only the plural marker (e.g. ''tlācatl'' both means "person" and "she/he is a person"). Both verbal predicates (e.g. 'I {{em|sing}}') and nominal predicates (e.g. 'I {{em|am a person}}') mark their subjects ('I' in the two preceding examples) identically, and nouns bearing subject prefixes can serve as predicates (i.e. 'to be an X') without a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]].{{notetag|n=noun-copula|As nouns cannot inflect for [[tense-aspect-mood]] like verbs do, the copula {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to be}} is required for nominal predication outside of the present tense, in which case {{em|both}} the noun and the copula bear subject prefixes.}} Both nominal and verbal predicates distinguish two numbers: singular and plural, and the number of a subject prefix must match that of its predicate.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Person
!Marker
!Verbal predicate
!Nominal predicate
|-
!1S
|{{lang|nci|n(i)-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=eclipsis}}
|{{lang|nci|nicuīca}} {{gloss|I sing}}
|{{lang|nci|nitlācatl}} {{gloss|I am a person}}
|-
!2S
|{{lang|nci|t(i)-}},{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=eclipsis}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=homophony}} {{lang|nci|x(i)-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=optative-prefixes}}
|{{lang|nci|ticuīca}} {{gloss|you sing}}
|{{lang|nci|titlācatl}} {{gloss|you are a person}}
|-
!3S
|{{lang|nci|Ø-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=homophony}}
|{{lang|nci|cuīca}} {{gloss|he/she/it sings}}
|{{lang|nci|tlācatl}} {{gloss|he/she is a person}}
|-
!1P
|{{lang|nci|t(i)-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=eclipsis}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=homophony}}
|{{lang|nci|ticuīcah}} {{gloss|we sing}}
|{{lang|nci|titlācah}} {{gloss|we are people}}
|-
!2P
|{{lang|nci|am-}},{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=am-assimilation}} {{lang|nci|x(i)-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=optative-prefixes}}
|{{lang|nci|ancuīcah}} {{gloss|you {{sc||pl}} sing}}
|{{lang|nci|antlācah}} {{gloss|you {{sc|pl}} are people}}
|-
!3P
|{{lang|nci|Ø-}}{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=homophony}}
|{{lang|nci|cuīcah}} {{gloss|they sing}}
|{{lang|nci|tlācah}} {{gloss|they are people}}
|}

{{notelist|subject-person-marking|refs=
{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=eclipsis|The {{lang|nci|i}} of {{lang|nci|n(i)-}}, {{lang|nci|t(i)-}}, and {{lang|nci|x(i)-}} is only present when not followed by another vowel. When preceding the third person singular object prefix {{lang|nci|-c-}} and the directional prefix {{lang|nci|-on-}}, the combinations {{lang|nci|*nicon-}}, {{lang|nci|*ticon-}}, {{lang|nci|*xicon-}} become {{lang|nci|nocon-}}, {{lang|nci|tocon-}}, {{lang|nci|xocon-}} respectively.}}
{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=homophony|While the prefixes for the pairs (2S-1P), (3S-3P), and (2S optative-2P optative) are identical, the intended subject can always be distinguished by the number of the predicate (e.g. a plural predicate with {{lang|nci|t(i)-}} must refer to the first person plural). In traditional texts, however, the glottal stop {{lang|nci|-h}} which is often the only marker of the plural (as in the present plural of verbs) is rarely notated consistently, so cases of orthographic ambiguity are common. In the class of verbs which form their preterite singular identically to the present plural, by suffixing {{lang|nci|-h}} to the stem, cases of true morphological ambiguity are possible (e.g. {{lang|nci|titlacuah}} "we eat" {{em|or}} "you ate", {{lang|nci|tlacuah}} "they eat" {{em|or}} "he ate").}}
{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=am-assimilation|The {{lang|nci|m}} of {{lang|nci|am-}} assimilates totally to a following ''s'', written {{lang|nci|az-}}, and assimilates to the place of articulation of any other following consonant, written {{lang|nci|an-}}, and (e.g. {{lang|nci|anchōcah}}, {{lang|nci|azcihuah}}) and  thus only surfaces as {{lang|nci|m-}} preceding vowels and the bilabial consonants {{lang|nci|m}} and {{lang|nci|p}} (e.g. {{lang|nci|ampēhuah}}).}}
{{efn|group=subject-person-marking|name=optative-prefixes|The second person singular and plural prefixes take the form {{lang|nci|x(i)-}} in the optative mood, which is marked only on verbs.}}
}}

== Nouns ==
The noun is inflected for two basic contrasting categories:

*possessedness: non-possessed contrasts with possessed
*number: singular contrasts with plural

Nouns belong to one of two classes: animate or inanimate. Originally the grammatical distinction between these were that inanimate nouns had no plural forms, but in most modern dialects both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralizable.

Nominal morphology is mostly suffixing. Some irregular formations exist.

=== Absolutive suffix ===
Nouns in their citation form take a [[Affix|suffix]] called the ''absolutive'' (unrelated to the [[absolutive case]] of [[Ergative–absolutive alignment|ergative-absolutive]] languages). This suffix takes the form {{lang|nci|-tl}} after vowels ({{lang|nci|ā-tl}}, "water") and {{lang|nci|-tli}} after consonants, which [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilates]] with a final /l/ on the root ({{lang|nci|tōch-tli}}, "rabbit", but {{lang|nci|cal-li}}, "house"). A smaller class of nouns instead take {{lang|nci|-in}} ({{lang|nci|mich-in}}, fish), and some have no absolutive suffix ({{lang|nci|chichi}}, dog){{notetag|name=disparaging-zero-absolutive|A small class of nouns which normally have an overt absolutive suffix may appear without the suffix in the singular when used disparagingly. For example {{lang|nci|nacaztzatza-tl}}, "a deaf person", {{lang|nci|nacaztzatza}} "a deaf person" (said disparagingly).{{r|andrews|pp=296-297}}}}.

The absolutive suffix is absent when the noun is incorporated into a compound of which it is not the head, for example with the roots {{lang|nci|tōch}}, {{lang|nci|mich}}, and {{lang|nci|cal}} in the following compounds: {{lang|nci|tōch-cal-li}}, "rabbit-hole", {{lang|nci|mich-matla-tl}}, "fishing net", {{lang|nci|cal-chīhua}}, "to build a house". Possessed nouns do not take the absolutive suffix, and instead take a possessive suffix marking their number.

=== Number ===

*The absolutive singular suffix has three basic forms: ''-tl/tli, -in'', and some irregular nouns with no suffix.
*The absolutive plural suffix has three basic forms: {{lang|nci|-tin}}, {{lang|nci|-meh}}, or a final glottal stop {{lang|nci|-h}}. Some plurals are formed also with [[reduplication]] of the consonant (if present) and vowel onset of the stem's first syllable {{notetag|name=poch-redup|The nouns {{lang|nci|ichpōchtli}} "young woman" and {{lang|nci|tēlpōchtli}} "young man" take the plural absolutive suffix {{lang|nci|-tin}} and apply reduplication to the element {{lang|nci|*pōch}}, which while unattested independently must be separate stem, giving the forms {{lang|nci|ichpōpōchtin}} and {{lang|nci|telpōpōchtin}} respectively.{{r|andrews|p=288}}{{r|launey|p=235}}}}, and the reduplicated vowel [[vowel length|lengthened]] if not already long, e.g. {{lang|nci|cuāuh-tli}} "eagle" — {{lang|nci|'''cuā'''cuāuh-tin}} "eagles".
*In compound nouns, reduplication may apply to the embedded (i.e. first) noun, the head noun, or rarely both, e.g.:
** {{lang|nci|tlāca-tecolōtl}} "sorcerer, demon" — {{lang|nci|'''tlā'''tlāca-tecolo-h}}, not {{lang|nci|*tlāca-'''tē'''tecolo-h}}
** {{lang|nci|chiyan-cuāuh-tli}} "species of bird of prey" — {{lang|nci|chiyan-'''cuā'''cuāuh-tin}}, not {{lang|nci|*'''chī'''chiyan-cuāuh-tin}}.
** {{lang|nci|cin-tēo-tl}} "maize god (figure) — {{lang|nci|'''cī'''cin-'''tē'''tēo-h}}, (also attested as {{lang|nci|'''cī'''cin-tēo-h}})
Only animate nouns can take a plural form. These include most animate living beings, but also words like ''tepētl — tepēmeh'' ("mountain, mountains"), ''citlālin — cīcitlāltin'' ("star, stars"), and some other phenomena. The plural is not totally stable and in many cases several different forms are attested.

{|class="wikitable"
|+Possible forms of the absolutive plural
|-
!
!{{lang|nci|-h}}
!{{lang|nci|-tin}}
!{{lang|nci|-meh}}
|-
!With<br />reduplication
|''teōtl, tēteoh''
|''tōchtli, tōtōchtin''
|{{n/a|Not attested}}
|-
!Without<br />reduplication
|''cihuātl, cihuah''
|''oquichtli, oquichtin''
|''michin, michmeh''
|}

=== Alienable possession ===
Possessed nouns receive a prefix indexing the person and number of the possessor, and a possessive suffix indicating the number of the possessed noun, which may be phonologically null.

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! 
! singular
! plural
|-
! 1st person
| {{wikt-lang|nci|no-}}, "my"
| {{wikt-lang|nci|to-}}, "our"
|-
! 2nd person
| {{wikt-lang|nci|mo-}}, "thy"
| {{lang|nci|amo-}}, "your"
|-
! 3rd person
| {{lang|nci|ī-}}, "his, hers, its"
| {{lang|nci|īn-}}/{{lang|nci|īm-}}, "their"
|-
! Unknown possessor
| colspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|nci|tē-}}, "their" (somebody's)
|}

The {{lang|nci|-o-}} of the first and second person singular and plural suffixes {{lang|nci|no-}}, {{lang|nci|to-}}, {{lang|nci|mo-}}, {{lang|nci|amo-}} is eclipsed by the following vowel of any vowel initial noun, except for short {{lang|nci|i}}, which may instead be eclipsed by {{lang|nci|o}}. Whether this stem initial short {{lang|nci|i}} is considered a "real" vowel which resists eclipsis varies with each noun stem, and some nouns are attested with both possibilities.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Class
!Absolutive
!Possessed
|-
!Full vowel eclipses {{lang|nci|o}}
|{{lang|nci|āmol-li}}, "soap"
|{{lang|nci|n-āmol}}, "my soap"
|-
!{{lang|nci|o}} eclipses {{lang|nci|i}}
|{{lang|nci|ichpōchtli}}, "daughter"
|{{lang|nci|no-chpōch}}, "my daughter"
|-
!Both variations attested
|{{lang|nci|izti-tl}}, "fingernail"
|{{lang|nci|no-zti}} or {{lang|nci|n-izti}}, "my fingernail"
|}

Nouns may also be divided into several classes based on the shape of the singular possessive suffix they take, and any modifications to the noun stem itself when possessed. The plural possessive is comparatively regular, always taking the suffix {{lang|nci|-huān}}, and observes the same restriction as the absolutive in that it is only available for animate nouns.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Class
!Absolutive
!Possessed Singular
!Possessed Plural
|-
!-{{lang|nci|in}} or {{lang|nci|Ø}}, {{lang|nci|Ø}}
|{{lang|nci|mich-in}}, "fish"
|{{lang|nci|no-mich-Ø}}, "my fish"
|{{lang|nci|no-mich-huān}}, "my fish"
|-
!{{lang|nci|-tli}}, {{lang|nci|Ø}}
|{{lang|nci|cih-tli}}, "grandmother"
|{{lang|nci|no-cih-Ø}}, "my grandmother"
|{{lang|nci|no-cih-huān}}, "my grandmothers"
|-
!{{lang|nci|-tli}}, -{{lang|nci|hui}}
|{{lang|nci|oquich-tli}}, "husband"
|{{lang|nci|n-oquich-hui}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=eclipsis}}{{efn|group=possessive|name=hui-zero}} "my husband"
|{{lang|nci|n-oquich-huān}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=eclipsis}} "my husbands"
|-
!{{lang|nci|-tl}}, {{lang|nci|uh}} 
|{{lang|nci|cihuā-tl}}, "wife"
|{{lang|nci|no-cihuā-uh}}, "my wife"
|{{lang|nci|no-cihuā-huān}}, "my wives"
|-
!{{lang|nci|-tl}}, {{lang|nci|Ø}}
|{{lang|nci|ahui-tl}}, "aunt"
|{{lang|nci|n-ahui-Ø}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=eclipsis}} "my aunt"
|{{lang|nci|n-ahui-huān}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=eclipsis}} "my aunts"
|-
!{{lang|nci|(a)-tl}}, {{lang|nci|Ø}} 
|{{lang|nci|nac(a)-tl}}, "meat"
|{{lang|nci|no-nac-Ø}}, "my meat"
|{{n/a}}
|-
!{{lang|nci|(i)-tl}}, {{lang|nci|Ø}}
|{{lang|nci|com(i)-tl}}, "pot"
|{{lang|nci|no-con-Ø}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=comitl}} "my pot"
|{{n/a}}
|-
!{{lang|nci|(a)-tl}}, {{lang|nci|-i}}
|{{lang|nci|cōzc(a)-tl}}, "jewelry"
|{{lang|nci|no-cōzqu-i}}, "my jewelry"
|{{lang|nci|no-cōzca-huān}},{{efn|group=possessive|name=cozcatl-animate}} "my pieces of jewelry"
|}

{{notelist|group=possessive|refs=
{{efn|group=possessive|name=hui-zero|This noun is one of a very small class of nouns which may take either the possessive suffix {{lang|nci|-hui}} or {{lang|nci|-Ø}}.}}
{{efn|group=possessive|name=eclipsis|Note the eclipsis of the possessive prefix's {{lang|nci|-o-}} by the vowel of the noun stem.}}
{{efn|group=possessive|name=comitl|Note the regular phonological change of {{lang|nci|-m}} to {{lang|nci|-n}} when the underlying final {{lang|nci|-m}} of the root is exposed in syllable final position due to the loss of the following short vowel.}}
{{efn|group=possessive|name=cozcatl-animate|Here {{lang|nci|cōzcatl}} is treated as animate and is thereby eligible to be pluralized as it is frequently used as part of a metaphorical expression paired with {{lang|nci|quetzalli}}, "quetzal feathers" with the first person singular possessive, {{lang|nci|nocōzqui noquetzal}}, "my precious child".}}
}}

Possessed nouns may also take subject prefixes, preceding the possessor prefix. Plural subjects require the use of the plural possessive suffix.{{r|andrews|p=115}}
{{interlinear
| lang = nci
| indent = 3
| top = Possessed noun with subject marking
| an-to-cih-huān
| 2PL.S-1PL.P-grandmother-PL
| {{gloss|you {{sc||pl}} are our grandmothers}}
}}

=== Inalienable possession ===
The suffix {{lang|nci|-yo}} — the same suffix as the abstract/collective {{lang|nci|-yō(tl)}} — may be added to a possessed noun to indicate that it is a part of its possessor, rather than just being owned by it. For example, both {{lang|nci|nonac}} and {{lang|nci|nonacayo}} (possessed forms of {{lang|nci|nacatl}}) mean "my meat", but {{lang|nci|nonac}} may refer to meat that one has to eat, while {{lang|nci|nonacayo}} refers to the flesh that makes up one's body. This is known as '''inalienable''', '''integral''' or '''organic possession'''.{{r|andrews|pp=382-384}}{{r|carochi|pp=308-309}}{{r|lockhart|pp=69-70}}
{{see also|Inalienable possession}}

=== Affective nouns ===
Some other categories can be inflected on the noun such as: 
: Honorific formed with the suffix {{lang|nci|-tzin}}.
{{interlinear
| lang = nci
| indent = 3
| top = cihuātzintli|cihuā -tzin -tli|woman HON ABS|'woman (said with respect)'
}}

== Verbs ==
All verbs are marked with prefixes which agree with their subjects. Classical Nahuatl displays [[nominative–accusative]] alignment, and transitive verbs thus take distinct a set of prefixes which mark their objects. Verbs inflect for a number of [[tense–aspect–mood]] categories through a series of stem changes and suffixes which agree with the subject in number, and can change their [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] through a number of morphological processes, which are also exploited in a system of verbal [[Honorifics (linguistics)|honorifics]].

=== Tense-aspect-mood inflection ===
Verbs inflect for [[tense-aspect-mood]] by adding various suffixes to the appropriate verbal base. '''Base 1''' is the normal or [[Lemma (morphology)|citation form]] of the verb, also known as the '''imperfective''' stem, with no special suffixes. '''Base 2''', also known as the '''perfective''' stem, is usually shorter in form than base 1, often dropping a final vowel, though formation thereof varies. '''Base 3''', the '''hypothetical''' stem, is normally the same as base 1, except for verbs whose stem ending in two vowels, in which case the second vowel is dropped, and the formerly penultimate, now final vowel is lengthened in front of a suffix that does not begin with the glottal stop {{lang|nci|-h}}.

==== Stem classes ====
Verbs can be divided into four classes depending on how the stem is modified in the various inflections; most verbs will fall within classes 2 and 3 described below.<ref name="JordanNotes">{{cite web |last1=Jordan |first1=D.K. |title=Jordan: Nahuatl Grammar Notes |url=https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/nahuatl/nahugram.html#sec5.1 |website=pages.ucsd.edu |access-date=26 February 2024 |date=Feb 27, 1997}}</ref> Important to understanding the behavior of vowel length in the various inflections is the generalization that long vowels are shortened when word-final (i.e. not followed by further suffixes) or before a glottal stop. These vowels' underlying length resurfaces when suffixes are attached. In the following examples, verb stems are cited with their underlying final vowel length, and only in inflected forms is phonetic shortening applied.

Stems ending in {{lang|nci|-iā}} or {{lang|nci|-oā}}, which are the only verbs which end in two consecutive vowels, are always of class 3. Class 4 comprises only a few commonly used verbs.{{notetag|n=class-4-verbs| The following 8 verbs comprise class 4: {{lang|nci|tla-cuā}}, {{lang|nci|tla-mā}}, {{lang|nci|tla-pā}}, {{lang|nci|tla-māmā}} (and its variant {{lang|nci|tla-mēmē}}), {{lang|nci|tla-nāhuā}}, {{lang|nci|mo-zōmā}}, {{lang|nci|yā}}{{r|andrews|p=65}}}} Stems which end in a long vowel with the exception of those in class 4, or in two consonants followed by a vowel, are always of class 1. Stems ending in a single, short vowel, possibly preceded by a single consonant, may belong to either class 1 or 2.{{r|andrews|pp=61-65}}

Verbs of class 3 and 4 end in a long vowel, and thus exhibit shortening in some forms, while the final vowel of class 2 verbs is never long, and thus is invariant in length. Here class 1 is divided into two subclasses based on the length of the final vowel,  1-S(hort) and 1-L(ong).

{| class="wikitable"
! Class
!colspan=2 | Class 1-S
! colspan="2" |Class 1-L
! colspan="2" | Class 2
!colspan=2 | Class 3
!colspan=2 | Class 4
|-
! verb base ||colspan=2 | {{lang|nci|chōca}} (cry) 
! colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|temō}} (descend)|| colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|yōli}} (live) || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|choloā}} (flee) || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|tlacuā}} (eat)
|-
! Base 1
|| base form || {{lang|nci|chōca-}}
|base form
|{{lang|nci|temō-}} || base form || {{lang|nci|yōli}}- || base form || {{lang|nci|choloā-}}
| base form || {{lang|nci|tlacuā-}}
|-
! Base 2
|| no change || {{lang|nci|chōca-}}
|no change
|{{lang|nci|temō-}} || drop vowel || {{lang|nci|yōl}}- || replace vowel with {{lang|nci|-h}} || {{lang|nci|choloh-}}|| -h || {{lang|nci|tlacuah}}-
|-
! Base 3
|| no change || {{lang|nci|chōca-}}
|no change
|{{lang|nci|temō-}} || no change || {{lang|nci|yōli-}} || drop vowel, lengthen penult || {{lang|nci|cholō-}} || no change || {{lang|nci|tlacuā-}}
|-
|}

==== Present ====
The '''present''' is formed on base 1, with no suffix in the singular, and {{lang|nci|-h}} in the plural, e.g. {{lang|nci|nicochi}} 'I am sleeping,' {{lang|nci|tlahtoah}} 'they are speaking,' {{lang|nci|nicchīhua}} 'I am making it.' A number of common irregular verbs lack a morphological present, instead using the preterite with a present tense meaning.

==== Imperfect ====
The '''imperfect''' is formed on base 1, with the suffix {{lang|nci|-ya}} in the singular and {{lang|nci|-yah}} in the plural, preserving underlying  vowel length. It is similar in meaning to the imperfect in the [[Romance languages]], signifying a 'repeated or continuing process in the past',{{r|launey|p=83}} e.g. {{lang|nci|nicochiya}} 'I was sleeping,' {{lang|nci|tlahtoāyah}} 'they used to speak,' {{lang|nci|nicchīhuaya}} 'I was making it.'

==== Quotidian ====
The '''habitual present''', '''customary present''', or '''quotidian''' is formed on base 1 with the suffix is {{lang|nci|-ni}} in the singular, and {{lang|nci|-nih}} in the plural, preserving underlying vowel length. Rather than one specific event this form expresses the subject's tendency or propensity to repeatedly or habitually perform the same action over time, and is most commonly used to nominalize verbs, deriving a noun with the meaning 'one who customarily does ...'. When used nominally, the plural of this form is variable.

==== Preterite ====
The '''preterite''' or '''perfect''' is formed on base 2 with no suffix in the singular for classes 2, 3, and 4, and the suffix {{lang|nci|-c}} for class 1{{notetag|n=archaic-preterite-qui|Some verbs in set expressions may use the archaic preterite singular suffix {{lang|nci|-qui}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|iz cat-qui}} {{gloss|here it is, behold}}, {{lang|nci|iuh-qui}} {{gloss|it is thus}}.{{r|andrews|pp=52,95,146}}}}; the plural is formed on base 2 with the suffix {{lang|nci|-queh}} for all classes, without the {{lang|nci|-c}} suffix in class 1. It is similar in meaning to the English simple past or present perfect.  The preterite is often accompanied by the particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}, whose distribution and semantics are elaborated on below. E.g. {{lang|nci|ōnicoch}} 'I slept', {{lang|nci|ōtlatohqueh}} 'they spoke', {{lang|nci|ōnicchīuh}} 'I made it'.

In irregular verbs which lack a morphological present, the preterite is used with a present tense meaning, without the particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}. In these verbs, the morphological pluperfect is used to convey both the preterite and pluperfect.

==== Pluperfect ====
The '''pluperfect''' is formed on base 2, as in the preterite, with the suffix {{lang|nci|-ca}} in the singular and {{lang|nci|-cah}} in the plural. It roughly corresponds with the English past perfect, although more precisely it indicates that a particular action or state was in effect in the past but that it has been undone or reversed at the time of speaking. It is frequently accompanied by the particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|ōnicochca}} 'I had slept,' {{lang|nci|ōtlahtohcah}} 'they had spoken,' {{lang|nci|ōnicchīuhca}} 'I had made it.

==== Admonitive ====
The '''vetitive''' or '''admonitive''' is formed on base 2, identically to the preterite, except for class 1, which attaches {{lang|nci|-h}} and not {{lang|nci|-c}} to base 2. The plural is formed by attaching {{lang|nci|-tin}} or {{lang|nci|-tih}} to the singular.{{notetag |name=vetitive-cah-and-long-o |Launey states that the irregular verb {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to be}} and verbs ending in long {{lang|nci|ō}} may not form the admonitive, and instead must use the negative optative {{r|launey|p=225}}, while Andrews notes no such restriction and does provide admonitive forms for all such verbs.{{r|andrews|pp=86,95}}}} It issues a warning that something may come to pass which the speaker does not desire, and steps should be taken to avoid this (cf. the English conjunction ''lest''). The negative of this mood warns that a non-occurrence of the action is undesirable and is used as a strong imperative.{{r|launey|pp=224-226}} The admonitive is used in conjunction with the particles {{lang|nci|mā}} or {{lang|nci|mā nēn}}. E.g. {{lang|nci|mā nicoch}} 'be careful, lest I sleep', {{lang|nci|mā tlatohtin}} 'watch out, they may speak' {{lang|nci|mā nicchīuh}} 'don't let me make it'.

==== Future ====
The '''future''' is formed on base 3, with the suffix {{lang|nci|-z}} in the singular and {{lang|nci|-zqueh}} in the plural. In addition to its use as a simple future tense, it can function as a weak imperative in the second person, and may sometimes be translated as 'want to' or 'have to'. It is often used in constructions where the English infinitive would be used.{{r|launey|pp=82-83}} E.g. {{lang|nci|nicochiz}} 'I will sleep,' {{lang|nci|tlahtōzqueh}} 'they will speak', {{lang|nci|tiyāz}} {{gloss|you will go, you are to go}}.

==== Optative-Imperative ====
The '''optative-imperative''' is formed on base 3 with no suffix in the singular, shortening the final vowel, and the suffix {{lang|nci|-cān}} in the plural, preserving vowel length. This form uses the special subject prefixes {{lang|nci|x(i)-}} in the second person, where it may be called the '''imperative''', and the regular subject prefixes in all other persons, where it may be called the '''optative'''. The imperative is used for commands, the optative for wishes or desires, both often in conjunction with the particles {{lang|nci|mā}} and {{lang|nci|tlā}}.{{r|launey|pp=78-81}} E.g. {{lang|nci|mā nicchīhua}} 'may I make it!', {{lang|nci|xitlahtōcān}} {{gloss|speak! (you pl.)}}

==== Past Optative ====
The '''past optative''' is formed identically to the quotidian, but uses the optative second person subject prefix {{lang|nci|xi-}}. It is used to express a counterfactual situation that the speaker wishes were true but is not, usually in the [[Antecedent (grammar)|antecedent]] of a hypothetical conditional sentence, where the consequent is inflected in the conditional form described below. Example: ''In tlā tinocnīuh xiyeni, tinēchpalēhuīzquiya'' 'if only you were my friend, you would help me (but you are not)'.

==== Conditional ====
The '''conditional,''' '''irrealis''', or '''counterfactual''' is formed on the inflected ''future singular'' with the suffix {{lang|nci|-quiya}} in the singular and {{lang|nci|-quiyah}} in the plural. The basic meaning is that a state or action that was intended or desired did not come to pass. It can be translated as 'would have,' 'almost,' etc. Examples: {{lang|nci|nicochizquiya}} 'I would have slept,' {{lang|nci|tlahtōzquiyah}} 'they would have spoken,' {{lang|nci|nicchīhuazquiya}} 'I would have made it.'

====Summary of tense-aspect-mood inflection====
The fully inflected forms for verbs of all stem classes are summarized below, presented in the third person singular and plural in all forms except for the optative moods, which are presented with the second person prefixes. Forms with phonologically conditioned shortening of underlying long base vowels are marked in bold.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! colspan="2" | 1-S ({{lang|nci|chōca}})
! colspan="2" |1-L ({{lang|nci|temō}})
! colspan="2" | 2 ({{lang|nci|yōli}})
! colspan="2" | 3 ({{lang|nci|choloā}})
! colspan="2" | 4 ({{lang|nci|tlacuā}})
|-
! Number || Singular || Plural 
!Singular
!Plural|| Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
!Present
|{{lang|nci|chōca}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcah}}
|{{lang|nci|'''temo'''}}
|{{lang|nci|'''temoh'''}}
|{{lang|nci|yōli}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlih}}
|{{lang|nci|'''choloa'''}}
|{{lang|nci|'''choloah'''}}
|{{lang|nci|'''tlacua'''}}
|{{lang|nci|'''tlacuah'''}}
|-
!Imperfect
|{{lang|nci|chōcaya}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcayah}}
|{{lang|nci|temōya}}
|{{lang|nci|temōyah}}
|{{lang|nci|yōliya}}
|{{lang|nci|yōliyah}}
|{{lang|nci|choloāya}}
|{{lang|nci|choloāyah}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuāya}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuāyah}}
|-
!Quotidian
|{{lang|nci|chōcani}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcanih}}
|{{lang|nci|temōni}}
|{{lang|nci|temōnih}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlini}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlinih}}
|{{lang|nci|choloāni}}
|{{lang|nci|choloānih}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuāni}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuānih}}
|-
!Preterite
|{{lang|nci|chōcac}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcaqueh}}
|{{lang|nci|temōc}}
|{{lang|nci|temōqueh}}
|{{lang|nci|yōl}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlqueh}}
|{{lang|nci|choloh}}
|{{lang|nci|cholohqueh}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuah}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuahqueh}}
|-
!Pluperfect
|{{lang|nci|chōcaca}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcacah}}
|{{lang|nci|temōca}}
|{{lang|nci|temōcah}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlca}}
|{{lang|nci|yōlcah}}
|{{lang|nci|cholohca}}
|{{lang|nci|cholohcah}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuahca}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuahcah}}
|-
!Admonitive
|{{lang|nci|chōcah}}
|{{lang|nci|chōcahtin}}
|{{lang|nci|temoh}}
|{{lang|nci|temohtin}}
|{{lang|nci|yōl}}
|{{lang|nci|yōltin}}
|{{lang|nci|choloh}}
|{{lang|nci|cholohtin}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuah}}
|{{lang|nci|tlacuahtin}}
|-
! Future
|| {{lang|nci|chōcaz}} || {{lang|nci|chōcazqueh}} 
|{{lang|nci|temōz}}
|{{lang|nci|temōzqueh}}|| {{lang|nci|yōliz}} || {{lang|nci|yōlizqueh}} || {{lang|nci|cholōz}} || {{lang|nci|cholōzqueh}} || {{lang|nci|tlacuāz}} || {{lang|nci|tlacuāzqueh}}
|-
! Past Optative
|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)chōcani}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)chōcanih}} 
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)temōni}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)temōnih}}|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)yōlini}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)yōlinih}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)choloāni}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)choloānih}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)tlacuāni}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)tlacuāni}}
|-
! Optative-Imperative
|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)chōca}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)chōcacān}} 
|{{lang|nci|'''(xi-)temo'''}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)temōcān}}|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)yōli}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)yōlicān}} || {{lang|nci|'''(xi-)cholo'''}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)cholōcān}} || {{lang|nci|'''(xi-)tlacua'''}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)tlacuācān}}
|-
! Conditional
|| {{lang|nci|chōcazquiya}} || {{lang|nci|chōcazquiyah}} 
|{{lang|nci|temōzquiya}}
|{{lang|nci|temōzquiyah}}|| {{lang|nci|yōlizquiya}} || {{lang|nci|yōlizquiya}} ||  {{lang|nci|cholōzquiya}} || {{lang|nci|cholōzquiyah}} || {{lang|nci|tlacuāzquiya}} || {{lang|nci|tlacuāzquiyah}}
|-
|}

===Irregular verbs===
A number of irregular verbs exist, many of which are very common in the language. Irregular verbs may be either [[Defective verb|defective]], lacking certain inflections, or [[Suppletion|suppletive]], forming their inflectional paradigm with forms from the paradigms of distinct stems, or both suppletive and defective.

==== Defective verbs ====
The most common class of defective verbs are those in which the inflected present is missing, and its meaning is thus expressed by the preterite. The pluperfect in turn replaces the preterite and continues to be used as a pluperfect. In this preterite-as-present use, the particle {{lang|nci|ō-}} is not used. Common verbs in this class include {{lang|nci|cah}} "to be", {{lang|nci|on-o-c}} "to lie spread out, to be in a place, to remain", {{lang|nci|ihca-c}} "to stand, to remain", {{lang|nci|pilca-c}} "to be hanging", and any verbs derived from this class, which display the same defective behavior. These verbs are otherwise regular.

{{lang|nci|Huītz}} "to go" can be analyzed as {{lang|nci|huī-tz}}, being composed of the verb {{lang|nci|huī}} attached directly to the verb {{lang|nci|(i)tz}}, whose simplex form is unattested. It is used here to illustrate the irregular inflection of the small family of verbs including {{lang|nci|huī-tz}}, and the two verbs {{lang|nci|tlatqui-tz}} and {{lang|nci|tlahuīca-tz}} (both meaning "to go along carrying"), which all display the same irregularity. These forms likewise lack a present and use the preterite-as-present, but additionally also lack several common other common forms, which are likewise replaced with the preterite.

==== Suppletive verbs ====
The verbs {{lang|nci|cah/ye}} "to be" and {{lang|nci|yauh/huih}} "to go" draw their forms from two distinct stems. {{lang|nci|Cah}} is used only in the preterite(-as-present) and pluperfect, with {{lang|nci|ye}} used in all other forms. {{lang|nci|Yauh}} and related forms supply most of the forms of the singular, and {{lang|nci|huih}} the plural. {{lang|nci|Huāllauh}} is composed of the verb {{lang|nci|yauh}} with the directional prefix {{lang|nci|huāl-}}, the initial {{lang|nci|y-}} of the stem becoming {{lang|nci|l}} by regular progressive assimilation.

====Summary of irregular verbs====
The inflected forms of the common irregular verbs {{lang|nci|cah/ye}}, {{lang|nci|yauh/huih}}, {{lang|nci|huī-tz}}, and {{lang|nci|huāllauh}} are provided below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|cah}}
! colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huītz}}
! colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|yauh}}
! colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huāllauh}}
|-
! Number || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Base 1 || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|ye}} || colspan="2" | || {{lang|nci|yā/yauh}} || {{lang|nci|yā/huih}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huāllauh/huālhuih}}
|-
! Present
| colspan="2" {{n/a}} {{efn|group=v-irreg|name=no-present}} || colspan="2" {{n/a}} {{efn|group=v-irreg|name=no-present}} || {{lang|nci|yauh}} || {{lang|nci|huih}} || {{lang|nci|huāllauh}} || {{lang|nci|huālhuih}}
|-
! Imperfect
|| {{lang|nci|yeya}} || {{lang|nci|yeyah}} || colspan="2" rowspan="2" {{n/a}} || {{lang|nci|huiya/yāya}}{{efn|group=v-irreg|name=huiya-yaya}} || {{lang|nci|huiyah/yāyah}}{{efn|group=v-irreg|name=huiya-yaya}}|| {{lang|nci|huālhuiya}} || {{lang|nci|huālhuiyah}}
|-
! Quotidian
|| {{lang|nci|yeni}} || {{lang|nci|yenih}} || {{lang|nci|yāni}} || {{lang|nci|yānih}} || {{lang|nci|huāllāni}} || {{lang|nci|huāllānih}}
|-
! Base 2 || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|'''cah'''}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huītz}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|yah}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huāllah}}
|-
! Preterite
|| {{lang|nci|cah}} || {{lang|nci|cateh}} || {{lang|nci|huītz}} || {{lang|nci|huītzeh}} || {{lang|nci|yah}} || {{lang|nci|yahqueh}} || {{lang|nci|huāllah}} || {{lang|nci|huāllahqueh}}
|-
! Pluperfect
|| {{lang|nci|catca}} || {{lang|nci|catcah}} || {{lang|nci|huītza}} || {{lang|nci|huītzah}} || {{lang|nci|yahca}}|| {{lang|nci|yahcah}}|| {{lang|nci|huāllahca}} || {{lang|nci|huāllahcah}}
|-
! Admonitive
|| {{lang|nci|yeh}} || {{lang|nci|yehtin}} || colspan="2" {{n/a}} || {{lang|nci|yah}} || {{lang|nci|yahtin}} || {{lang|nci|huāllah}} || {{lang|nci|huāllahtin}}
|-
! Base 3
! colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|'''ye'''}} || colspan="2" | || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|yā}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|nci|huāllā}}
|-
! Future
|| {{lang|nci|yez}} || {{lang|nci|yezqueh}} || colspan="2" {{n/a}} || {{lang|nci|yāz}} || {{lang|nci|yāzqueh}} || {{lang|nci|huāllāz}} || {{lang|nci|huāllāzqueh}}
|-
! Optative-Imperative
|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)ye}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)yecān}} || colspan="2" {{n/a}} {{efn|group=v-irreg|name=huitz-optative}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)yauh}}|| {{lang|nci|(xi-)huiān}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)huāllauh}} || {{lang|nci|(xi-)huālhuiān}}
|-
!Past Optative
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)yeni}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)yenih}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" {{n/a}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)yāni}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)yāni}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)huāllāni}}
|{{lang|nci|(xi-)huāllānih}}
|-
! Conditional
|| {{lang|nci|yezquiya}} || {{lang|nci|yezquiyah}} ||  {{lang|nci|yāzquiya}} || {{lang|nci|yāzquiyah}} || {{lang|nci|huāllāzquiya}} || {{lang|nci|huāllāzquiyah}}
|-
|}
{{notelist|group=v-irreg|refs=
{{efn|group=v-irreg|name=no-present|The irregular verbs {{lang|nci|cah}} and {{lang|nci|huītz}} lack a morphological present, the present being expressed with the morphological preterite, and the preterite with the pluperfect.}}
{{efn|group=v-irreg|name=huiya-yaya|The regular imperfect {{lang|nci|yāya(h)}} was considered "less elegant" by ancient grammarians than the irregular {{lang|nci|huiya(h)}} and was less commonly used.}}
{{efn|group=v-irreg|name=huitz-optative|{{lang|nci|Huitz}} lacks a morphological optative, with the morphological preterite (functioning as present tense) being used in its place, {{em|without}} the typical optative second person subject prefix {{lang|nci|xi-}}.}}
}}

=== Transitivity ===
Verbs are either intransitive, taking only a subject, or [[Transitive verb|transitive]], taking both a subject and an object. A small class of [[Labile verb|ergative verbs]] are ''ambitransitive'', functioning either transitively or intransitively, as in {{lang|nci|teci}} "he grinds (something)", {{lang|nci|quiteci}} "he grinds it". Another small class of [[Unaccusative verb|unaccusative]] ambitransitive verbs ending in {{lang|nci|-hua}} exhibit a regular covariance of class and transitivity, being of class 1 when used intransitively, and class 2 transitively, i.e. {{lang|nci|ōnichipāhuac}} "I became clean", {{lang|nci|ōnicchipāuh}} "I cleaned it".

=== Transitive object marking ===
Transitive and bitransitive verbs take a distinct set of prefixes, after subject marking, but before the stem, to mark their objects. Verbs may mark multiple objects simultaneously, subject to some restrictions.

''1, 2, 3, S, P'' refer to the first, second, and third person in the singular and plural. Third person objects may be either animate (e.g. 'him') or inanimate (e.g. 'it'). ''R'' marks a ''reflexive'' object, the subject acting upon itself; or a ''reciprocal'' object, multiple entities acting on each other. Reflexive and reciprocal objects can only be used with subject marking of the same person and number, e.g. {{lang|nci|nino-}} {{gloss|I do to myself}}, {{lang|nci|mo}} {{gloss|it does to itself, they do to each other, etc.}} These are the ''referential'' objects, which have also been termed ''specific'' or ''definite''.{{r|andrews|pp=56-57}}{{r|launey|pp=28-29}} The constituent cross-referenced by a referential pronoun may, however, potentially be neither semantically [[Specificity (linguistics)|specific]] nor [[Definiteness|definite]] in some instances,{{r|sasaki-r-marking|pp=14,27-28}} e.g. {{lang|nci|ni'''c'''chīhuaz '''in tleh in ticnequiz'''}} {{gloss|I shall do ''whatever'' you want}}, {{lang|nci|ahmō '''itlah''' '''mo'''lcāhuaz}} {{gloss|''nothing'' is forgotten}}.

The ''nonreferential'' object pronouns, marked ''N-'', signal that the object of the verb cannot cross-reference and thereby agree in person and number marking with another coreferential constituent in the clause if one exists,{{r|sasaki-r-marking|pp=14,27-28}} an otherwise obligatory{{notetag|There are rare cases in which a referential prefix and its coreferential constituent appear to not agree in person and number.{{r|andrews|pp=611-613}}}} and pervasive feature of Classical Nahuatl syntax.{{r|andrews|pp=136-142}} The nonreferential pronouns mark the object as general, nonspecific people or things. The nonreferential objects have thus commonly been termed ''nonspecific'' or ''indefinite''. Nonreferential objects may be ''human'' marked ''H'', ''non-human'' marked ''NH'', or reflexive.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!
!S
!P
|-
!1
|{{lang|nci|-nēch-}} {{br}} {{gloss|me}}
|{{lang|nci|-tēch-}} {{br}} {{gloss|us}}
|-
!2
|{{lang|nci|-mitz-}} {{br}} {{gloss|you {{sc|SG}}}}
|{{lang|nci|-amēch-}} {{br}} {{gloss|you {{sc|PL}}}}
|-
!3
|{{lang|nci|-c-}}, {{lang|nci|-qui-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=c-qui}} {{br}} {{gloss|he, she, it}}
|{{lang|nci|-(qu)im-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=quim-assimilation}} {{br}} {{gloss|them}}
|-
!1-R
|{{lang|nci|-no-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=o-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|myself}}
|{{lang|nci|-to-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=o-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|ourselves, each other}}
|-
!2/3-R
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|-mo-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=o-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|your/him/her/itself, your/themselves, each other}}
|-
!N-H
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|-tē-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=te-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|someone, people}}
|-
!N-NH
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|-tla-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=tla-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|something, things}}
|-
!N-R
| colspan="2" |{{lang|nci|-ne-}}{{efn|group=objects|name=ne-eclipsis}} {{br}} {{gloss|oneself, each other}}
|}
{{notelist|group=objects|refs=
{{efn|group=objects|name=c-qui|This prefix gains the anaptyctic vowel {{lang|nci|i}} and takes the form {{lang|nci|-qui-}} if and only if the form {{lang|nci|-c-}} would create an illegal cluster, e.g. {{lang|nci|'''qui'''cua}} not {{lang|nci|*'''c'''cua}}, but {{lang|nci|ni'''c'''cua}} not {{lang|nci|*ni'''qui'''cua}}. The particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}, however, does not prevent the use of the {{lang|nci|-qui-}} form, e.g. {{lang|nci|ō'''qui'''cuah}}. Note also that the {{lang|nci|c}} variant of the prefix is subject to regular spelling alternations before the vowels {{lang|nci|e}} and {{lang|nci|i}}, being spelled {{lang|nci|-qu-}}.}}
{{efn|group=objects|name=quim-assimilation|As with the prefix {{lang|nci|-am-}}, this prefix only surfaces with final {{lang|nci|-m}} before vowels and the bilabial consonants {{lang|nci|m}} and {{lang|nci|p}}.}}
{{efn|group=objects|name=o-eclipsis|As with the possessive prefixes, these prefixes are always eclipsed by vowels other than short {{lang|nci|i}}. However, they eclipse {{lang|nci|i}} in verbs beginning in ''iCC'', e.g. {{lang|nci|ilpia}} — {{lang|nci|molpia}}, except for verbs beginning in ''ihC'', e.g. {{lang|nci|ihtōtia}} — {{lang|nci|mihtōtia}}.}}
{{efn|group=objects|name=tla-eclipsis|This prefix does not eclipse following vowels resulting in vowel hiatus, e.g. {{lang|nci|tlaī}}, except for short {{lang|nci|i}}, which it always eclipses, e.g. {{lang|nci|tlalpia}}.}}
{{efn|group=objects|name=te-eclipsis|This prefix never eclipses following vowels, e.g. {{lang|nci|tēilhuia}}.}}
{{efn|group=objects|name=ne-eclipsis|This prefix does not eclipse following vowels, resulting in vowel hiatus, e.g. {{lang|nci|neānalo}}, except short {{lang|nci|e}} or long {{lang|nci|ē}} and short {{lang|nci|i}}, which display variation in form even in the same verb, e.g. {{lang|nci|neēhualo}} or {{lang|nci|nēhualo}} and {{lang|nci|neittalo}} or {{lang|nci|nettalo}}.}}
}}

==== Distribution and order of object prefixes ====
Transitive verbs must always take an object prefix, whether referential or non-referential, if the object is unknown or unspecified. A number of inherently bitransitive verbs such as {{lang|nci|maca}} {{gloss|to give}}, and verbs with additional causative and applicative objects can have more than one object, but verbs may only index one non-reflexive referential object though the object prefixes, i.e. {{lang|nci|ni-mitz-tla-maca}} {{gloss|I give you something}}, {{lang|nci|ni-c-tē-maca}} {{gloss|I give it to people}}, but not {{lang|nci|*ni-mitz-qui-maca}} {{gloss|I give you it}}. The only exception to this prohibition against multiple non-reflexive referential object prefixes is the case where a non-third person object and a third person plural object are both indexed, with the third person plural prefix taking the shape {{lang|nci|-im-}}. There is no restriction against the co-occurrence of a referential and non-referential prefix, or multiple non-referential prefixes, as in some derived causatives or applicatives.

The prefixes occur in the following fixed order:
# referential object
# reduced third person plural object
# referential reflexive
# non-referential human
# non-referential non-human

The prefix {{lang|nci|-ne-}} only appears in reflexive verbs in the ''impersonal'', ''causative'', and ''applicative'', to be described below, and some nominalizations. Its placement is more complex and less fixed.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|top=Reduced third person plural object
|indent=3
|o{{=}}ti-nēch-im-maca-c
|ANT{{=}}2SG.S-1SG.O-3PL.O-give-PRET:SG
|{{gloss|You gave them (e.g. turkeys) to me}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|top=Referential and non-referential prefixes
|indent=3
|ni-c-tla-caquī-tia-Ø
|1SG.S-3SG.O-NREF.H.O-hear-CAUS-PRES:SG
|{{gloss|I cause him to hear something}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|top=Reflexive and non-reflexive objects
|indent=3
|ti-c-to-maca-h xōchi-tl
|1PL.S-3SG.O-1PL.R-give-PRES:PL flower-SG
|{{gloss|We give each other flowers}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|top=Human and non-human non-referential prefixes
|indent=3
|ti-tē-tla-pāca-ltia-Ø
|2SG.S-NREF.H.O-NREF.NH.O-wash-CAUS.PRES:SG
|{{gloss|You have someone wash something}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

=== Reflexive verbs ===
Any transitive verb may be made reflexive through the use of the reflexive object prefixes; some morphologically transitive verbs, however, are almost always only used reflexively, e.g. {{lang|nci|zahua}} in {{lang|nci|ninozahuaz}} {{gloss|I will fast (abstain from food)}}, or {{lang|nci|tlaloa}} in {{lang|nci|titotlalohqueh}} {{gloss|we ran}}. Other commonly used transitive verbs may be used transitively, but gain new or unexpected meanings when used reflexively, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|nicnequi}} {{gloss|I want it}} — {{lang|nci|monequi}} {{gloss|it wants itself, it is required}}
* {{lang|nci|nicchīhua}} {{gloss|I make, do it}} — {{lang|nci|mochīhua}} {{gloss|it makes itself, it happens, it becomes}}
* {{lang|nci|anquinnōtzazqueh}} {{gloss|you (pl) will summon them}} — {{lang|nci|monōtzazqueh}} {{gloss|they will converse with themselves deliberate, reflect}}.

Another common use of the reflexive is with a connotation like that of the passive, wherein an event is presented as happening spontaneously through a participant's acting on itself, backgrounding the true [[Agent (grammar)|agent]] of the verb where it may not be salient, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|mocua}} {{gloss|it eats itself — it is eaten}}
* {{lang|nci|mihtoāya}} {{gloss|it used to say itself — it was said}}
* {{lang|nci|titotolīniah}} {{gloss|we afflict, mistreat ourselves — we are poor, we suffer}}

=== Valency-changing operations ===
The number of arguments a verb takes is referred to as its [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]]. Verbs can be ''impersonal'', with 0 arguments, e.g. {{lang|nci|cepayahui}} {{gloss|it snows}}; ''intransitive'', with 1 argument, a subject, e.g. {{lang|nci|ni-chōca}} {{gloss|I cry}}; ''monotransitive'', with 2 arguments, a subject and on object, e.g. {{lang|nci|ni-mitz-itta}} {{gloss|I see you}}; or ''bitransitive'', with 3 arguments, a subject and 2 objects, e.g. {{lang|nci|ni-mitz-tla-maca}} {{gloss|I give something to you}}.

Classical Nahuatl verbs may change their valency through a number of morphological processes, decreasing it through [[Impersonal passive voice|impersonalization]] or [[Passive voice|passivization]], or increasing it through the addition of [[causative]] or [[Applicative voice|applicative]] objects.

==== Impersonal {{lang|nci|tla-}} ====
Some ''intransitive'' verbs with inanimate subjects may take the prefix {{lang|nci|tla-}} deriving an ''impersonal'' verb referring to a generalized, often natural phenomonenon, e.g.{{r|launey|pp=140-141}}
* {{lang|nci|huāqui}} {{gloss|it dries up}} —  {{lang|nci|tla-huāqui}} {{gloss|there is a drought}}
* {{lang|nci|celiya}} {{gloss|it becomes green}} —  {{lang|nci|tla-celiya}} {{gloss|everything (e.g. plants) becomes green}}
* {{lang|nci|nēci}} {{gloss|it becomes visible, appears}} —  {{lang|nci|tla-nēci}} {{gloss|everything becomes visible, appears — dawn breaks}}

In a limited number of cases, an already impersonal verb may be redundantly impersonalized, or the source intransitive verb may have an animate subject, e.g.{{r|andrews|pp=174-175}}
* {{lang|nci|yohua}} {{gloss|night approaches}} —  {{lang|nci|tla-yohua}} {{gloss|night approaches}}
* {{lang|nci|cuecuechca}} {{gloss|he trembles}} —  {{lang|nci|tla-cuecuechca}} {{gloss|there is trembling}}

==== Base 4 nonactive stem ====
More common and productive than the {{lang|nci|tla-}} impersonal is a process by which verbs are impersonalized or passivized through stem change. The shape a verb takes in these forms is known as the ''nonactive'' stem or ''base 4''. Its form is somewhat unpredictable, with some verbs having multiple attested forms, but it is generally derived by adding to the (base 1) imperfective stem one of the simple endings {{lang|nci|-ō}}, {{lang|nci|-lō}} or {{lang|nci|-hua}}, or one of the combinations {{lang|nci|-o-hua}}, {{lang|nci|-lo-hua}} or {{lang|nci|-hua-lō}},{{r|andrews|pp=160-164}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|tequi}} {{gloss|to cut}} — {{lang|nci|tec-ō}} {{gloss|to be cut}}
* {{lang|nci|cochi}} {{gloss|to sleep}} — {{lang|nci|cochī-hua}} {{gloss|one sleeps}}
* {{lang|nci|quetza}} {{gloss|to erect}} — {{lang|nci|quetza-lō}} {{gloss|to be erected}}

The rules governing the suffix added to a verb stem involve both its phonological shape and transitivity. The variants in {{lang|nci|-hua}} are most common for intransitive verbs, and {{lang|nci|-lō}} for transitive ones, whereas {{lang|nci|-lo-hua}} is suffixed only to a small number of irregular verbs. The stem final vowel may be lengthened, as with {{lang|nci|cochi}} — {{lang|nci|cochī-hua}}, and stem final {{lang|nci|z/c(e,i), t, tz}} may be palatalized to {{lang|nci|x, ch, ch}} respectively,{{r|launey|pp=139-140}} e.g. 
* {{lang|nci|ahci}} {{gloss|to arrive}} — {{lang|nci|ahxī-hua}} {{gloss|one arrives}}
* {{lang|nci|mati}} {{gloss|to know}} — {{lang|nci|mach-ō}} {{gloss|to be known}}
* {{lang|nci|huetzi}} {{gloss|to fall}} — {{lang|nci|huech-ō-hua}} {{gloss|one falls}}

In the case of the irregular compound verbs {{lang|nci|huī-tz}} {{gloss|come}}, and {{lang|nci|tla-(i)tqui-tz}} and {{lang|nci|tla-huīca-tz}} both meaning {{gloss|bring something}} {{lang|nci|-lo-hua}} is suffixed to the embedded verb, i.e. before {{lang|nci|-tz}}.
*{{lang|nci|huī-tz}} — {{lang|nci|huī-lo-hua-tz}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-tqui-tz}}  — {{lang|nci|itqui-lo-hua-tz}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-huīca-tz}} — {{lang|nci|huīca-lo-hua-tz}}

The nonactive stem of {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to be}} is {{lang|nci|yelohua}}.

==== Impersonal ====
Both intransitive and transitive verbs may be impersonalized through the use of the nonactive stem, deriving a verb with the meaning 'one does', 'people do' or sometimes 'everyone does'. Impersonal verbs take no subject agreement prefixes, and always use the singular endings. Intransitive verbs are directly impersonalized by the use of the nonactive stem, while transitive verbs must first fill their object prefix positions with the appropriate nonreferential prefixes before the use of the nonactive stem, and reflexive verbs take the nonreferential reflexive prefix {{lang|nci|ne-}},{{r|andrews|pp=170-175}}{{r|launey|pp=144-145}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|ni-cuīca}} {{gloss|I sing}} — {{lang|nci|cuīc-o}} {{gloss|there is singing}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-tla-cui}} {{gloss|I take something}} — {{lang|nci|tla-cuīl-o}} {{gloss|there is taking of things}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-tē-itta}} {{gloss|I see someone}} — {{lang|nci|tē-itta-lo}} {{gloss|there is seeing of people}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-tē-tla-maca}} {{gloss|I give things to people}} — {{lang|nci|tē-tla-mac-o}} {{gloss|there is a giving of things to people}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-no-zahua}} {{gloss|I fast}} — {{lang|nci|ne-zahua-lo}} {{gloss|there is fasting}}

==== Passive ====
Only transitive verbs can be passivized. The subject of the transitive verb is discarded, and its object becomes the subject of the passivized verb, which agrees with it in number. The rules governing argument marking are complex in passives of verbs with more than one object, such as inherently bitransitive verbs like {{lang|nci|tē-tla-maca}} {{gloss|to give}} and verbs with additional causative or applicative objects, but it is generally only the animate ''beneficiary'' or ''recipient'' object which may become the subject of the passivized verb, and additional objects prefixes are only present on the passivized verb if they were also present on active verb (i.e. they are nonreferential, or the 3p-object {{lang|nci|-quim-}}),{{r|andrews|pp=165-169}}{{r|launey|pp=178-183}} e.g.
*{{lang|nci|ti-nēch-āna}} {{gloss|you capture me}} — {{lang|nci|n-āno}} {{gloss|I am captured}}
*{{lang|nci|ti-nēch-maca}} {{gloss|you give me it}} — {{lang|nci|ni-maco}} {{gloss|I am given it}}
*{{lang|nci|ti-nēch-tla-maca}} {{gloss|you give me something}} — {{lang|nci|ni-tla-maco}} {{gloss|I am given something}}
*{{lang|nci|ti-nēch-in-cuīlia}} {{gloss|you take them from me}} — {{lang|nci|ni-quin-cuīlīlo}} {{gloss|I am deprived of them, someone takes them from me}}{{notetag|n=3pl-object-in-passives|The 3p-object prefix, contracted to {{lang|nci|-im-/in-}} after {{lang|nci|-nēch-}}, returns to its full form {{lang|nci|-quim/n-}} when a preceding object prefix is removed.}}

==== Applicative ====
The applicative construction adds an argument to the verb. The role of the added argument can be benefactive, malefactive, indirect object or similar. It is formed by the suffix {{lang|nci|-lia}}.
*{{lang|nci|niquittilia}} "I see it for him"

==== Causative ====
The causative construction adds an additional object to the verb. The subject of the source becomes an object of the causativized verb, the ''causee''; a new subject is introduced, the ''causer''; and the original object of a transitive source remains an object of the causativized verb, though often only one object is marked because of the prohibition against multiple referential object prefixes.

The formation of the causative is highly variable, and may involve replacement of the stem final vowel with short or long {{lang|nci|i}} or {{lang|nci|ī}}, palatalization of the final consonant of the stem (whereby ''c/z, t, tz'' become ''x, ch, ch'', respectively), the loss of a stem final vowel, the addition of the suffix {{lang|nci|-l-}}, a number of minor strategies, or a combination of these strategies, prior to the addition of the causative suffix'','' which is most commonly {{lang|nci|-tia}}, but may also be {{lang|nci|-lia}} or {{lang|nci|-huia}} in a smaller number of verbs. Many verbs are attested with multiple causatives formed on the different strategies described, and the causative(s) of each verb must be learned individually. Some common verbs and their causatives are:
*{{lang|nci|nēci}} "it appears" — {{lang|nci|nicnēxtia}} "I cause it to appear" (palatalization, loss of final {{lang|nci|i}}, {{lang|nci|-tia}})
*{{lang|nci|chōca}} "he cries" — {{lang|nci|nicchōquiltia}} "I cause him to cry" (replacement of vowel with {{lang|nci|i}}, addition of {{lang|nci|-l-}}, {{lang|nci|-tia}})
*{{lang|nci|tlācati}} "it is born" — {{lang|nci|nictlācatilia}} "I cause it to be born" ({{lang|nci|-lia}})

=== Directional prefixes ===
Two prefixes indicate direction of motion relative to a reference point, usually the speaker but sometimes another point.{{r|launey|pp=51-54}}{{r|andrews|pp=72-73}}
*{{lang|nci|-on-}} {{gloss|motion away}}
*{{lang|nci|-huāl-}} {{gloss|motion towards}}

The directional prefixes immediately follow the referential object prefixes and immediately precede the referential reflexive prefixes. When preceding the third person singular object prefix {{lang|nci|-c-}} and the directional prefix {{lang|nci|-on-}}, the combinations {{lang|nci|*nicon-}}, {{lang|nci|*ticon-}}, {{lang|nci|*xicon-}} become {{lang|nci|nocon-}}, {{lang|nci|tocon-}}, {{lang|nci|xocon-}} respectively.

The prefixes are common on verbs of motion, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|nonēhua}} {{gloss|I depart from here}} — {{lang|nci|nihuālehua}} {{gloss|I depart from there coming here}}
* {{lang|nci|tonhuih}} {{gloss|we go away}} — {{lang|nci|tihuālhuih}} {{gloss|we come}}
* {{lang|nci|oncholoah}} {{gloss|they flee away}} — {{lang|nci|huālcholoah}} {{gloss|they flee hither}}

They may also be used on non-motion verbs with the meaning "go/come and" or "go/come in order to", or to indicate the direction towards which an action is directed, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|noconitta}} {{gloss|I go there to see it}}
* {{lang|nci|huāllahtoah}} {{gloss|they speak in this direction}}

The defective, preterite-as-present verb {{lang|nci|*o-c}} {{gloss|to be, lie in a place}} is always used with the prefix {{lang|nci|-on-}} (except when head of a verbal compound), i.e. {{lang|nci|on-o-c}} {{gloss|it is there}}. The irregular verb {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to be}} in combination with the prefix {{lang|nci|on-}} may indicate either location or existence, e.g. {{lang|nci|oncateh}} {{gloss|they exist, they are (at a location)}}.

=== Direction of motion suffixes ===
Two sets of suffixes may be attached to base 3 (the future stem{{notetag |name=andrews-purposive-z |These forms can occasionally, in texts "not noted for stylistic quality" directly embed the future singular with the {{lang|nci|z}} suffix. {{r|andrews|p=251}}}}) of a verb indicating the direction of motion. These have a more literal directional meaning than the prefixes, and are often translated as "come/go to in order to do" and thus have also been termed ''purposive'' suffixes. The ''inbound'' or ''introvert'' series marks the subject arriving or coming, while the ''outbound'' or ''extrovert'' marks the subject as leaving or going. Each series only inflects for three forms: the past, the non-past, which can refer either to the present or the future, and the optative.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
!Singular
!Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" |Introvert
!Past
|{{lang|nci|-co}}
|{{lang|nci|-coh}}
|-
!Non-Past
|{{lang|nci|-qīuh}}{{notetag|name=quiuh-vowel-length|Andrews and Launey disagree as to the length of the vowel in this form. Andrews marks it uniformly long {{r|andrews|p=257}}, while Launey notes it as short unlike in the extrovert.{{r|launey|p=227}}}}
|{{lang|nci|-qīuhuih}}
|-
!Optative
|{{lang|nci|-qui}}
|{{lang|nci|-quih}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |Extrovert
!Past
|{{lang|nci|-to}}
|{{lang|nci|-toh}}
|-
!Non-Past
|{{lang|nci|-tīuh}}
|{{lang|nci|-tīhuih}}
|-
!Optative
|{{lang|nci|-ti}}
|{{lang|nci|-tih}} or {{lang|nci|-tin}}
|}

=== Verbal compounds ===
Verbs, unlike nouns, generally cannot freely combine. A small class of ''embedding'' verbs, however, may form compounds with an ''embedded'' verb stem of a shape determined by the embedding or ''matrix'' verb. Two major classes of matrix verb exist, those that categorize for an embedded base 2 stem (the '''perfective stem''') followed by the ligature {{lang|nci|-t(i)-}}, and those that categorize for a verb inflected in the '''future singular''' with no ligature. In both cases, the two verbs form a single compound that shares subject, object, and tense-aspect-mood marking. The valency changing operations, however, which create new stems, may individually target either the embedded stem, the matrix stem, or both in some cases.

Verbal compounds are used to convey a variety of aspectual and modal distinctions in addition to those marked by the usual inflectional paradigm.

==== Perfective embedding verbs ====
These form the largest class of embedding  verbs. The perfective stem of the embedded verb is immediately followed by the ligature {{lang|nci|-t(i)-}}, whose vowel disappears before vowel-initial matrix verbs such as {{lang|nci|-oc}} and {{lang|nci|-ehua}}, and then the matrix verb itself. The verb {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to be}} takes the embedded form {{lang|nci|ye-}}, and the verb {{lang|nci|itta}} {{gloss|to see}} the form {{lang|nci|itz-}}.{{notetag|n=itz-connecting-form|The intransitive counterpart of {{lang|nci|itta}}, {{lang|nci|ithui}} {{gloss|to be seen}} takes the same embedding form {{lang|nci|itz-}} but is distinguished by its lack of an object prefix. Additionally, there is another intransitive verb {{lang|nci|itz-}} {{gloss|to be awake}}, usually found as reduplicated {{lang|nci|ihitz-}}.{{r|launey|p=281}}}} A non-exhaustive list of common perfective embedding verbs is presented below, separated into the embedded verb and its prefixes, the ligature, and the matrix verb.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Matrix verb
!Gloss
!Embedding meaning
|-
|{{lang|nci|-cah}} 
|{{gloss|be}}
|to be doing (progressive), to be in a state (stative)
|-
|{{lang|nci|-oc}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=oc}}
|{{gloss|lie spread out}}
|to remain in a state (stative), to do lying down, spread out
|-
|{{lang|nci|-yauh/-uh}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=yauh}}
|{{gloss|go}}
|to go along doing
|-
|{{lang|nci|-huāllauh}}
|{{gloss|come}}
|to come doing
|-
|{{lang|nci|-huītz}}
|{{gloss|come}}
|to come doing
|-
|{{lang|nci|-ēhua}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=ehua}}
|{{gloss|depart, rise}}
|to begin doing, to do quickly, to do and leave
|-
|{{lang|nci|-ihcac}}
|{{gloss|stand}}
|to stand doing
|-
|{{lang|nci|-nemi}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=pluperfect-as-preterite}}
|{{gloss|live, go along}}
|to continue doing, repeat (iterative), to spend one's time doing
|-
|{{lang|nci|-mani}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=pluperfect-as-preterite}}
|{{gloss|spread out}}
|to happen over a broad spatial expanse
|-
|{{lang|nci|-huetzi}}
|{{gloss|fall}}
|to do suddenly
|-
|{{lang|nci|-mo-mana}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=embedded-reflexive}}
|{{gloss|spread oneself out}}
|to enter a state (inchoative)
|-
|{{lang|nci|-mo-tlālia}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=embedded-reflexive}}
|{{gloss|seat oneself}}
|to begin
|-
|{{lang|nci|-mo-tēca}}{{efn|group=perfective-embedding|name=embedded-reflexive}}
|{{gloss|lay oneself down}}
|to begin
|}

{{notelist|perfective-embedding|refs=
{{efn|name=oc|This is the same verb as {{lang|nci|on-o-c}} without the directional prefix. It is defective, lacking a present tense, using the preterite-as-present and pluperfect-as-preterite, cited here in the preterite.}}
{{efn|name=yauh|In the present singular, this takes the form {{lang|nci|-uh}}. The sequences {{lang|nci|ti-yā}}, {{lang|nci|ti-yah}} can optionally be elided to {{lang|nci|tā}}, {{lang|nci|tah}}.}}
{{efn|name=ehua|As a matrix verb, {{lang|nci|ēhua}} may be of either class 1 or 2.}}
{{efn|name=pluperfect-as-preterite|These verbs generally use the pluperfect in place of the preterite.}}
{{efn|name=embedded-reflexive|These are reflexivized transitive verbs which function essentially as intransitive verbs for the purpose of embedding. They always take the reflexive prefix {{lang|nci|-mo-}} {{em|even}} in the first person. When embedding {{em|transitive}} verbs, these forms may be used {{em|without}} the reflexive prefix, sharing the transitive object with the embedded verb.}}
}}
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Ø-tla-cuah-ti-cat-eh
|3PL.S-NREF.NH.O-eat-L-be-PRET:PL
|{{gloss|They are eating}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Ø-coch-t-o-queh
|3PL.S-sing-L-lie-PRET:PL
|{{gloss|They lie sleeping}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|ni-cuīca-t-ā-z
|1SG.S-sing-L-go-FUT:SG
|{{gloss|I will go along singing}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Ø-tōna-ti-uh
|3SG.S-make.heat-L-go-PRES:SG
|{{gloss|The sun, the one that goes along making heat}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|ti-c-cāhua-t-ēhua-zqueh
|1PL.S-3SG.O-leave-L-depart-FUT:PL
|{{gloss|We shall leave it and depart}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Ø-cuepōn-ti-mo-tlālia-Ø in huēi citlāl-in
|3SG.S-bloom-L-REFL-seat-PRES:SG IN great star-SG
|{{gloss|The great star begins to bloom, to shine — the morning star becomes visible}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|ni-qu-ēhua-ti-tlālia-Ø
|1SG.S-3SG.O-raise-L-seat-PRES:SG
|{{gloss|I raise him up into a sitting position}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

The stem {{lang|nci|cac}} {{gloss|to be quiet, abandoned, deserted}} only appears embedded in a matrix verb. The stem {{lang|nci|itz}} {{gloss|to go, head toward}} normally only found {{lang|nci|huī-tz}} and related verbs is also often found embedded. Embedding may apply recursively, e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Ø-cac-t-ihca-c in ā-l-tēpe-tl
|3SG.S-be.abandoned-L-stand-PRET:SG IN water-L-mountain-SG
|{{gloss|The town lies deserted}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear|indent=3
|Tlacōpam-pa Ø-itz-ti-yah-queh
|Tlacōpan-DIR 3PL.S-head.toward-L-go-PRET:PL
|{{gloss|They left in the direction of Tlacōpan (Tacuba)}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}
{{interlinear|indent=3
|top=Recursive embedding{{r|launey|p=280}}
|iuhqu{{=}}in āyahui-tl tlāl-pan Ø-ahci-ti-mo-tēca-t-o-c in miqu-iz-tli
|be.like{{=}}IN fog-SG earth-LOC 3SG.S-arrive-L-REFL-lay.down-L-lie-PRET:SG IN die-NMLZ-SG
|{{gloss|Death lay spread out like a fog over the earth}}
}}

==== Future embedding verbs ====
Two verbs, {{lang|nci|-nequi}} and {{lang|nci|*-quiya}}, select an embedded verb in the future singular. The verb {{lang|nci|nequi}} may be used independently with the meaning 'to need' or 'to want', and when it embeds a future verb, it may mean 'to want to do' or 'to be about to', 'to be on the verge of',{{r|launey|p=290}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|niquitta}} {{gloss|I see it}} — {{lang|nci|niquittaznequi}} {{gloss|I wish to see it}}
* {{lang|nci|ye tlamiz}} {{gloss|it will soon end}} — {{lang|nci|ye tlamiznequi in xihuitl}} {{gloss|the year wants to end — the year is about to end}}
* {{lang|nci|tāpīzmiquih}} {{gloss|we are dying of starvation}} — {{lang|nci|tāpīzmiquiznequih}} {{gloss|we are on the verge of dying of starvation}}.

The resulting compound verb may be inflected as with any other verb, e.g. {{lang|nci|niquittaznec}} {{gloss|I wanted to see it}}. This construction may only be used to describe the subject wanting itself to perform the action; a [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]] construction is used when the subject of the desired action and the subject who desires the action to occur are different. A common collocation is the compound {{lang|nci|quihtōznequi}} {{gloss|it means it, it refers to it}} ({{literal translation|it wants to say it}}, cf. Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|querer decir|quiere decir}}).

The stem {{lang|nci|*-quiya}} never appears without an embedded future verb. When embedding another verb, it forms the construction commonly referred to as the ''conditional'' or the ''counterfactual''.

=== Noun Incorporation ===
[[Incorporation (linguistics)|Noun incorporation]] is productive in Classical Nahuatl and nouns with a variety of semantic functions can be incorporated. The noun stem is incorporated without its absolutive suffix, directly preceding the verb stem and following any verbal prefixes.{{r|andrews|p=260}}

====Object incorporation====
Transitive verbs may incorporate a direct object, which must generally be indefinite and nonspecific. The verb thus lowers its valency, transitive verbs becoming intransitive and bitransitive verbs becoming monotransitive, deriving a verb signifying the general 'grouping together of the verb and object [as] a meaningful totality',{{r|launey|pp=170-174,184}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|nicchīhua cactli}} {{gloss|I make shoes}} — {{lang|nci|ni-cac-chīhua}} {{gloss|I shoe-make}}
* {{lang|nci|nictēmaca xōchitl}} {{gloss|I give people flowers}} — {{lang|nci|nitē-xōchi-maca}} {{gloss|I flower-give people, I gift people with flowers}}
* {{lang|nci|nimitztēmolia xōchitl}} {{gloss|I seek flowers for you}} — {{lang|nci|nimitz-xōchi-tēmolia}} {{gloss|I flower-seek for you}}

====Modifying incorporation====
Verbs of any valence may incorporate a noun with a wide range of semantic functions, leaving its valency unchanged. The incorporated noun may be an ''instrument'', ''comparison'', ''cause'', ''place'', ''time'', or ''part''{{r|launey|p=173}} {{r|andrews|pp=263-270}}, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|ō-tle-huāc}} {{gloss|it became dry by means of fire}} from {{lang|nci|tle-tl}} {{gloss|fire}}, {{lang|nci|huāqui}} {{gloss|become dry}}
* {{lang|nci|xōchi-cuepōni in nocuīc}} {{gloss|my song blossoms like a flower}} from {{lang|nci|xōchi-tl}} {{gloss|flower}}, {{lang|nci|cuepōni}} {{gloss|blossom}}
* {{lang|nci|n-ā-miqui}} {{gloss|I am thirsty}} {{literal translation|die because of (lack of) water}} from {{lang|nci|ā-tl}} {{gloss|water}}, {{lang|nci|miqui}} {{gloss|die}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-cuauh-tlehco}} {{gloss|I climb trees}} from {{lang|nci|cuahu-itl}} {{gloss|tree}}, {{lang|nci|tlehco}} {{gloss|ascend}}
* {{lang|nci|mo-cenxiuh-zauhqueh}} {{gloss|they fasted for a year}} from {{lang|nci|cen-xihu-itl}} {{gloss|one year}}, {{lang|nci|mo-zahua}} {{gloss|fast}}
* {{lang|nci|ni-mā-cepōhuac}} {{gloss|I become numb at my hand}} from {{lang|nci|no-mā}} {{gloss|my hand}}, {{lang|nci|cepōhua}} {{gloss|become numb}}

==Relational nouns and locatives==
As with many languages of the [[Mesoamerican linguistic area]], locative expressions in Classical Nahuatl are often formed with possessed [[relational nouns]], many transparently derived from body part nouns, e.g. {{lang|nci|n-ihti-c}} {{gloss|inside me}} from {{lang|nci|n-ihti}} {{gloss|my stomach}}. Many categories expressed using adpositions or case in other languages (e.g. 'with', 'for', 'because of') are likewise expressed with possessed relational nouns, e.g. {{lang|nci|no-huān}} {{gloss|with me}}. Productive processes exist deriving locative expressions from verbs, and locatives can be incorporated into verb and nominal compounds. Some relational nouns may likewise incorporate noun stems, forming complex locatives, e.g. {{lang|nci|cal-ihti-c}} {{gloss|inside the house}}. Some frequent relational nouns include:
{{columns-list|colwidth=width|
* {{lang|nci|-huān}} {{gloss|together with, in the company of}}
* {{lang|nci|-pan}} {{gloss|on top of, above, in the time of}}
* {{lang|nci|-ca}} {{gloss|by means of}}
* {{lang|nci|-tech}} {{gloss|on the surface of, concerning, belonging to}}
* {{lang|nci|-pal}} {{gloss|by the grace of, thanks to}}
* {{lang|nci|-huīc}} {{gloss|towards}}
* {{lang|nci|-cpac}} {{gloss|on top of, on the surface of}}
* {{lang|nci|-tlan}} {{gloss|under, beside, near, at}}
* {{lang|nci|-tlah}} {{gloss|area with an abundance of}}
* {{lang|nci|-tēn-co}} {{gloss|at the edge of}} {{literal translation|at the lip/mouth of}}
* {{lang|nci|-yōlloh-co}} {{gloss|in the middle of}} {{literal translation|in the heart of}}
* {{lang|nci|-īx-co}} {{gloss|in front of, in the presence of}} {{literal translation|at the face/eyes of}}
}}

The degree to which relational forms may be analyzed as nominal in nature differs, with some transparently derived from nouns and able to appear with the absolutive suffix, e.g. {{lang|nci|tzālan-tli}} {{gloss|between, area between}}, and some more ambiguous, having been analyzed variously as nouns with a phonologically null absolutive suffix, or as true locative suffixes, e.g. the ubiquitous form {{lang|nci|-c(o)}}.{{r|launey|pp=116}}{{r|andrews|pp=463-466}} Some locatives do not appear to be derived from relational nouns, e.g. {{lang|nci|nicān}} {{gloss|here}}, {{lang|nci|oncān}} {{gloss|there (middle)}}, {{lang|nci|ōmpa}} {{gloss|there (distal)}}.{{r|sasaki-locatives}}

Andrews identifies 4 behaviors that a relational noun may display:{{r|andrews|pp=446-447}}
# It may be possessed, e.g. {{lang|nci|no-pan}} {{gloss|on me, above me}}
# It may embed a noun, optionally possessed, e.g. {{lang|nci|to-cāl-tzālan}} {{gloss|between our houses}}
# It may embed a noun with the ligature {{lang|nci|-t(i)-}}, optionally possessed, e.g. {{lang|nci|no-cal-ti-tlan}} {{gloss|near my house}}
# It may be further embedded in a nominal compound or a verb, e.g. {{lang|nci|tlāl-lan-calli}} {{gloss|underground house, cellar}}.

Many relational nouns allow more than one behavior.

===Path-neutrality===
Classical Nahuatl locatives are ''path-neutral'', that is, they identify that a constituent is a place and not a thing, but not the presence or absence of motion, or its direction relative to the location. As such, a locative may be ambiguous between a source of motion, a goal, or the location of an event, with 'the spatial role of a locative disambiguated by virtue of other clues such as the lexical meaning of the verb, the translocative/cislocative directional prefix attached to the verb stem, the spatial relationship between the speaker and the location which the locative denotes, etc.',{{r|sasaki-locatives|p=294}}{{r|launey|p=47}} e.g.
{{interlinear|number=(7)
|top=Locative as location of event
|{in īc} Ø-quim-ihcal-queh Mēxihca-h {in Españoles} {in nicān} Mēxih-co
|{IN when} 3PL.S-3PL.O-fight-PRET:PL Mexica-PL {IN Spaniards:PL} {IN here.LOC} Mexico-LOC
|{{gloss|When the Aztecs fought with the Spaniards here '''in Mexico'''}}
}}
{{interlinear|number=(8)
|top=Locative as source of motion
|{in ihcuāc} Ø-choloh-queh Mēxih-co
|{IN when} 3PL.S-escape-PRET:PL Mexico-LOC
|{{gloss|When they escaped '''from Mexico'''}}
}}
{{interlinear|number=(9)
|top=Locative as goal of motion
|{in quēn} {in ī-tītlan-huān} Motēuczōma Ø-huāl-mo-cuep-queh {in nicān} Mēxih-co
|{IN how} {IN 3SG.P-messenger-PL} Motēuczōma 3PL.S-CISL-REFL-return-PRET:PL {IN here.LOC} Mexico-LOC
|{{gloss|How Motēuczōma's messengers came back here '''to Mexico'''}}
}}

== Derivational processes ==
There exist a variety of strategies and morphological devices in Classical Nahuatl for deriving words of one part of speech from a stem or inflected word of another. Derivation can apply recursively, potentially creating long and derivationally complex forms. While many derivational devices are highly productive, some derived forms have unpredictable meanings, and some derivational strategies are no longer productive, applying only to a closed set of stems.

=== Derived nouns ===
A common and productive source of derived nouns is the nominalization of verbs. Morphologically verbal forms may be nominalized through reanalysis as a noun, and in many cases a nominalized verb is formally identical to its verb source. Other processes derive fully nominal stems which may participate directly in the full breadth of Classical Nahuatl nominal morphology.

==== Preterite agent ====
Verbs in the ''preterite'' may be reanalyzed as agentive nouns, referring to the person or thing that carries out the action, e.g. {{lang|nci|titlahcuilohqueh}} {{gloss|we wrote things — we are scribes}}, {{lang|nci|tēchōctih}} {{gloss|it caused people to cry — it is a lamentable thing}}. The nonreferential object prefixes replace the referential ones in transitive verbs. While such forms are frequently formally identical to verbs, singular forms may take the archaic preterite ending {{lang|nci|-qui}}, rarely present in non-nominalized verbs, e.g. {{lang|nci|mauhqui}} {{gloss|he became afraid — he is a coward}} (compare {{lang|nci|ōmauh}} {{gloss|he has become afraid}}). Some verbs permit nominalizations with or without the ending {{lang|nci|-qui}} with a difference in meaning, forms with {{lang|nci|-qui}} generally referring to animate entities, e.g. {{lang|nci|tēchōctihqui}} {{gloss|he caused people to cry — he is a lamentable person}}. Some plural forms may require reduplication of the verb stem as with some nouns, e.g. {{lang|nci|mīmicqueh}} {{gloss|they are dead people}} (compare {{lang|nci|micqueh}} {{gloss|they died}}).{{r|launey|pp=159-160}}

When possessed or subject to further compounding, incorporation, or derivation, the nominalized preterite takes a special form sometimes known as the ''general use-stem'', attaching the suffix {{lang|nci|-cā}} to the base 2 ''perfective stem'', e.g. {{lang|nci|totlahcuilohcā-uh}} {{gloss|our scribe}}, {{lang|nci|miccā-cuīcatl}} {{gloss|song for the dead}}. {{r|andrews|pp=319-326}}

==== Nouns of ownership in {{lang|nci|-eh}}, {{lang|nci|-huah}}, and {{lang|nci|-yoh}} ====
The suffixes {{lang|nci|-eh}}, {{lang|nci|-huah}}, and {{lang|nci|-yoh}} attach to nouns, deriving a noun with the meaning 'one who owns ...' from the suffixes {{lang|nci|-eh}} and {{lang|nci|-huah}}, and 'one who owns abundantly, characteristically, or is covered in ...' from the suffix {{lang|nci|-yoh}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|ninacaceh}} {{gloss|I am an ear-owner — I am prudent}} from {{lang|nci|nacaz-tli}} {{gloss|ears}}; {{lang|nci|āxcāhuah}} {{gloss|one who has property}} from {{lang|nci|āxcā-itl}} {{gloss|property}}; {{lang|nci|tēnyoh}} {{gloss|one who abundantly owns words — famous}} from {{lang|nci|tēn-tli}} {{gloss|lips, mouth, words}}. The suffixes {{lang|nci|-eh}} and {{lang|nci|-huah}} are synonymous variants of one another; consonant-final nouns stems generally select {{lang|nci|-eh}}, and vowel-final stems {{lang|nci|-huah}}, with some exceptions. The suffix {{lang|nci|-yoh}} is subject to progressive assimilation following consonant-final stems, e.g. {{lang|nci|citlālloh}} {{gloss|starry}} from {{lang|nci|citlāl-in}} {{gloss|star}}.{{r|launey|pp=100-103}}

Though almost always translated as nouns, the forms {{lang|nci|-eh}}, {{lang|nci|-huah}}, and {{lang|nci|-yoh}} are in fact verbs in the preterite, nominalized as agentive nouns through the process described above. Traces of their verbal origin can however be seen in their plural formation in {{lang|nci|-queh}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|tinacacehqueh}} {{gloss|we are prudent}}, their use of the ''general-use stem'' when possessed or in compounds as with other nominalized preterite agents, and their ability to be embedded by perfective-embedding verbs, e.g. {{lang|nci|nicitlāllohtihcac}} {{gloss|I stand covered in, among stars}}.{{r|andrews|pp=329-334}}

==== {{lang|nci|-ni}} active customary agent ====
Verbs in the {{lang|nci|-ni}} form, also called the ''habitual'', ''customary'', or ''quotidian'', may function as nouns with the meaning 'one who customarily does ...' or 'one who is given to ...', describing a trait or quality, e.g. {{lang|nci|nimiquini}} {{gloss|I am given to dying — I am mortal}}, {{lang|nci|[[tlahtoāni]]}} {{gloss|he customarily speaks — he is speaker for, ruler of an [[āltepētl]]}}, {{lang|nci|cuīcani}} {{gloss|one who sings — singer}}. The referential object prefixes are generally not used with nominalizations of the {{lang|nci|-ni}} form, the non-referential object prefixes being used instead. The plural of this form may be in either {{lang|nci|-h}} as with verbs, or {{lang|nci|-meh}} as with nouns, with a slight difference in nuance, the verbal plural implying a 'characteristic or habit' and the nominal one '[membership in] a group or category of people who have this characteristic'.{{r|launey|pp=161-163}}

The meaning of the {{lang|nci|-ni}} form may be similar to that of the preterite agent, and in some cases, the plural is built on the nominalization of the corresponding preterite form, as with {{lang|nci|tlahtohqueh}}, the plural of {{lang|nci|tlahtoāni}}, or {{lang|nci|tlahcuilohqueh}}, the plural of {{lang|nci|tlahcuiloāni}}. The {{lang|nci|-ni}} agent cannot generally participate in nominal morphology (e.g. being possessed, compounding), and the ''general-use stem'' of the corresponding preterite agent must be used instead, e.g. {{lang|nci|to-tlahtoh-cā-uh}} {{gloss|our speaker}}.{{notetag|n=fully-nominal-ni-agent |Occasionally, this form may be treated as a fully nominal stem, taking an absolutive suffix, e.g. {{lang|nci|nicuīcani-tl}} {{gloss|I am a singer}} (uncommon except in archaic or poetic texts), a possessive suffix, e.g. {{lang|nci|to-tlamatini-uh}} {{gloss|our wise man}}, or participating directly in nominal compounds, e.g. {{lang|nci|cuīcani-tōtōtl}} {{gloss|songbird}}. {{r|andrews|pp=340-341}}}}

==== {{lang|nci|-ni}} passive patients and impersonal instruments ====
A ''passivized'' verb in the {{lang|nci|-ni}} form functions as a noun meaning 'entity capable or worthy of being ...', e.g. {{lang|nci|īhuani}} {{gloss|it is customarily drunk — potable}} from {{lang|nci|īhua}} {{gloss|it is drunk}}, passive of {{lang|nci|ī}} {{gloss|to drink}}; {{lang|nci|tecōni}} {{gloss|it is customarily cut — cuttable}} from {{lang|nci|tecō}} {{gloss|it is cut}}, passive of {{lang|nci|tequi}} {{gloss|to cut}}.

An ''impersonalized''  verb in the {{lang|nci|-ni}} form functions as a noun meaning 'instrument by means of which an action is carried out', e.g. {{lang|nci|tlatecōni}} {{gloss|(instrument by means of which) people customarily cut things — cutting tool, knife}} from {{lang|nci|tlatecō}} {{gloss|there is a general cutting of things}}, impersonal of {{lang|nci|tequi}} {{gloss|to cut}}. These nouns may be possessed, using the ''impersonal imperfect'' as the possessive stem, e.g. {{lang|nci|notlatequiya}} {{gloss|my knife}}.{{r|andrews|pp=344-347}}{{r|launey|pp=164-165}}

==== Action nominalizations in {{lang|nci|-(li)z-tli}} ====
The suffixes {{lang|nci|-ztli}} and {{lang|nci|-liztli}} attach to verbs, deriving nouns with the meaning 'the action, process, or state of ...', e.g. {{lang|nci|cochi-ztli}} {{gloss|sleep}} from {{lang|nci|cochi}} {{gloss|to sleep}}, {{lang|nci|temō-liztli}} {{gloss|an act of descending, descent}} from {{lang|nci|temō}} {{gloss|to descend}}. The variant {{lang|nci|-ztli}} is generally only selected by intransitive verbs ending in short {{lang|nci|-i}}, though many verbs which select {{lang|nci|-ztli}} may also take {{lang|nci|-liztli}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|miquiztli}} ''or'' {{lang|nci|miquiliztli}} {{gloss|death}} from {{lang|nci|miqui}} {{gloss|to die}}.{{r|andrews|p=354-355}}{{notetag |name=ztli-liztli | It may have been the case that formerly, {{lang|nci|-ztli}} selected intransitive verbs and {{lang|nci|-liztli}} transitive ones, but the {{lang|nci|-liztli}} variant was generalized to all verbs by the Classical period.{{r|launey|p=306}}}} The suffixes generally attach to base 3 (the future base) of the verb, meaning long vowels are retained, and class 3 verbs lose their final {{lang|nci|-ā}} and lengthen the penult. Verbs ending in {{lang|nci|-ca}} and {{lang|nci|-hua}} may replace the final vowel with {{lang|nci|i}} prior to attaching the suffixes, e.g. {{lang|nci|cuīquiztli}} {{gloss|act of singing}} from {{lang|nci|cuīca}} {{gloss|to sing}}, and verbs ending in {{lang|nci|-ci}} and {{lang|nci|-ti}} may palatalize the final consonants to {{lang|nci|-xi}} and {{lang|nci|-chi}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|cualnēxiliztli}} {{gloss|beauty, grace}} from {{lang|nci|cualnēci}} {{gloss|to appear beautiful}}.

Transitive verbs must use the nonreferential object prefixes, and reflexive verbs use the nonreferential reflexive {{lang|nci|ne-}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|tētlazohtlaliztli}} {{gloss|love, charity, hospitality}} from {{lang|nci|tētlazohtla}} {{gloss|to love someone}}; {{lang|nci|neēhualiztli}} {{gloss|act of rising from bed}} from {{lang|nci|mēhua}} {{gloss|to raise oneself, to rise (from bed)}}. Rarely, intransitive or transitive stems (without nonreferential object prefixes) may take {{lang|nci|-ztli}} and {{lang|nci|-liztli}}, deriving a patient noun with the meaning 'an entity capable or worthy of being ...', e.g. {{lang|nci|mahuiztli}} {{gloss|someone worthy of fear — someone honored}} from {{lang|nci|mahui}} {{gloss|to feel fear}}; {{lang|nci|chīhualiztli}} {{gloss|something capable of being done — practicable}} from {{lang|nci|chīhua}} {{gloss|to do}}.{{r|launey|pp=306-307}}

These forms may participate in nominal compounding or further derivation, and can be possessed, the possessor always referencing the ''subject'' of the source verb, e.g. {{lang|nci|no-tētlahpalōliz}} {{gloss|my action of greeting someone}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|my action of being greeted}}.{{r|andrews|pp=361-362}}

==== Patient nominalizations ====
This process derives fully nominal noun stems which take the absolutive suffix {{lang|nci|-tl(i)}} and refer to the ''patient'' of the source verb. Within this category are strategies which are comparatively less common and productive, and whose derived noun's semantic relation to the source verb can be opaque; alongside a highly productive strategy that derives noun stems with a comparatively regular meaning. The base 4 ''nonactive'' or ''impersonal'' stem, with or without the suffix {{lang|nci|-l-}}, is generally taken as the stem of the derived noun, though some may also be derived from the base 2 ''preterite'' stem.{{r|sasaki-patient-nouns|p=283-284}}

In the first, less common strategy, a ''monotransitive'' verb (i.e. one taking only a single object) with no object prefixes, put into the appropriate base, is directly used as a noun stem, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|titlān-tli}} {{gloss|messenger}} from {{lang|nci|tē-titlāni}} {{gloss|to send someone as a messenger}}
* {{lang|nci|pōhua-l-li}} {{gloss|something counted — twenty}} from {{lang|nci|tla-pōhua}} {{gloss|to count something}}
* {{lang|nci|nāhuatī-l-li}} {{gloss|order, command}} from {{lang|nci|tē- or tla-nāhuatiā}} {{gloss|to order someone, something}}

Some ''intransitive'' or ''impersonal'' verbs may also participate in this strategy,{{r|launey|p=310}}{{r|andrews|p=368}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|cualān-tli}} {{gloss|anger}} from {{lang|nci|cualāni}} {{gloss|to become angry}}
* {{lang|nci|cepayahui-tl}} {{gloss|snow}} from {{lang|nci|cepayahui}} {{gloss|for snow to fall}}

A more regular and productive strategy built on ''monotransitive'' verbs attaches the prefix {{lang|nci|tla-}} to the appropriate base, {{em|even}} for verbs with animate objects which normally take {{lang|nci|tē-}}, e.g.
* {{lang|nci|tla-cocō-l-li}} {{gloss|injured person}} from {{lang|nci|tē-cocoā}} {{gloss|to injure someone}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-hcuilō-l-li}} {{gloss|writing}} from {{lang|nci|tla-hcuiloā}} {{gloss|to write something}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-pōhua-l-li}} {{gloss|something counted or countable, ''or'' a story recounted}} from {{lang|nci|tla-pōhua}} {{gloss|to count ''or'' recount something (e.g. a story)}}

This strategy is thought to have been highly productive in the Classical period, to the extent that 'there are many patient nouns with [{{lang|nci|tla-}}] which appears {{sic}} in the dictionaries and grammatical texts but are not attested in other contexts, suggesting that the patient nominalization with [{{lang|nci|tla-}}] is so powerful that it was easy to fabricate words which were not in use in real conversations or narratives.'{{r|sasaki-patient-nouns|p=284}}

Other, less common strategies include nominalizations of reflexive verbs which take {{lang|nci|ne-}}, deriving a noun with an instrumental or process meaning; and verbs which can take {{em|both}} or {{em|either}} an animate and inanimate object, and may be nominalized with either {{lang|nci|tē-}} or {{lang|nci|tla-}}, with a difference in meaning,{{r|launey|pp=309-310}}{{notetag|n=sasaki-patient-noun-analysis|There is some debate on the proper analysis and derivation of this alternation.{{r|sasaki-patient-nouns}}}} e.g.
* {{lang|nci|ne-zahua-l-li}} {{gloss|a fast}} from {{lang|nci|mo-zahua}} {{gloss|to fast}}
* {{lang|nci|ne-chihchīhua-l-li}} {{gloss|adornment}} from {{lang|nci|mo-chihchīhua}} {{gloss|to adorn oneself}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-machtī-l-li}} {{gloss|a pupil, someone taught}} {{em|or}} {{lang|nci|tē-machtī-l-li}} {{gloss|a lesson, something taught}} from {{lang|nci|tē-tla-machtiā}} {{gloss|to teach someone something}}
* {{lang|nci|tla-nāhuatī-l-li}} {{gloss|someone given an order}} {{em|or}} {{lang|nci|tē-nāhuatī-l-li}} {{gloss|something order, an order}} from {{lang|nci|tē- or tla-nāhuatiā}} {{gloss|to order someone, something}}

=== Derived verbs ===
*{{lang|nci|-tia}} derives from noun X a verb with an approximate meaning of "to provide with X " or "to become X."
*{{lang|nci|-huia}} derives from noun X a verb with an approximate meaning of "to use X " or "to provide with X."
*{{lang|nci|-yōtl}} derives from a noun X a noun with an abstract meaning of "X-hood or X-ness."

==Syntax==
The syntax of Classical Nahuatl is basically predicate-initial while allowing fronting for focalization or topicalization, allows extensive null anaphora, some freedom in the internal ordering of the noun phrase, and features a series of particles preceding the verb in a relatively fixed order which encode distinctions such as [[tense–aspect–mood]] and clause type (e.g. declarative, interrogative).

===Pre-predicate particles===
These particles cannot stand independently as sentences and must precede a predicate, whether verbal or nominal. A non-exhaustive list of some of the most common pre-predicate particles is given below. Long strings of particles frequently combine in a fixed order, written as single words, and some collocations have fixed and unpredictable meanings.
{{columns-list|
* {{lang|nci|ca}}: Introduces a declarative clause adding force to the assertion. Frequent before nominal predicates where it softens the 'stiffness of a dictionary entry' that a bare nominal predicate without {{lang|nci|ca}} has, but less necessary before verbal predicates.{{r|launey|p=22}}
* {{lang|nci|cuix}}: Introduces a polar (yes-no) question. Can optionally appear following the question word in content-questions.
* {{lang|nci|mā}}: Introduces optative-imperative, admonitive, or future-as-command clauses, obligatory in the 1st- or 3rd-person optative-imperative, optional in the 2nd-person imperative, where its absence gives the air of a 'brusque command'.{{r|andrews|p=82}}
* {{lang|nci|tlā}}: Introduces the antecedent of conditional clauses in the form {{lang|nci|in tlā}},{{r|andrews|p=530}}, or may introduce an optative clause similar to {{lang|nci|mā}} but with a heightened sense of politeness.{{r|andrews|p=82}}
* {{lang|nci|at}}: {{gloss|perhaps, maybe}}
* {{lang|nci|quil}}: {{gloss|apparently}}. Reports hearsay.{{r|launey|p=371}}
* {{lang|nci|auh}}: {{gloss|and then, now}}. Connects a clause to a preceding one, and is common in narration and myth, where a new clause is rarely introduced without a connecting word.{{r|launey|p=374}}
* {{lang|nci|zan}}: Similar to English 'just' in its range of meaning. Softens a following quantifier, meaning 'just a few'.{{r|launey|p=65}}
* {{lang|nci|ah}} and {{lang|nci|ca}}: Indicate negation. These two particles are in complementary distribution; their distribution is elaborated on below.{{r|andrews|pp=42}}
* {{lang|nci|ya/ye}}: {{gloss|already, now, soon}}. Signifies that a 'new action/process is taking place as a result of some change'.{{r|launey|p=65}}
* {{lang|nci|oc}}: {{gloss|again, still, now}}. Signifies that an 'action/process continues to be the same, undergoing no change or variation over the period of time in question'.{{r|launey|p=65}}
* {{lang|nci|nō}}: {{gloss|also, and, same, likewise}}. Used to coordinate clauses, or compare two clauses in conjunction with other particles.{{r|launey|pp=128-129}}
* {{lang|nci|huel}}: {{gloss|truly, very, well, able}}. Often translated as 'to be able to' before verbs, especially those in the future.{{r|andrews|pp=434}}
}}

===Word order===
Many possible orders of Subject, Object, and Verb are attested in Classical Nahuatl corpora, and some degree of uncertainty exists regarding its basic word order. Characterizations have differed, stemming from both the differing size of corpora examined and interpretations of marginal patterns.

Launey characterizes the basic, unmarked word order of Classical Nahuatl as Verb-Subject, or more generally Predicate-Subject, in the case of non-verbal predicates. Arguments of predicates are generally preceded by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}.{{r|launey|p=15}} With transitive verbs, the unmarked word order is VSO, and either argument may be freely omitted. The object, if indefinite, immediately follows the verb, appearing without the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}, producing the order VOS,{{r|launey|p=30}} reminiscent of the pattern of pseudo-noun-incorporation in other predicate-initial languages such as [[Niuean language|Niuean]] and [[Chʼol language|Chʼol]].{{r|configurationality}}

Steele reports three generalizations from textual analysis:{{r|steele-word-order}}
# In transitive clauses with Subject and Object both explicit, the most common orders are SVO and VOS, followed by VSO.{{notetag|n=VSO-VOS|Launey and Steele here disagree as to the status of VSO as basic, and its frequency relative to SVO and VOS.}} SOV is marginal.
# In transitive clauses with only one explicit argument, verb-initial orders are preferred, though the order VO is much more common than OV, while VS is only slightly more common than SV.
# In intransitive clauses, the order VS is more common.

Hill and Hill characterize the verb-initial orders as basic, analyzing preverbal arguments as 'generally being demonstrably left-dislocated (as evidenced by intonation contours and pauses in modern varieties, and to some degree by punctuation in documents)'.{{r|hill-hill-word-order}}
{{Flex columns
|1=
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=VS order with intransitive verb:
|ca Ø-tzahtzi-Ø {in pil-li}
|DECL 3SG.S-shout-PRES:SG {IN child-SG}
|{} V S
|{{gloss|The child shouts}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Pred-S order with nominal predicate:
|ca Ø-mēxihca-tl {in Pedro}
|DECL 3SG.S-Mexica-SG {IN Pedro}
|{} PRED S
|{{gloss|Peter is a Mexica}}
}}
|2= {{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=VSO order with transitive verb:
|Ø-qu-itta-Ø {in cihuā-tl} {in cal-li}
|3SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRES:SG {IN woman-sg} {IN house-SG}
|V S O
|{{gloss|The woman sees the house}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=VOS order with indefinite object:
|Ø-qui-cua-Ø naca-tl {in cihuā-tl}
|3SG.S-3SG.O-eat-PRES:SG meat-SG {IN woman-SG}
|V O S
|{{gloss|The woman eats meat}}
}}
}}
Some examples of VOS order with definite objects are however noted by Steele,{{r|steele-word-order}} e.g.
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=VOS order with definite object:
|Ø-qui-nōtza-Ø {in cozōl-li} {in tīci-tl}
|3SG.S-3SG.O-call-PRES:SG {IN cradle-SG} {IN midwife-SG}
|V O S
|{{gloss|The midwife addressed the cradle}}
}}

Sasaki, citing Launey, provides examples of all three 'very rare' OV orders in transitive clauses, but likewise analyzes these as 'normally the result of some discourse-pragmatic operations such as topicalization.'{{r|sasaki-configurationality|pp=52-53}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=OVS order:
|auh {in mēxihca-h} Ø-quin-nōtz-Ø {in īn-teō-uh}
|and {IN Mexica-PL} 3SG.S-3PL.O-call-PRET:SG {IN 3PL.P-god-SG}
|{} O V S
|{{gloss|And the gods of the Mexica called them}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=SOV order, analyzed as preposing of quantified O 'whatever small animals it sees':
|ī-huān {in mich-in} {in tlein} yōl-cā-tzin-tli Ø-qu-itta-Ø Ø-qui-toloa-Ø
|3SG.P-with {IN fish-SG} {IN what} live-NMLZ-DIM-SG 3SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRES:SG 3SG.S-3SG.O-swallow-PRES:SG
|{} S O {} {} V
|{{gloss|And the fish swallows whatever small animals it sees}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=OSV order, analyzed as topicalization of O 'the monkey paw':
|{in ozomah-tli} ī-mā-cpal-Ø {in pōchtēca-h} cencah Ø-qui-temoā-yah Ø-qui-mo-piya-ltiā-yah
|{IN monkey-SG} 3SG-hand-seat-SG {IN merchant-PL} very 3SG.S-3SG.O-search-IPFV:PL 3SG.S-3SG.O-REFL-keep-CAUS-IPFV:PL
|O {} S {} V {}
|{{gloss|The monkey paw, the merchants eagerly sought for it and kept it for themselves [as a charm for prosperous business]}}
}}

====Topicalization====
A constituent may appear before the predicate and any pre-predicate particles, [[Topic and comment|topicalizing]] it, with the remainder of the predicate serving as its comment. The topicalized constituent may be a subject, object, or a possessor of another constituent in the comment. Both subject and object may rarely be topicalized together, producing the surface order SOV, while the order OSV is 'virtually unknown'. Rarely, a topic is not referenced by any constituent in the comment.{{r|andrews|p=610}} Regular nouns as well as personal pronouns may both appear as topics,{{r|launey|pp=15,90}}{{r|andrews|pp=140-141,145}} e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Topicalized subject:
|{in cihuā-tl} Ø-cochi-Ø
|{IN woman-SG } 3SG.S-sleep-PRES:SG
|Topic Comment
|{{gloss|As for the woman, she sleeps}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Topicalized object:
|{in cal-li} ni-qu-itta-Ø
|{IN house-SG } 1SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRES:SG
|Topic Comment
|{{gloss|As for the house, I see it}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=SOV double topicalization:
|{in cihuā-tl} {in cal-li} Ø-qu-itta-Ø
|{IN woman-SG} {IN house-SG} 3SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRES:SG
|{Topic S} {Topic O} {Comment V}
|{{gloss|As for the woman and the house, she sees it}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Topicalized possessor:
|{in cihuā-tl} ni-qu-itta-Ø {in ī-cal-Ø}
|{IN woman-SG} 1SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRES:SG {IN 3SG.P-house-SG}
|Topic Comment {}
|{{gloss|As for the woman, I see her house}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Topic with no coreferent:
|{in ī-pah-yo} ne-hzōtla-lō-z
|{IN 3SG.P-cure-INAL} NREF.R-vomit-IMPRS-FUT:SG
|Topic Comment
|{{gloss|As for its cure, there is to be vomiting}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

====Focalization====
Owing to Classical Nahuatl's flexibility in allowing expressions of many types to directly serve as predicates without a copula, or as arguments through the use of the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}, the semantic roles of predicate and argument may be reversed, [[Focus (linguistics)|focalizing]] an argument which is presented as new or contrastive information, against the background of the remainder of the sentence. Such constructions have been analyzed as [[Cleft sentence|clefts]], with the focalized element serving as the predicate, and the cleft clause introduced by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}.{{r|sasaki-configurationality|pp=78-79}} Subjects, objects, locatives, and constituents of many other semantic types may all be focalized.{{r|launey|pp=22-23,31-32,46-47,180,345}}
{{Flex columns
|1=
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Focalized subject:
|ca cihuā-tl {in Ø-tzahtzi-Ø}
|DECL woman-SG {IN 3SG.S-shout-PRES:SG}
|{{gloss|It is '''a woman''' who is shouting (and not a man)}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Focalized object:
|ca xōchi-tl {in n-amēch-maca-Ø}
|DECL flower-SG {IN 1SG.S-2PL.O-give-PRES:SG}
|{{gloss|It's '''a flower''' that I'm giving you {{sc|PL}} (and not something else)}}
}}
|2=
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Focalized locative:
|ilhuica-c {in ōmpa} Ø-cat-eh {in cī~citlāl-tin}
|sky-LOC {IN where} 3PL.S-be-PRET:PL {IN PL~star-PL}
|{{gloss|'''In the sky''' is where the stars are (and not somewhere else)}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Focalized instrument introduced with {{lang|nci|in ic}}:
|cuahu-itl in ic ō{{=}}Ø-nēch-cocoh-Ø
|wood-SG IN with ANT{{=}}3SG.S-1SG.O-hurt-PRET:SG
|{{gloss|It's '''with a stick''' that he hurt me (and not something else)}}
}}
}}

Definite arguments (i.e. those that would normally be preceded by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}) cannot be focalized directly, as the predicate may not be marked with {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}. Instead, one of the emphatic independent personal pronouns is focalized, e.g.{{notetag|n=focalized-definite-argument-word-order|Several other word orders are possible.{{r|launey|p=36}}}}
{{Flex columns
|1=
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Focalized definite argument:
|ca yehhuātl Ø-chōca-Ø {in conē-tl}
|DECL 3:SG 3SG.S-cry-PRES:SG {IN child-SG}
|{{gloss|It is '''the child''' that is crying (and not someone else)}}
}}
|2={{interlinear
|indent=3
|glossing2=yes
|glossing3=yes
|top=Focalized pronoun:
|ca nehhuātl {in ni-tzahtzi-Ø}
|DECL 1:SG {IN 1SG.S-shout-PRES:SG}
|{{gloss|It's '''me''' who is shouting (and not someone else)}}
}}
}}

===The particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}===
The particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}, also called the ''adjunctor''{{r|andrews|p=40}}, is one of the most frequent words in the Classical Nahuatl language. Used variously as a kind of definite article, complementizer, subordinator, relativizer, and frequently seen in expressions of time, place, manner, and comparison, its meaning and approximate translation are highly dependent on the context in which it is found, and only some of its uses are covered here.

The prototypical use of {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} marks an argument of a predicate. In this usage it can frequently be translated as a [[Article (grammar)|definite article]] (e.g. {{lang|nci|mihtōtia in tēuctli}} {{gloss|the lord dances}}), but {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} may precede proper names (e.g. {{lang|nci|in Motēuczōmah}} {{gloss|Moctezuma}}) and possessed nouns (e.g. {{lang|nci|in nonān}} {{gloss|my mother}}), as well as phrases with a generic kind reading, like English 'the' in the phrase 'the tiger is a feline'.

Preceding verbs, {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} can function as a kind of relativizer, creating a headless relative clause, as in {{lang|nci|in cuīca}} {{gloss|the one who sings}}, {{lang|nci|in mihtōtiah}} {{gloss|those who dance}}.{{r|launey|p=23}}

Several words which frequently collocate before {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} are spelled and pronounced as single words, and {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} may be felt to be so tightly integrated with the preceding word that the collocation comes to be thought of as a single word.

=== The particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}===
The particle {{lang|nci|ō-}}, called either the ''augment'' or the ''antecessive order particle'', can be found preceding verb forms with a past meaning indicating that "the action, process, or state reported by the verb-stem has taken place prior to another event"{{r|andrews|p=74}} and that "a completed event can have consequences at a later time - in particular, at the moment of speaking."{{r|launey|p=74}} The particle is almost always found with verbs in the preterite or pluperfect in conversation, though may be absent in historical narrative or myth. Less commonly, the particle is also found with verbs in the imperfect, and also the past optative and conditional in the antecedent and consequent respectively of certain types of past conditional clauses.{{r|launey|pp=352-356}}{{r|andrews|pp=531-534}}

Though often written as a single word with a following verb, the particle is not a verbal prefix, and does not behave phonologically as part of the verb in that it does not license the use of the {{lang|nci|-c-}} allomorph of the 3s-object prefix before another consonant, e.g. {{lang|nci|ōquipōuh}} not {{lang|nci|*ōcpōuh}} {{gloss|he counted it}}.{{r|andrews|p=74}} Furthermore, certain particles preceding the verb as well as constituents commonly anteposed before the verb may optionally host the particle in its place, e.g.
* the particle {{lang|nci|huel}} {{gloss|truly, well}}: {{lang|nci|huel ōmic}} — {{lang|nci|ōhuel mic}} {{gloss|he is truly, completely dead}}
* the particle {{lang|nci|iuh}} {{gloss|just when, right as}}: {{lang|nci|in iuh ōonquīz}} — {{lang|nci|in ōiuh onquīz}} {{gloss|when it came out}}{{r|launey|p=336}}
* an anteposed subject or object: {{lang|nci|nihīyo ōnicān}} —  {{lang|nci|ōnihīyo nicān}} {{gloss|I caught my breath}}
* an anteposed locative: {{lang|nci|topan ōcepayauh}} — {{lang|nci|ōtopan cepayauh}} {{gloss|it snowed on us}}

Although {{lang|nci|ō-}} frequently associates with verbs in the preterite, it is never found in nominalizations of the preterite.

===Emphatic pronouns===
Classical Nahuatl has three series of emphatic pronouns which are used to [[Focus (linguistics)|focus]] or emphasize the referent, in decreasing order of emphatic strength: ''long'', ''reduced'', and ''short''.{{r|launey|pp=35-36}}{{r|andrews|p=126-129,143}}
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!
!Long
!Reduced
!Short
|-
!1S
|{{lang|nci|nehhuātl}}
|{{lang|nci|nehhua}}
|{{lang|nci|neh}}
|-
!2S
|{{lang|nci|tehhuātl}}
|{{lang|nci|tehhua}}
|{{lang|nci|teh}}
|-
!3S
|{{lang|nci|(y)ehhuātl}}
|{{lang|nci|(y)ehhua}}
|{{lang|nci|yeh}}
|-
!1P
|{{lang|nci|tehhuāntin}}
|{{lang|nci|tehhuān}}
| rowspan="3" {{N/A}}{{notetag|name=andrews-plural-short|Andrews provides plural forms of the short series: {{lang|nci|tehmeh}} {{gloss|we}}, {{lang|nci|amehmeh}} {{gloss|you {{sc|PL}}}}, {{lang|nci|yehmeh}} {{gloss|they}} but describes them as 'extremely rare'.{{r|andrews|pp=126-127}} These are not attested in Launey or Carochi. Launey also does not note the reduced singular forms.}}
|-
!2p
|{{lang|nci|amehhuāntin}}
|{{lang|nci|amehhuān}}
|-
!3p
|{{lang|nci|(y)ehhuāntin}}
|{{lang|nci|(y)ehhuān}}
|}
The referent of an independent pronoun is not restricted to the subject of the sentence, but can be used to focus a subject, object, or possessor, as in {{lang|nci|teh ōticchīuh}} {{gloss|{{em|you}} did it}}, {{lang|nci|ca nehhuātl in ōnēchittaqueh}} {{gloss|it was {{em|me}} that they saw}}, {{lang|nci|nehhuātl nāxcā}} {{gloss|it is {{em|my}} property}}. Independent pronouns are never required except for emphasis as in other [[pro-drop language]]s, and do not replace affixal person marking, which is always obligatory. While the ''full'' and ''reduced'' series can stand independently as the predicate of a clause, as in {{lang|nci|huel nehhuātl}} {{gloss|it is indeed I}}, the ''short'' series requires a predicate with matching person which it serves to emphasize, e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Short pronoun emphasizing predicate:
|neh ō{{=}}ni-c-chīuh-Ø
|1SG ANT{{=}}1SG.S-3SG.O-do-PRET:SG
|{{gloss|{{em|I}} did it (as the answer to the question "who did it?")}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Full pronoun as predicate:
|cuix tehhuātl
|YNQ 2:SG
|{{gloss|Is it you? are you the one?}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

=== Indeterminate pronouns and quantifiers ===
Classical Nahuatl possesses a series of [[indeterminate pronoun]]s whose meaning varies with the context in which they are used, from interrogative ('where?'), relative ('the place where'), existential ('somewhere'), negative existential ('nowhere'), to free-choice indefinite ('wherever').

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indeterminate pronouns
|-
! Basic form !! Interrogative reading
|-
| {{lang|nci|āc}}
| {{gloss|who?}}
|-
| {{lang|nci|tleh}}
| {{gloss|what?}}
|-
| {{lang|nci|cān}}
| {{gloss|where?}}
|-
| {{lang|nci|īc}}
| {{gloss|when?}}
|-
| {{lang|nci|quēn}}
| {{gloss|how? in what manner?}}
|}

The pronouns {{lang|nci|āc}}, {{lang|nci|tleh}}, {{lang|nci|cān}}, {{lang|nci|īc}} have corresponding existential forms {{lang|nci|acah}} {{gloss|someone}}, {{lang|nci|itlah}} {{gloss|something}}, {{lang|nci|canah}} {{gloss|somewhere}}, {{lang|nci|icah}} {{gloss|at some time}}.{{notetag |name=quemah |The form {{lang|nci|quēmah}} {{gloss|yes}} may have originated as the existential form of {{lang|nci|quēn}}, perhaps originally meaning {{gloss|in some way}}.{{r|launey|p=268}}}} The pronouns {{lang|nci|acah}} and {{lang|nci|itlah}} may be used either predicatively, e.g. {{lang|nci|cuix itlah motomin?}} {{gloss|is something your money? — do you have any money?}}, or as nominal modifiers, e.g. {{lang|nci|acah tīcitl}} {{gloss|a doctor, some doctor}}.{{r|launey|p=269}}

The pronoun {{lang|nci|tleh}} is found in some derived expressions, often written as single words, such as {{lang|nci|tle ic}}, {{lang|nci|tle īpampa}}, and {{lang|nci|tle īca}}, all meaning {{gloss|why? for what reason? to what end?}}. A number of indeterminate pronouns appear to be derived from the same root as {{lang|nci|quēn}}, including {{lang|nci|quēmman}} {{gloss|when (specifically during the day)?}}, {{lang|nci|quēzqui}} {{gloss|how many (of something countable)?}}, {{lang|nci|quēxquich}} {{gloss|how much?}}, {{lang|nci|quēnamihcān}} {{gloss|in what sort of place?}}

The indeterminate pronouns are only interrogative when found in sentence initial position. When preceded and followed by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}, often written as only two words, the second {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} written solid with the indeterminate pronoun, they are interpreted as relative or free-choice pronouns, e.g. {{lang|nci|in tlein}} {{gloss|what(ever)}}, as in {{lang|nci|in tlein ticnequiz}} {{gloss|what(ever) you want}}. The free-choice reading may be made stronger by adding {{lang|nci|zā zo}} {{gloss|any … so ever}} before the pronoun, e.g.  {{lang|nci|in zā zo āquin tlahtoāz}} {{gloss|whoever shall speak}}.

===Negation===
Predicate negation is expressed with the proclitic {{lang|nci|ah-}}, which may be hosted directly on the predicate, as in {{lang|nci|ahnicuīca}} {{gloss|I do not sing}} or {{lang|nci|ahnitlācatl}} {{gloss|I am not a human}}, but is much more commonly hosted on other pre-predicate particles such as {{lang|nci|oc}} {{gloss|still}}, {{lang|nci|ya}} {{gloss|already, yet}}, {{lang|nci|huel}} {{gloss|truly, able}}, producing respectively {{lang|nci|aoc}} {{gloss|not anymore}}, {{lang|nci|aya}} {{gloss|not yet}}, {{lang|nci|ahhuel}} {{gloss|unable}}. When no such particle exists to host the clitic, it is commonly hosted on the particle {{lang|nci|mō}}, as in {{lang|nci|ahmō}} {{gloss|not}}, which is frequently present even when such other particles exist, as in {{lang|nci|aocmō}}, {{lang|nci|ayamō}}, with the same meanings as above. A negated admonitive verb signals a strengthened imperative 'do not fail to...', and always takes the form {{lang|nci|ah-}} appended directly to the verb.

Negative quantification is expressed by attaching {{lang|nci|ah-}} to the indeterminate pronouns {{lang|nci|āc}} {{gloss|who(ever)}}, {{lang|nci|tleh}} {{gloss|what(ever)}}, {{lang|nci|īc}} {{gloss|when(ever)}}, {{lang|nci|quēn}} {{gloss|how(ever)}}, etc., producing respectively {{lang|nci|ayāc}} {{gloss|no one}}, {{lang|nci|ahtleh}} {{gloss|nothing}}, {{lang|nci|aīc}} {{gloss|never}}, {{lang|nci|ahquēn}} {{gloss|in no way}}. Multiple indeterminate pronouns may appear under the scope of negation, where only one negative particle appears, e.g. {{lang|nci|ayāc tleh}} {{gloss|no one … anything}}. When both aspectual or modal particles and indefinite pronouns are negated together, the indefinite usually follows the aspectual or modal, as in {{lang|nci|aoctleh}} {{gloss|nothing anymore}}, but not in {{lang|nci|huel}}, which appears closer to the predicate, e.g. {{lang|nci|ahtleh huel}} {{gloss|unable to … anything}}.

When preceded by {{lang|nci|mā}} or {{lang|nci|tlā}} in the optative-imperative or a conditional clause, the negative particle takes the form {{lang|nci|ca-}}, whose behavior is otherwise unchanged, e.g. {{lang|nci|in tlā catleh}} {{gloss|if nothing}}, {{lang|nci|mā caīc}} {{gloss|may it never}}{{r|andrews|p=42}}, e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Various kinds of negation{{r|andrews|p=531}}
|{in tlā} ca-tleh m-āxcā-Ø, ah-huel ti-calaqui-z
|{IN if} NEG-what 2SG.P-property-SG, NEG-able 2SG.S-enter-FUT:SG
|{{gloss|If you have nothing, you cannot enter}} {{br}} {{literal translation|If your property is nothing, you cannot enter}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Multiple items under the scope of single negative marker{{r|andrews|p=540}}
|ay-āc huel ī-cel cām-pa hui-a
|NEG-who able 3SG.P-own where-DIR go-IPFV:SG
|{{gloss|No one could go anywhere alone}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Negative admonitive as strong imperative{{r|launey|p=226}}
|mā nēn ah{{=}}ti-c-chīuh-Ø {in ō{{=}}ni-mitz-ilhuih-Ø}
|IRR ADM NEG{{=}}2SG.S-3SG.O-do-ADM:SG {IN ANT{{=}}1SG.S-2SG.O-tell-PRET:SG}
|{{gloss|Don't fail to do what I told you}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Negative optative-imperative{{r|andrews|p=452}}
|mā camō xi-tlahto-Ø {in oc} īc ni-tlahtoa-Ø
|IRR NEG 2SG.S-speak-OPT:SG {IN still} when 1SG.S-speak-PRES:SG
|{{gloss|Don't talk while I'm talking}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

===Questions===

====Polar questions====
[[Polar question]]s are generally marked with the particle {{lang|nci|cuix}}, which precedes negation and the aspectual and modal particles, as in {{lang|nci|cuix ahmō ōtinēchcac}} "have you not understood me?", but may also be indicated by intonation alone.

====Content questions====
Content questions may be formed with an indeterminate pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, optionally followed by the question particle {{lang|nci|cuix}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|cān (cuix) tiyāznequi}} {{gloss|where do you want to go?}} Alternatively, the pronoun may be followed by the particles {{lang|nci|mach}}, giving the question an air of 'exasperation or amazement', e.g. {{lang|nci|tlein mach tiquihtoa}} {{gloss|what in the world are you saying?}}; or the particle {{lang|nci|nel}} {{gloss|in truth}} 'to express a rhetorical question containing a note of surrender', e.g. {{lang|nci|tlein nel nicchīhuaz}} {{gloss|what can I even do?}}{{r|andrews|pp=515-516}}

The indeterminate pronoun may also used predicatively, followed by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} in a construction reminiscent of a [[Cleft sentence|pseudo-cleft]], e.g. {{lang|nci|tleh in mochīhuaz}} {{gloss|what is it that shall be done — what shall be done?}}, or {{lang|nci|āc in cuīca}} {{gloss|who is it who sings? — who sings?}}. {{r|andrews|pp=149-150}}

====Embedded questions====
Both polar questions and content questions, optionally preceded by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} and embedded under an appropriate predicate, can form embedded questions. In such constructions, verbs of speaking or saying such as {{lang|nci|ihtoā}} {{gloss|say}} or {{lang|nci|ilhuiā}} {{gloss|tell}} may be translated as 'ask', e.g. {{lang|nci|ōquihtoh cāmpa ōhuāllahqueh}} {{gloss|he asked where they had come from}}. The particle {{lang|nci|cuix}} as a polar question marker may be replaced by {{lang|nci|ahzo}} {{gloss|if, perhaps}}, e.g. {{lang|nci|ahmō momati in ahzo huāllāzqueh}} {{gloss|it is not known if they will come}}.{{r|launey|pp=317-319}}{{r|andrews|pp=154-155}}

===Relative clauses===
Relative clauses are externally-headed, and prototypically postnominal and introduced by the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}}. Apart from the gap left by the relativized noun, the relative clause retains all the properties of an independent clause; verbs, in particular, continue to agree with the relativized element. When agreement markers do not unambiguously identify the role of the relativized element, cases of ambiguity are possible, and context must determine which reading is intended, e.g.{{r|launey|pp=329-334}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Typical relative clause syntax:
|in tlāca-h in ō{{=}}Ø-nēch-itta-queh
|IN person-PL IN ANT{{=}}3PL.S-1SG.O-see-PRET:PL
|{{gloss|The people who saw me}} {{br}} {{literal translation|The people that they saw me}}
}}
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Potentially ambiguous relative clause:
|in tēuc-tli in ō{{=}}Ø-qui-mic-tih-Ø in tlahtoāni
|IN lord-SG IN ANT{{=}}3SG.S-3SG.O-die-CAUS-PRET:SG IN king:SG
|{{gloss|The lord who killed the king}} {{em|or}} {{gloss|the lord whom the king killed}}
}}

Short relative clauses may appear without the particle {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} postnominally, or immediately prenominally, e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Short postnominal relative clause:
|in cihuā-tl ō{{=}}ni-qu-itta-c
|IN woman-SG ANT{{=}}1SG.S-3SG.O-see-PRET:SG
|{{gloss|The woman I saw}}
}}
}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Short prenominal relative clause:
|in Ø-tlācati-z pil-tōn-tli
|IN 3SG.S-be.born-FUT:SG child-DIM-SG
|{{gloss|The child who will be born}}
}}
}}
{{div col end}}

Typically, however, long and more complex relative clauses of the types presented below must be of the form noun {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}} relative clause.
Possessors, including those of relational nouns, may also be relativized, with the possessed noun in initial position in the relative clause, immediately following {{lang|nci|{{sc|in}}}},{{r|langacker-relative-clauses}}. Locatives may be relativized with {{lang|nci|oncān}} or {{lang|nci|onpa}}. e.g.
{{div col}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Relativized possessor:
|in xihui-tl in ī-tōcā-Ø cihuā-pah-tli
|IN plant-SG IN 3SG.P-name-SG woman-medicine-SG
|{{gloss|The plant whose name is "woman's medicine"}} {{br}} {{literal translation|The plant that its name is "woman's medicine"}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Relativized locative possessor:
|in tlāca-h in īn-nāhua-c ni-nemi-Ø
|IN person-PL IN 3PL.P-close.by-LOC 1SG.S-live-PRES:SG
|{{gloss|The people with whom I live}} {{br}} {{literal translation|The people that with them I live}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Relativized locative with {{lang|nci|oncān}}:{{r|langacker-relative-clauses|p=50}}
|in tlecuīl-li […] in oncān nāhu-ilhui-tl ō{{=}}Ø-tlatla-c tle-tl 
|IN hearth-SG {} IN where four-day-SG ANT{{=}}3SG.S-burn-PRET:SG fire-SG
|{{gloss|The hearth, […] where the fire burned four days}}
}}}}
{{no col break|
{{interlinear
|indent=3
|top=Relativized locative with {{lang|nci|ōmpa}}:{{r|langacker-relative-clauses|p=50}}
|in Tlapal-lan in ōmpa Ø-polihui-to 
|IN red.ink-place IN where 3SG.S-disappear-AND:PRET:SG
|{{gloss|Tlapallan, where he went to disappear}}
}}}}
{{div col end}}

===Distribution and analysis of subject marking===
In addition to the obligatory marking of subjects and objects on predicates, Classical Nahuatl also exhibits a typologically highly uncommon phenomenon whereby the {{em|arguments}} of predicates also bear identical subject markers which agree with coreferential arguments marked on the predicate, even in the 1st- and 2nd-person.{{r|sasaki-r-marking|p=70}} Examples taken from (Sasaki, 2012), transcription, glossing and translations slightly adapted.
{{interlinear
|number=(62) a.
|top=Coreferential subject:
|'''ni'''-no-chōqui-lia-Ø {in '''n'''-amo-col-Ø} {in '''n'''-Āxāyacatl}
|1SG.S-1SG.R-cry-APPL-PRES:SG {IN 1SG.S-2PL.P-grandfather:SG} {IN 1SG.S-Āxāyacatl}
|{{gloss|'''I''', your {{sc|PL}} ancestor Āxāyacatl, lament}} {{br}} {{literal translation|'''I''' lament, '''I''' who am your {{sc|PL}} ancestor, '''I''' who am Āxāyacatl}}
}}

{{interlinear
|number=(62) c.
|top=Coreferential object:
|nicān Ø-'''amēch'''-mo-centlāli-lia-Ø Ø-'''amēch'''-mo-nechica-lhuia-Ø {in '''am'''-ā-huah-queh} {in '''an'''-tepē-huah-queh}
|here 3SG.S-2PL.O-REFL-gather-APPL-PRES:SG 3SG.S-2PL.O-REFL-assemble-APPL-PRES:SG {IN 2PL.S-water-own-PRET:PL} {IN 2PL.S-mountain-own-PRET:PL}
|{{gloss|Here he {{sc|HON}} gathers '''you {{sc|PL}}''' citizens}} {{br}} {{literal translation|Here he {{sc|HON}} gathers '''you {{sc|PL}}''', he {{sc|HON}} assembles '''you {{sc|PL}}''', '''you {{sc|PL}}''' who are owners of the water, '''you {{sc|PL}}''' who are owners of the mountain (i.e. inhabitants of the city)}}}}

{{interlinear
|number=(62) d.
|top=Coreferential possessor:
|achi huel Ø-iuhqui {in Ø-'''to'''-tlahtōl-Ø} {in '''ti'''-tlāca-h}
|a.bit well 3SG.S-be.like {IN 3SG.S-1PL.P-speech-SG} {IN 1PL.S-human-PL}
|{{gloss|It's almost like '''our''' human speech}} {{br}}
{{literal translation|It's almost like '''our''' speech of '''us''' humans}}
}}

This morphological symmetry between verbs and nouns, and between predicates and arguments, has led Launey and Andrews to propose ''omnipredicative'' and ''omniclausal'' analyses respectively of Classical Nahuatl syntax, in which every putative argument noun is 'primarily predicative' in nature, and its 'argumental use is derived through the process of cross-reference' in Launey's omnipredicative formulation; Andrews' is even more radical, proposing that 'what have been traditionally called "nouns" and "verbs" are not really nouns and verbs, but word-sized nominal and verbal clauses which obligatorily contain a subject and a predicate within single words'.{{r|sasaki-r-marking|p=58-61,116}} Under such analyses, 'Classical Nahuatl nouns are pre-formed subject–predicate complexes regardless of their syntactic positions and even non-predicational [...] nouns preserve their predicative structures through the process of subordination.'{{r|sasaki-r-marking|p=65}} Launey and Andrews thus analyze even 3rd-person argument nouns with no overt subject prefixes as bearing covert subject marking cross-referenced with the 3rd-person marking of the predicate, e.g.
{{interlinear
|number=(63) a.
|top=3rd-person arguments with no overt subject marking:
|auh {in yehhuāntin} Ø-Españoles Ø-qui-huāl-lāza-h {in Ø-tepoz-mī-tl} ī-huān {in Ø-tle-quiquiz-tli}
|and {IN 3:PL} 3PL.S-Spanish:PL 3PL.S-3SG.O-CISL-throw-PRES:PL {IN 3SG.S-metal-arrow-SG} 3SG.P-with {IN 3SG.S-fire-trumpet-SG}
|{{gloss|And the '''Spaniards''' shoot '''iron bolts''' and '''guns'''}}
}}

Sasaki identifies several problems with such analyses:
# They incorrectly predict the denotation of multi-word figurative expressions (i.e. ''[[difrasismo]]s''), of which each constituent is independently agreement-marked, to identify the subject with each constituent separately, and not the expression's derived, figurative meaning.{{r|sasaki-r-marking|pp=73-75}}
# The denotation of constructions containing agreement-marked complements of copulae and other resultative expressions cannot be straightforwardly derived from an analysis in which the complement is itself a complete predicative proposition with clausal structure.{{r|sasaki-r-marking|pp=77-88}}
# The denotation of quantificational expressions which may bear agreement-marking (e.g. {{lang|nci|īxquich}} {{gloss|entire, every}}, {{lang|nci|mochi}} {{gloss|all}}) is quantificational as expected (i.e. 'all of us') and not predicative (i.e. 'we are all').{{r|sasaki-r-marking|pp=91-97}}

===={{lang|es|Difrasismos}}====
In {{lang|es|difrasismos}} such as {{lang|nci|cuāuhtli ōcēlōtl}} {{gloss|eagle and jaguar}} and {{lang|nci|cuēitl huīpīlli}} {{gloss|skirt and blouse}}, each constituent is individually agreement-marked. Sasaki argues omnipredicative and omniclausal models of Classical Nahuatl syntax incorrectly predict expressions such as {{lang|nci|ticuāuhtli tōcēlōtl}} should mean {{gloss|you are an eagle and you are a jaguar}} and not {{gloss|you are a warrior}}.
{{interlinear
|top=Agreement-marked difrasismo
|number=(65) b.
|nicān ti-cah-Ø {in ti-cuāuh-tli} {in t-ōcēlō-tl} auh iz ye tehhuātl {in ti-cuē-itl} {in ti-huīpīl-li}
|here 2SG.S-be-PRET:SG {IN 2SG.S-eagle-SG} {IN 2SG.S-jaguar-SG} and here already 2:SG {IN 2SG.S-skirt-SG} {IN 2SG.S-blouse-SG}
|{{gloss|Here you {{sc|sg}} are, you {{sc|sg}} eagle and jaguar (i.e. warrior); and here you {{sc|sg}} are, you {{sc|sg}} skirt and blouse (i.e. woman)}}
}}

====Complements====
Sasaki notes a class of verbs which are closely associated with an agreement-marked complement with which they appear to form a complex predicate, and which frequently show an alternation in meaning when paired with a complement, e.g. {{lang|nci|cah}} {{gloss|to exist, to be located at}} vs. {{gloss|to be (copulative)}}, {{lang|nci|chīhua}} {{gloss|to create, to make}} vs. {{gloss|to cause to become}}, {{lang|nci|mo-chīhua}} {{gloss|to occur, to come into being}} vs. {{gloss|to become}}. Sasaki argues an analysis wherein the verb and its agreement-marked complement are both predicates fails to account for either the semantic alternation of the verb, or the fact that the complement lacks an independent truth condition or illocutionary force.
{{interlinear
|top=Agreement-marked copular complement
|number=(71) a.
|in tlā ō{{=}}n-on-mic-Ø tehhuātl ti-n-īxīptlah-Ø ti-ye-z
|IN if ANT{{=}}1SG.S-TRSL-die-PRET:SG 2:SG 2SG.S-1SG.P-representative-SG 2SG.S-be-FUT:SG
|{{gloss|If I die, '''you {{sc|SG}} will be my successor'''}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|you are my successor, you will be}}
}}

{{interlinear
|top=Agreement-marked resultative complement
|number=(74)
|mā ye iuhqu{{=}}in ti-tēcuani ti-mo-chīuh-Ø
|IRR already like{{=}}IN 2SG.S-beast:SG 2SG.S-REFL-turn.into-ADM:SG
|{{gloss|You are not to '''become like a beast'''}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|you are not to become, you are a beast}}
}}

====Quantificational expressions====
[[Generalized quantifier|Quantificational expressions]] such as 'all of' and 'one of' 
may bear agreement-marking, but the meaning of such expressions in not predicative. Furthermore, such agreement is optional in some cases, a phenomenon which is difficult to explain under an analysis in which it is the exponent of the subject of a predicate in a language in which subject-marking is otherwise obligatory.
{{interlinear
|top='All'-type quantifier with agreement-marking
|number=(84) c.
|ī-huan {in am-īxquich-tin} {in am-mēxihca-h} {in an-tenochca-h} nicān an-qui-mati-zqueh
|3SG.P-with {IN 2PL.S-all-PL} {IN 2PL.S-Mexica-PL} {IN 2PL.S-Tenochca-PL} here 2PL.S-3SG.O-know-FUT:PL
|{{gloss|And here all of you {{sc|PL}} Mexica Tenochca will know}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|you {{sc|PL}} are all, you {{sc|PL}} are Mexica Tenochca, etc.}}
}}
{{interlinear
|top='Some'-type quantifier with agreement-marking
|number=(98)
|mā ti-cē-meh tehhuāntin ti-hui-ān
|IRR 1PL.S-one-PL 1:PL 1PL.S-go-OPT:PL
|{{gloss|Let '''one of us''' go}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|let us go, we are one}}
}}
{{interlinear
|top='Some'-type quantifier {{em|without}} agreement-marking
|number=(100) a.
|Ø-cē-meh tehhuāntin ti-yā-zqueh
|3PL.S-one-PL 1:PL 1PL.S-go-FUT:PL
|{{gloss|One of us will go}} {{em|not}} {{gloss|It is one, we will go}}
}}

===Non-configurationality===
Classical Nahuatl can be classified as a [[non-configurational language]], allowing many different kinds of word orders, even splitting noun phrases.

===Nouns as predicates===
An important feature of Classical Nahuatl is that any noun can function as a standalone [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]]. For example, {{lang|nci|calli}} is commonly translated "house" but could also be translated "(it) is a house".

As predicates, nouns can take the verbal subject prefixes (but not tense inflection). Thus, {{lang|nci|nitēuctli}} means "I am a lord" with the regular first person singular subject {{lang|nci|ni-}} attached to the noun {{lang|nci|tēuctli}} "lord". Similarly {{lang|nci|tinocihuāuh}} means "you are my wife", with the possessive noun {{lang|nci|nocihuāuh}} "my wife" attached to the subject prefix {{lang|nci|ti-}} "you" (singular). This construction is also seen in the name {{lang|nci|Tītlācahuān}} meaning "we are his slaves", a name for the god [[Tezcatlipoca]].

==Number system==
[[Image:Pohualli.jpg|frame|right|{{center|20}}]]
[[Image:Tzontli.jpg|frame|right|{{center|400}}]]
[[Image:Xiquipilli.jpg|frame|right|{{center|8000}}]]
Classical Nahuatl has a [[vigesimal]] or [[base 20]] number system.{{r|andrews|p=307}}In the [[pre-Columbian]] [[Aztec writing|Nahuatl script]], the numbers 20, 400 (20<sup>2</sup>) and 8,000 (20<sup>3</sup>) were represented by a flag, a feather, and a bag, respectively.

It also makes use of [[numeral classifiers]], similar to languages such as [[Chinese classifier|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

===Basic numbers===
{| class="wikitable"
| 1 || {{lang|nci|cē}} || Becomes {{lang|nci|cem-}} or {{lang|nci|cen-}} when prefixed to another element.
|-
| 2 || {{lang|nci|ōme}} || Becomes {{lang|nci|ōm-}} or {{lang|nci|ōn-}} when prefixed to another element.
|-
| 3 || {{lang|nci|(y)ē(y)i}} || Becomes {{lang|nci|(y)ē-}} or {{lang|nci|(y)ēx-}} when prefixed to another element.
|-
| 4 || {{lang|nci|nāhui}} || Becomes {{lang|nci|nāhu-/nāuh-}} (i.e. {{IPA|/naːw/}}) when prefixed to another element.
|-
| 5 || {{lang|nci|mācuīlli}} || Derived from {{lang|nci|māitl}} "hand".{{r|andrews|p=309-310}}
|-
| 6 || {{lang|nci|chicuacē}} || {{lang|nci|chicua-}} "5" + {{lang|nci|cē}} "1"
|-
| 7 || {{lang|nci|chicōme}} || {{lang|nci|chic-}} "5" + {{lang|nci|ōme}} "2"
|-
| 8 || {{lang|nci|chicuēyi}} || {{lang|nci|chicu-}} "5" + {{lang|nci|ēi}} "3"
|-
| 9 || {{lang|nci|chiucnāhui}} || {{lang|nci|chiuc-}} "5" + {{lang|nci|nāhui}} "4"
|-
| 10 || {{lang|nci|mahtlāctli}} || From {{lang|nci|māitl}} "hand" + {{lang|nci|tlāctli}} "torso".{{r|andrews|p=310}}
|-
| 15 || {{lang|nci|caxtōlli}} ||
|-
| 20 || {{lang|nci|cēmpōhualli}} || From {{lang|nci|cēm-}} "1" + {{lang|nci|pōhualli}} "a count" (from {{lang|nci|pōhua}} "to count").{{r|andrews|p=311}}
|-
| 400 || {{lang|nci|cēntzontli}} || From {{lang|nci|cēn-}} "1" + {{lang|nci|tzontli}} "hair".{{r|andrews|p=311}}
|-
| 8000 || {{lang|nci|cēnxiquipilli}} || From {{lang|nci|cēn-}} "1" + {{lang|nci|xiquipilli}} "bag".{{r|andrews|p=312}}
|}

===Compound numbers===
Multiples of 20, 400 or 8,000 are formed by replacing {{lang|nci|cēm-}} or {{lang|nci|cēn-}} with another number. E.g. {{lang|nci|ōmpōhualli}} "40" (2×20), {{lang|nci|mahtlāctzontli}} "4,000" (10×400), {{lang|nci|nāuhxiquipilli}} "32,000" (4×8,000).{{r|andrews|pp=311-312}}

The numbers in between those above—11 to 14, 16 to 19, 21 to 39, and so forth—are formed by following the larger number with a smaller number which is to be added to the larger one. The smaller number is prefixed with {{lang|nci|om-}} or {{lang|nci|on-}}, or in the case of larger units, preceded by {{lang|nci|īpan}} "on it" or {{lang|nci|īhuān}} "with it". E.g. {{lang|nci|mahtlāctli oncē}} "11" (10+1), {{lang|nci|caxtōlonēyi}} "18" (15+3), {{lang|nci|cēmpōhualmahtlāctli omōme}} "32" (20+10+2); {{lang|nci|cēntzontli caxtōlpōhualpan nāuhpōhualomōme}} "782" (1×400+15×20+4×20+2).{{r|andrews|pp=312-313}}{{r|lockhart|pp=49-50}} <!-- To do: tlamic -->

{{interlinear|lang=nci|indent=3
|mahtlāctli {} oncē
|{{no gloss|10}} + {{no gloss|1}}{{r|andrews|pp=11-12}}
|"11"}}

===Classifiers===
Depending on the objects being counted, Nahuatl may use a [[measure word|classifier]] or counter word. These include:
*{{lang|nci|-tetl}} for small, round objects (literally "rock")
*{{lang|nci|-pāntli}} for counting rows
*{{lang|nci|-tlamantli}} for foldable or stackable things
*{{lang|nci|-ōlōtl}} for roundish or oblong-shaped things (literally "maize cob")
Which classifier a particular object takes is loose and somewhat arbitrary.{{r|andrews|p=316}}

===Ordinal numbers===
[[Ordinal numbers (linguistics)|Ordinal numbers]] (first, second, third, etc.) are formed by preceding the number with {{lang|nci|ic}} or {{lang|nci|inic}}.{{r|andrews|p=452}}{{r|lockhart|p=50}}

==Notes==
{{notefoot}}

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
{{r |name=andrews |r= {{cite book |author=Andrews, J. Richard   |year=2003 |title=Introduction to Classical Nahuatl |edition=revised |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |location=Norman |isbn=978-0-8061-3452-9}} }}
{{r |name=carochi |r= {{cite book |author=Carochi, Horacio   |author-link=Horacio Carochi |editor=Lockhart, James |translator=Lockhart, James |title=[[Arte de la lengua mexicana con la declaración de los adverbios della|Grammar of the Mexican language with an explanation of its adverbs]] |year=2001 |orig-year=1645 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, CA |isbn=0-8047-4281-2}} }}
{{r |name=hill-hill-word-order |r= {{cite journal |last1=Hill |first1=Jane C. |last2=Hill |first2=Kenneth C. |date=2004 |title=Word order type change and the penetration of Spanish de in modern Nahuatl |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264806. |journal=STUF - Language Typology and Universals |volume=57 |number=1 |pages=23–48 |doi=10.1524/stuf.2004.57.1.23 |url-access=subscription }}
}}
{{r |name=langacker-relative-clauses |r= {{cite journal |last1=Langacker |first1=Ronald W. |date=January 1975 |title=Relative Clauses in Classical Nahuatl|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264895 |journal=[[International Journal of American Linguistics]] |volume=41 |number=1 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |pages=46–68 |doi=10.1086/465337 |url-access=subscription }} }}
{{r |name=launey |r= {{cite book |last1=Launey |first1=Michel |editor1-last=Mackay |editor1-first=Christopher |title=An Introduction to Classical Nahuatl |date=2011 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-73229-1}}  {{in lang|en|nah}} }}
{{r |name=lockhart |r= {{cite book |author=Lockhart, James   |title=Nahuatl as Written: lessons in older written Nahuatl, with copious examples and texts |year=2001 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |isbn=0-8047-4282-0}} }}
{{r |name=sasaki-configurationality |r= {{cite thesis |last=Sasaki |first=Mitsuya |date=January 2021 |title=Configurationality in Ixquihuacan Nahuatl |url=https://researchmap.jp/mitsuya/published_papers/45564932/attachment_file.pdf |degree=PhD |publisher=[[University of Tokyo]]}} }}
{{r |name=sasaki-locatives |r= {{cite journal |last1=Sasaki |first1=Mitsuya |date=2011 |title=Classical Nahuatl locatives in typological perspectives |url=https://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/records/27560 |journal=Tokyo University Linguistic Papers  |volume=31 |publisher=[[University of Tokyo]] |pages=287–316 |doi=10.15083/00027551 }} }}
{{r |name=sasaki-patient-nouns |r= {{cite journal |last1=Sasaki |first1=Mitsuya |date=2012-09-30 |title=Patient-noun Formation in Classical Nahuatl |url=https://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/records/27541 |journal=Tokyo University Linguistic Papers  |volume=32 |publisher=[[University of Tokyo]] |pages=277–303 |doi=10.15083/00027532 }} }}
{{r |name=sasaki-r-marking |r= {{cite thesis |last=Sasaki |first=Mitsuya |date=December 2012 |title=R-marking: Referential person affixes in Classical Nahuatl nouns |url=https://www.academia.edu/40848196 |degree=Master of Letters |publisher=[[University of Tokyo]]}} }}
{{r |name=configurationality |r= {{cite journal |last1=Haguen |first1=Jason D. |date=2016-01-01 |title=Configurationality in Classical Nahuatl |url=https://lingpapers.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2021/04/WSCLA20-05-Haugen.pdf |journal=University of British Columbia Working Papers in Linguistics  |volume=43 |publisher=[[University of British Columbia]], Department of Linguistics |pages=56–70 }}
}}
{{r |name=steele-word-order |r= {{cite journal |last1=Steele |first1=Susan M. |date=1976 |title=A Law of Order: Word Order Change in Classical Aztec |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1264806 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics  |volume=42 |number=1 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |pages=31–45 |issn=1545-7001 }}
}} }}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}<!--BEGIN biblio format. -->
* {{cite book |author=Garibay K., Ángel María   |author-link=Ángel María Garibay K. |year=1953 |title=Historia de la literatura náhuatl |location=México D.F.}} {{in lang|es|nah}}
* {{cite book |author=Karttunen, Frances   |author-link=Frances Karttunen|year=1992 |title=An analytical dictionary of Nahuatl |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |location=Norman}}
* {{cite book |author=Launey, Michel   |year=1980 |title=Introduction à la langue et à la littérature aztèques |location=Paris}} {{in lang|fr|nah}}
* {{cite book |author=Launey, Michel   |year=1992 |title=Introducción a la lengua y a la literatura Náhuatl. |publisher= UNAM |location=México D.F.}}  {{in lang|es|nah}}
* {{cite book |author=Molina, Alonso de   |author-link=Alonso de Molina |year=1992 |orig-year=1571 |title=[[Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana]] |edition=Reprint |publisher=Porrúa |location=México D.F.}}
* {{cite book |author=Olmos, Andrés de   |author-link=Andrés de Olmos |year=1993 |orig-year=1547 |title=Arte de la lengua mexicana concluído en el convento de San Andrés de Ueytlalpan, en la provincia de Totonacapan que es en la Nueva España |edition=Reprint |location=México D.F.}}
* {{cite book |author=Rincón, Antonio del   |author-link=Antonio del Rincón |year=1885 |orig-year=1595 |title=Arte mexicana compuesta por el padre Antonio del Rincón |edition=Reprint |location=México D.F.}}
* {{cite book |author=Sahagún, Bernardino de   |author-link=Bernardino de Sahagún |year=1950–71 |title=Florentine Codex. General History of the Things of New Spain (Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España) |editor=Charles Dibble and Arthur Anderson|series=vols I-XII |location=Santa Fe, NM}}
{{refend}}
<!-- END biblio format style --> <!-- End references indent style -->

{{Language grammars}}

<references group="lower-alpha" />
<references group="absolutive" />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Classical Nahuatl Grammar}}
[[Category:Native American grammars]]
[[Category:Classical Nahuatl]]