View source for Cilicia

{{Short description|Geographical region in Turkey}}
{{Distinguish|Silesia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name          = Cilicia
| native_name            = {{lang|ar|{{script|Arab|قيليقية}}}}<br />{{lang|hy|Կիլիկիա}}<br />{{lang|grc|{{Script|Grek|Κιλικία}}}}<br />{{lang|tr|Kilikya}}
| nickname               = 
| settlement_type        = Geographical region
| image_map              = Roman Empire - Cilicia (125 AD).svg
| mapsize                = 250px
| map_caption            = Cilicia in the [[Roman Empire]]
| coordinates            = {{coord|36.985|N|35.120|E|region:TR_dim:200000|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type       = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name       = [[Turkey]]
| parts_type             = [[Provinces of Turkey|Provinces]]
| parts_style            = para
| p1                     = [[Mersin Province|Mersin]]
| p2                     = [[Adana Province|Adana]]
| p3                     = [[Osmaniye Province|Osmaniye]]
| p4                     = [[Hatay Province|Hatay]]
| subdivision_type1      = Largest city
| subdivision_type2      = 
| subdivision_type3      = 
| subdivision_name1      = [[Adana]]
| subdivision_name2      = 
| subdivision_name3      = 
| area_magnitude         = 
| unit_pref              = 
| area_footnotes         = 
| area_total_km2         = 38585.16
| area_total_sq_mi       = 
| population_as_of       = 2022
| population_footnotes   = <ref name=tuik />
| population_total       = 6435986
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym     = Cilician(s) (English)<br /> Kilikyalı (Turkish)<br /> Կիլիկյան (Armenian)
| timezone1              = [[Time in Turkey|TRT]]
| utc_offset1            = +03:00
| timezone1_DST          = 
| utc_offset1_DST        = 
| blank_name_sec1        = [[Gross regional product|GRP (nominal)]]
| blank_info_sec1        = $43.14&nbsp;billion (2018)<ref name=DunyaGDP>{{cite web |url=https://www.dunya.com/kose-yazisi/81-ilin-2018-yili-gsyh-ve-buyume-karnesi/459282 |title=81 ilin 2018 yılı GSYH ve büyüme karnesi |work=[[Dünya (newspaper)|Dünya]]|date=25 December 2019 |access-date=16 October 2020 |archive-date=5 February 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200205100923/https://www.dunya.com/kose-yazisi/81-ilin-2018-yili-gsyh-ve-buyume-karnesi/459282 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec1       = GRP per capita
| blank1_info_sec1       = $6,982 (2018)<ref name=DunyaGDP />
| blank2_name_sec1       = Languages
| blank2_info_sec1       = [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic]], [[Kurmanji]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
| postal_code_type       = Postal code prefixes
| postal_code            = 33xxx, 01xxx, 80xxx, 31xxx
| area_codes             = 324, 322, 328, 326
}}

'''Cilicia''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|ˈ|l|ɪ|ʃ|ə}}, {{respell|sil-ISH-ə}})<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cilicia |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cilicia |dictionary=[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]] |access-date=6 April 2014}}; {{cite encyclopedia |title=Cilicia |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cilicia |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Dictionaries (website)|Oxford Dictionaries]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=25 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525000353/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cilicia |archive-date=25 May 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Known less often as '''Kilikia''' ({{langx|hy|Կիլիկիա|translit=Kilikia}}; {{langx|grc|{{Script|Grek|Κιλικία}}|translit=Kilikía}}; {{langx|tr|Kilikya}}).}} is a geographical region of southern [[Anatolia]] in [[West Asia]], extending inland from the northeastern coasts of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Cilicia borders [[Pamphylia]] to the west, [[Lycaonia]] and [[Cappadocia]] to the north, [[Commagene]] to the north-east, [[Syria (region)|Syria]] to the east and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Cilicia has a population ranging over six million, concentrated mostly at the [[Çukurova|Cilician plain]] ({{langx|tr|Çukurova}}). The region includes the provinces of [[Mersin Province|Mersin]], [[Adana Province|Adana]], [[Osmaniye Province|Osmaniye]] and [[Hatay Province|Hatay]].

== Name ==
The name of Cilicia ({{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία}}}}) was derived from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] toponym {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|Ḫilakku}} ({{lang|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪}}}}<ref name="ORACCHilakku">{{unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite web |title=Hilakku [CILICIA] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/tsae/cbd/qpn/x000048070.html |website=Textual Sources of the Assyrian Empire |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}|{{cite web |title=Hilakku [CILICIA] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/atae/cbd/qpn-x-places/x000002390.html |website=Archival Texts of the Assyrian Empire |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}|{{cite web |title=Hilakku [CILICIA] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org//atae/cbd/qpn/x000046540.html |website=Archival Texts of the Assyrian Empire |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}|{{cite web |title=Hilakku [CILICIA] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/saao/sig?%E2%98%A3%40saao%2Fsaa11%25akk-x-neoass%3A{KUR}hi-lak-ku%3DHilakku[Cilicia%2F%2FCilicia]GN%C2%B4GN%24Hilakku |department=Imperial Administrative Records, Part II: Provincial and Military Administration |website=State Archives of Assyria Online |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] | publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]] }}|{{cite web |title=Hilakku [CILICIA] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org//saao/saa11/cbd/qpn-x-places/x000000460.html |department=Imperial Administrative Records, Part II: Provincial and Military Administration |website=State Archives of Assyria Online |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}}}</ref>), which was the name used by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] to designate the western part of what would become Cilicia.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}}

The English spelling {{Transliteration|en|Cilicia}} is the same as the Latin, as it was transliterated directly from the Greek form {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία}}}}. The palatalization of [[c]] occurring in Western Europe in later [[Vulgar Latin]] ({{circa | 500–700}}) accounts for its modern pronunciation in English.

== Geography ==
Cilicia is located on the southern coast of [[Anatolia]], and it historically extended from [[Coracesium]] or the [[Manavgat River|river Melas]] in the west to the [[Amanus Mountains]] in the east, while to the north and northwest it was bounded by the [[Taurus Mountains]], which are passable in very few places, such as the [[Cilician Gates]], and in the south it was bounded by the [[Gulf of Iskenderun]].{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=398}}

Cilicia consisted of two main contrasting regions:{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}}{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=397-398}}
* to the west was a mountainous region characterised by rough terrain, corresponding to the Neo-Assyrian period territory of {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|[[Ḫilakku]]}} and the Graeco-Roman region of Rough Cilicia;
* to the east was a flat and water-rich fertile region defined by a smooth terrain, corresponding to the Neo-Assyrian period territory of [[Ḫiyawa]] and the Graeco-Roman region of Plain Cilicia.

The western mountainous part of Cilicia was called Rugged Cilicia or Rough Cilicia ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία Τραχεῖα}}|translit=Kilikía Trakheîa}}; {{langx|la|Cilicia Aspera}}), while the eastern region was dominated by the alluvial plain of the rivers [[Berdan River|Cydnus]], [[Seyhan River|Sarus]], and [[Ceyhan River|Pyramus]], and was therefore known as Plain Cilicia or Flat Cilicia ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία Πεδιάς}}|translit=Kilikía Pediás}}; {{langx|la|Cilicia Campestris}}).{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}

Although Cilicia's boundaries are difficult to traverse, it has important access routes which have connected it since antiquity with the neighbouring North Syrian Plain in the east and the Anatolian Highlands in the north:{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=399}}
*the most important of these passages across the Taurus Mountains are the course of the [[Göksu|Göksu River]] which ends near [[Mut, Mersin|Mut]] to the southeast of [[Konya]], and the [[Cilician Gates]] to the north of Tarsus which opens on [[Tynna|Porsuk]] near [[Tyana]]. The upper reaches of the Seyhan and Ceyhan rivers were however more difficult to cross and were therefore of little importance for trade in antiquity.
*two important passes also allowed passage through the Amanus Mountains: the [[Amanian Gate]], now known as the Bahçe Pass, led into the plain of [[İslahiye]], which was a side valley of the [[Amik Valley|Amuq Plain]] in Hatay; as well as the southern Amanus Pass or [[Belen Pass|Syrian Gates]], now known as the Beilan Pass, which laid at the end of a southern route branching off at [[Osmaniye]] and following the coast through [[Issus (Cilicia)|Issus]] and [[İskenderun]], and opened into the [[Orontes River|Orontes]] Plain near [[Alalakh|Alalaḫ]] or [[Antioch]]. These two routes provided access from Cilicia to the plains of the northern Levant and Mesopotamia.

The most important route of the Cilician Plain, since antiquity, has run from the Amanus passes to the Taurus passes. This route comes from northern Syria, crosses Plain Cilica westward throug Adana and Tarsus, and finally continues into Anatolia. In modern times, this route corresponds to the trajectory of a motorway, a national highway, and the [[Berlin–Baghdad railway|Baghdad Railway]] built in the early 20th century AD. The distribution of ancient settlements along this axis suggests that this route existed from as early as the Chalcolithic Period.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=399}}

[[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]], the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in the [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Roman province of Cilicia]] from 58 BC until 27 BC.

=== Rough Cilicia ===
'''Rough Cilicia''' ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία Τραχεῖα}}|translit=Kilikía Trakheîa}}; {{langx|la|Cilicia Aspera}}; {{langx|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒄭𒋃𒆪}}|translit=Ḫilakku}};<ref name="ORACCHilakku" /> {{langx|akk-x-neobabyl|{{cuneiform|12|𒆳𒉿𒆸𒁺}}|translit=Pirindu}}{{sfn|Grayson|1975|p=103}})<ref>Sayce, A. H. (October 1922) "The Decipherment of the Hittite Hieroglyphic Texts" ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' 4: pp. 537–572, page 554</ref><ref>Edwards, I. E. S. (editor) (2006) ''The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region c.&nbsp;1380–1000 B.C.'' (3rd edition) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, [https://books.google.com/books?id=n1TmVvMwmo4C&pg=RA1-PA422 page 422] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221030015744/https://books.google.com/books?id=n1TmVvMwmo4C&pg=RA1-PA422 |date=30 October 2022 }}, {{ISBN|0-521-08691-4}}</ref><ref>Toynbee, Arnold Joseph and Myers, Edward DeLos (1961) ''A Study of History, Volume 7'' Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, page 668, {{OCLC|6561573}}</ref> is a rugged mountain district<ref>In general see: Bean, George Ewart and Mitford, Terence Bruce (1970) ''Journeys in Rough Cilicia, 1964–1968'' (Volume 102 of Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse.Denkschriften) Böhlau in Komm., Vienna, {{ISBN| 3-205-04279-4}}</ref> formed by the spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with small sheltered harbours,<ref name=Rife>Rife, Joseph L. (2002) "Officials of the Roman Provinces in Xenophon's "Ephesiaca"" ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'' 138: pp. 93–108 , page 96</ref> features which, in classical times, made the coast a string of havens for [[Cilician pirates|pirates]]<ref name=Rife /><ref>See also the history of [[Side, Turkey|Side (Σίδη)]].</ref> and, in the Middle Ages, outposts for [[Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Venice|Venetian]] traders. The district is watered by the [[Göksu|Calycadnus]]<ref>Wainwright, G. A. (April 1956) "Caphtor – Cappadocia" ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'' 6(2): pp. 199–210, pages 205–206</ref> and was covered in ancient times by forests that supplied timber to [[Phoenicia]] and [[Egypt]]. Cilicia lacked large cities.<ref name=EB1911 />

=== Plain Cilicia ===
'''Plain Cilicia''' ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία Πεδιάς}}|translit=Kilikía Pediás}}; {{langx|la|Cilicia Campestris}}; {{langx|akk-x-neoassyr|{{cuneiform|11|𒆳𒄣𒂊}}|translit=Que}};<ref name="ORACCQue1">{{cite web |title=Que [1] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/riao/cbd/qpn-x-places/x000003340.html |website=The Royal Inscriptions of Assyria online |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}</ref> {{langx|akk-x-neobabyl|{{cuneiform|12|𒆳𒄷𒈨𒂊}}|translit=Ḫuwê}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Hume [1] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/ribo/cbd/qpn-x-places/x000000650.html |website=The Royal Inscriptions of Babylonia online |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hume [1] (GN) |url=http://oracc.org/armep/cbd/qpn/x000126180.html |website=Ancient Records of Middle Eastern Polities |series=[[Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus]] |publisher=[[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]}}</ref>), to the east, included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a [[Çukurova|large coastal plain]], with rich loamy soil,<ref name=EB1911 /> known to Greeks such as [[Xenophon]] (who passed through with his mercenary group of the [[Ten Thousand (Greek mercenaries)|Ten Thousand]],<ref>Xenophon, [[Anabasis (Xenophon)|''Anabasis'']] 1.2.22, noted the sesame and millet.</ref>) for its abundance (''euthemia''),<ref>Remarked by Robin Lane Fox, ''Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer'', 2008:73 and following pages</ref> filled with [[sesame]] and [[millet]] and olives<ref>The modern plain has added cotton fields and orange groves.</ref> and pasturage for the horses imported into ancient Israel by King [[Solomon]].<ref>1 Kings 10:28 – "Solomon's horses were imported from Egypt and from Cilicia, where the king's merchants purchased them", noted by Fox 2008:75 note 15.</ref> Many of its high places were fortified.

The plain is watered by multiple rivers originating in the Tauris Mountains, with the three most important of these being:{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=398}}
*the [[Berdan River]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κύδνος}}|translit=Kúdnos}}; {{langx|la|Cydnus}}),
*the [[Seyhan River]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Σάρος}}|translit=Sáros}}; {{langx|la|Sarus}}),
*and the [[Ceyhan River]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Πύραμος}}|translit=Púramos}}; {{langx|la|Pyramus}}).

=== Climate ===
The climate of Cilicia shows significant differences between the mountains and the lower plains. At the lower plains, the climate reflects a typical [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] style; summers are hot<ref name=Fortif>{{Cite book |last=Vandekerckhove |first=Dweezil |title=Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia: The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle Ages |publisher=BRILL |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41741-0 |location=Leiden |pages=15}}</ref> while winters are mild, making the land, particularly, the eastern plains, fertile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=S. Augustus |title=An Ancient Geography, Classical and Sacred |publisher=E.H. Butler & Co. |year=1860 |location=Philadelphia, PA |page=36 |language=en}}</ref> In the coldest month (January), the average temperature is 9&nbsp;°C, and in the warmest month (August), the average temperature is 28&nbsp;°C. The mountains of Cilicia have an inland climate with snowy winters. The average annual precipitation in the region is 647&nbsp;mm and the average number of rainy days in a year is 76. [[Mersin]] and surrounding areas have the highest average temperature in Cilicia. Mersin also has high annual precipitation (1096&nbsp;mm) and 85 rainy days in a year.

The Cilician Plain possesses fertile soils, a hot climate, and abundant water resources thanks to enough rainfalls and multiple rivers, which make it one of the most productive agricultural regions of present-day Turkey. A large number of burial mounts from every era of human presence there shows that these favourable conditions have been conducive to intensive human settlement in Plain Cilicia from the Neolithic Period.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=400}}

=== Geology ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2021}}
The mountains of Cilicia are formed from ancient limestones, [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]], marlstone, and similar materials. The Taurus Mountains are composed of karstic limestone, while its soil is also limestone-derived, with pockets of volcanic soil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vandekerckhove |first=Dweezil |title=Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia: The Armenian Contribution to Military Architecture in the Middle Ages |publisher=BRILL |year=2019 |isbn=978-90-04-41741-0 |location=Leiden |pages=17 |language=en}}</ref> The lower plain is the largest [[alluvial plain]] in Turkey.{{Citation needed|date= June 2021}} Expansion of limestone formations and fourth-era alluvials brought by the rivers [[Seyhan River|Seyhan]] and [[Ceyhan River|Ceyhan]] formed the plains of the region over the course of time.

[[Akyatan Lagoon|Akyatan]], Akyayan, Salt Lake, Seven lakes at Aladağ, and Karstik Dipsiz lake near [[Karaisalı]] are the lakes of the region. The reservoirs in the region are Seyhan, Çatalan, Yedigöze, Kozan and Mehmetli.

The major rivers in Cilicia are [[Seyhan River|Seyhan]], [[Ceyhan River|Ceyhan]], [[Berdan River|Berdan (Tarsus)]], [[Orontes River|Asi]] and [[Göksu]].

* [[Seyhan River]] emerges from the confluence of Zamantı and Göksu rivers which originate from [[Kayseri Province]] and flows into the [[Gulf of Mersin]]. The river is 560&nbsp;km long.
* [[Ceyhan River]] emerges from the confluence of the Aksu and Hurman rivers and flows towards Cape Hürmüz at the [[Gulf of İskenderun]]. It is 509&nbsp;km long and it forms the Akyayan, Akyatan, and Kakarat lakes before flowing into the Mediterranean.
* [[Berdan River]] originates from the [[Taurus Mountains]] and flows into the Mediterranean south of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]].
* [[Göksu]] river originates from the [[Taurus Mountains]] and flows into the Mediterranean 16&nbsp;km southeast of [[Silifke]]. It forms the [[Göksu Delta]], including Akgöl Lake and Paradeniz Lagoon.

== History ==
Plain Cilician formed an important link between Syria, and, by extension, Mesopotamia and Egypt as well, with Cyprus and the Anatolian highlands for several periods.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=400}}

=== Neolithic ===
Due to its propitious environmental conditions, Plain Cilicia has been intensively settled by humans since the Neolithic Period.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=400}}

During the Neolithic Period, ceramic wares from Cilicia show links to northern Syria and nothern Mesopotamia, as well as to the ceramics of Inner Anatolia. Influences from the [[Halaf culture]] of northern Mesopotamia are visible in Cilicia in this period, and so are influences from the [[Ubaid period|Ubaid culture]].{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=400}}
[[File:Nasiriyah Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, from Mesopotamia, Iraq, c. 2300 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Probable captives from Cilicia, on the Nasiriyah stele of [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]], circa 2200 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKeon |first1=John F. X. |title=An Akkadian Victory Stele |journal=Boston Museum Bulletin |year=1970 |volume=68 |issue=354 |page=239 |jstor=4171539 |issn=0006-7997}}</ref>]]

=== Chalcolithic ===
During the Chalcolithic Period, close contacts existed between Cilicia and the Amuq E and F cultures of the nearby Amuq Plain.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=401}}

During the Late Chalcolithic Period, when the Uruk culture spread in Mesopotamia, Cilicia exhibited closer cultural links to the Anatolian Highlands.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=401}}

=== Bronze Age ===
Beginning in the Early Bronze Age II period, and especially during the Early Bronze Age III period, which corresponds to the Early Bronze Age I-IV of the northern Levant, Syrian-Levantine influence on Cilician pottery was more intensely felt, resulting in the appearance of special types of pottery such as Metallic Ware and Syrian Flasks.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=401}} Thus, Cilicia moved away from influence by the Anatolian cultural sphere and towards the northern Syrian cultural zone during the early Bronze Age, with this latter one persisting until the Middle Bronze Age.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=410}}

Cilicia is not mentioned in any ancient texts in the 3rd millennium BC, and even the sources of [[Ebla]] do not refer to it.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=401}}

The first recognisable mentions of the Cilician Plain instead are from between {{c.|2000}} and {{c.|1750 BC}}, with the [[Story of Sinuhe]], which takes place during the reign of [[Senusret I]] ({{reign|1971|1926 BC}}), referring to a {{transl|xlu|ḫantawattis}} from the south of the land of Kawa, who can be located in Plain Cilicia; the Luwian title of this ruler shows that the ruling class of Cilicia during this period were [[Luwians]].{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=401}}

An Egyptian inscription from the reign of Senusret I's successor, [[Amenemhat II]] ({{reign|1929|1895 BC}}), mentioned the port city of Ura. There is otherwise no information about the political situation of Cilicia from the period lasting from {{c.|2000}} to {{c.|1500 BC}}, with neither the letters of Assyrian traders in [[Kültepe|Kaniš]] nor the royal correspondence of the palace at [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] providing any information about Cilicia.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=402}}

Archaeological remains from this period derive almost solely from Tarsus, Mersin, Kinet Höyük and [[Sirkeli Höyük]]. Beginning in the Bronze Age IA, which is when the land of Kawa was mentioned in the Story of Sinuhe, Painted Syro-Cilician Ware became prevalent in large parts of the Levant and Syria, which, in addition to its similarities with [[Khabur Ware]] and Levantine Painted Ware, showed close connections between Cilicia and these regions. Contacts between Cilicia and Central Anatolia are discernable in the forms of the ceramics, such as spouted jugs found at Sirkeli Höyük, as well as by the dominance of Central Anatolian house types at Tarsus and Mersin.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=402}}

Before the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] [[Hurrian language|language]] and [[Hurrian religion|religion]] had spread into Cilicia, where the Hurrian and Luwian components were dominant among the population of the region from the period lasting from {{c.|1500}} to {{c.|1250 BC}}.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=403}}

During the Late Bronze Age, Cilicia was dominated by the kingdom of [[Kizzuwatna]] which came into existence during the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, at the time of the Hittite king [[Ammuna]], and was an independent power as well as a buffer between the [[Hittite Empire]] and the [[Mitanni|kingdom of Mitanni]].{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=403}} During this period, silver from this region was exported to [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}[[File:Slave treaty tablet.jpg|thumb|125px|Fugitive slave treaty between Idrimi of [[Alalakh]] (now [[Tell Atchana]]) and Pilliya of [[Kizzuwatna]] ''(now Cilicia),'' (c.&nbsp;1480 BC) Ref:{{British-Museum-db|131447|id=327265}}.]]

Even at this early period, Kizzuwatna was an important location for the Hittite Empire, since it provided the Hittites with access to Syria, which was useful for trade and was strategically advantageous.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=404}}

The border between Kizzuwatna and the Hittite kingdom was established by the treaty between [[Sunassura|Šunaššura]] of Kizzuwatna and [[Tudḫaliya I|Tudḫaliya I/II]] of the Hittites, according to which Kizzuwatna's most western city was to be Pitura on the coast and opposite of Lamiya (Classical [[Antiochia Lamotis|Lamos]]), thus leaving the port-city of Ura under Hittite rule. Meanwhile, the southwest-northeast border of Kizzuwatna ran through the Taurus Mountains and included the upper reaches of the Šamri (Classical Saros) river.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=404}}

Kizzuwatna was later annexed by the Hittites, possibly during the reigns of [[Arnuwanda I]] or [[Šuppiluliuma I]], the latter of whom appointed Kantuzzili, and later Telipinu, as priest at Kummanni.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=403}} The incorporation of Kizzuwatna into the Hittite Empire allowed Šuppiluliuma I to engage in an aggressively expansionist policy in Syria.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=404}}

Kizzuwatna had a significant cultural influence on the Hittite Empire: its Hurrian and Luwian populations and being open to Syria, it influenced Hittite religion in many aspects.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=404}}

In the Middle Bronze Age developed a far-reaching economic and socio-political system across the eastern Mediterranean, which was maintained by the palaces, and would reach its peak in the Late Bronze Age. Because of the dominance of the secular ruling classes in the economic, poilitical and ideological domains, it is referred to in research as a "Bronze Age palace culture," characterised by a reciprocal exchange system which included trade and prestige goods, craftsmen, and ideas. Evidence of this system is visible in the archaeological finds and texts from palaces like [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]], [[Avaris]] in [[Egypt]], [[Hattusa]] in Anatolia, and [[Ugarit]], [[Alalakh|Alalaḫ]] and [[Qatna]] in the Levant, although the processes through which this interregional cultural exchange unfolded are still poorly understood.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=405}}

The extent to which Cilicia was integrated into this international system, in which form did a palace culture develop there, and the degree to which it participated in the widespread exchange of luxury goods are also still currently unknown; until the present day, no palaces have been found and excavated in Cilicia. It is therefore also impossible to know which architectural styles from surrounding areas were borrowed by Cilician architecture, and whether certain luxury goods were imported and imitated there, as was the case in Syria.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=405}}

The second half of the Late Bronze Age in Cilicia is characterised by Hittite Drab Ware and Red Lustrous Wheelmade Ware, whose origin was either from Cilicia itself or from Cyprus. Several Cypriot pottery imports and isolated Mycenaean shards also appeared in Tarsus at the same time as this ware, thus providing an outline of the cultural exchanges under way at this time. Influence from Central Anatolia was especially intense, as attested by the city wall in Mersin, which used the box-and-beam masonry technique based on Hittite models.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=404-405}}



=== Iron Age ===
{{Main|Ḫiyawa|Ḫilakku}}
With the Bronze Age Collapse, Kizzuwatna also came to an end, and from its remains several local states emerged in Cilicia, which therefore became dominated by two main polities:{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165-166}}{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=406}}
* in the east was [[Ḫiyawa]], corresponding to Plain Cilicia, and referred to as {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|Que}} in Neo-Assyrian sources and as {{Transliteration|akk-x-neobabyl|Ḫuwê}} in [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]] sources;{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=583-584}}
* in the west, corresponding to Rough Cilicia, was the state referred to as {{Transliteration|akk-x-neoassyr|Ḫilakku}} in Neo-Assyrian sources and as {{Transliteration|akk-x-neobabyl|Pirindu}} in Neo-Babylonian sources.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=309-310}}
Both Hiyawa and Hilakku came under pressure from the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the 9th century BC, and more so in the 8th century BC, when they were temporarily annexed and made into Neo-Assyrian provinces.{{sfn|Novák|2010|p=406}} During the 1st millennium BC, silver from Cilicia was exported to Assyria.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}

During the 8th to 7th centuries BC, Greek traders and colonists established settlements on the Cilician coasts, such as [[Nagidos]] and [[Aydıncık, Mersin|Celenderis]] founded by [[Samos]], [[Soli (Cilicia)|Soli]] founded by [[Lindus|Lindos]]; Greeks also established themselves in local settlements, such as at [[Anchiale]] and [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]].{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=168-169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}

==== Kingdom of Cilicia ====
{{main|Ḫilakku#The 6th century BC}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Cilicia
| common_name            = 
| native_name            = {{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία}}}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Kilikía}})
| image_map              = File:Cilicia-pt.svg
| map_caption            = Kingdom of Cilicia in 6th century BC
| capital                = [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]
| demonym                = Cilicians
| title_leader           = King
| year_leader1           = {{c.|585 BC}}
| leader1                = Syennesis I
| date_start             = {{c.|6th century BC}}
| event1                 = Submission to the Achaemenid Empire
| date_event1            = {{c.|542 BC}}
| event_end              = Annexation by the Achaemenid Empire
| date_end               = 401 BC
| p1                     = Tarḫuntašša
| s1                     = Cilicia (satrapy)
| flag_s1                = Standard of Cyrus the Great.svg
| today                  = [[Turkey]]
}}
Following the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, an independent state, called Cilicia ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κιλικία}}|translit=Kilikía}}) by the ancient Greeks, was established in southeastern Anatolia in the 6th century BC under the rule of a native dynasty,{{sfn|Hawkins|1975|p=403}} with its capital at the city of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]].{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}}

===== Submission to the Achaemenid Empire =====
In the mid-6th century BC, the kingdom of Cilicia supported the founding king of the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Achaemenid Empire]], [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]], in his wars against Croesus of Lydia,{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}} as a consequence of which Cilicia became a vassal of the Achaemenid empire as from {{c.|542 BC}},{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}} and the Cilician rulers became part of the Achaemenid administration.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

Under early Achaemenid rule, Cilicia maintained a significant degree of autonomy{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}} and the native rulers at Tarsus acted as [[satrap]]s (governors) for the Achaemenid administration, with their authority extending until as far west as [[Aspendus]].{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}}

Cilicia remained under efficient administration, and it would continue to provide troops for the Achaemenid wars in Anatolia, Egypt and Cyprus.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

{{Infobox Former Subdivision
| common_name            = Achaemenid Cilicia
| capital                = [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]
| era                    = [[Achaemenid era]]
| subdivision            = [[Satrapy]]
| nation                 = the [[Achaemenid Empire]]
| image_map              = File:Western part of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg
| image_map_caption      = Cilicia was located in the western part of the Achaemenid Empire, in south-east Anatolia.
| image_flag             = Standard of Cyrus the Great (White).svg
| flag                   = Flags of Persia
| flag_type              = Standard of Cyrus the Great
| year_start             = {{c.|542 BC}}
| year_end               = 333 BC
| p1                     = Ḫilakku#The 6th century BC{{!}}Kingdom of Cilicia
| s1                     = Macedonian Empire
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]
| title_leader           = [[King of Kings]]
| title_deputy           = [[Satrap]]
| event_start            = Cyrus II's conquest of Babylon
| event_end              = Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid Empire
| deputy1                = Syennesis II
| year_deputy1           = {{c.|480 BC}}
| deputy2                = Xeinagoras of Halicarnassus
| year_deputy2           = {{c.|470s BC}}
| deputy3                = [[Syennesis (5th century)|Syennesis III]]
| year_deputy3           = {{c.|401 BC}}
| deputy4                = [[Camisares]]
| year_deputy4           = {{c.|390s}} - {{c.|385 BC}}
| deputy5                = [[Datames]]
| year_deputy5           = {{c.|385}} - {{c.|362 BC}}
| deputy6                = [[Mazaeus]]
| year_deputy6           = {{c.|340s}} - 333 BC
| leader1                = [[Artaxerxes II]]
| year_leader1           = 405–358 BC
| leader2                = [[Artaxerxes III]]
| year_leader2           = 358–338 BC
| leader3                = [[Arses]]
| year_leader3           = 338–336 BC
| leader4                = [[Darius III]]
| year_leader4           = 336–330 BC
| native_name            = Achaemenid Cilicia
| today                  = [[Turkey]]
| flag_s1                = Vergina Sun WIPO.svg
}}

==== Satrapy of Cilicia ====
In 401 BC, the Achaemenid king of kings [[Artaxerxes II]] abolished the autonomy of Cilicia in reaction to the local Cilician ruler [[Syennesis III]]'s support for the rebellion of [[Cyrus the Younger]],{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}} resulting in the kingdom of Cilicia being abolished and fully integrated into the Achaemenid empire as a normal province ruled by and appointed by the Achaemenid king of kings, which it would remain until the [[Wars of Alexander the Great#Asia Minor|end of the Achaemenid Empire]] in 333 BC.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}}{{sfn|Simon|2021|p=683}}

Once the revolt of Cyrus the Younger had been suppressed, Cilicia was again used as an assembly point for Achaemenid forces in preparation for military action in the Aegean Sea during 396 to 395 BC, and against Cyprus in the 380s BC.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

During the 390s BC, [[Camisares]] was appointed as satrap of Cilicia. Camisares was himself succeeded by his son, [[Datames]], who eventually became the satrap of both Cilicia and Cappadocia until his assassination in {{c.|362 BC}}.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}
[[File:CILICIA, Tarsos. Mazaios. Satrap of Cilicia, 361-0-334 BC.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of [[Mazaios]]. Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC. [[Tarsos]], Cilicia.]]
[[File:CILICIA, Tarsos. Mazaios. Satrap of Cilicia, 361-0-334 BCE.jpg|thumb|250px|Coin of [[Mazaios]], with [[Artaxerxes III]] as [[Pharaoh]]. Satrap of Cilicia, 361/0-334 BC. [[Tarsos]], Cilicia.]]

In the 340s BC, the satrap of Cilicia was [[Mazaeus]], who was also given authority over Syria as reward for his service in a campaign against Egypt.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

=== Hellenistic period ===
Following the [[Battle of Issus]], Cilicia became part of the [[Macedonian Empire|empire]] of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III]] of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329}} after he entered the region through the Cilician Gates in the Taurus Mountains without facing any resitance.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}

Alexander forded the [[Halys River]] in the summer of 333 BC, ending up on the border of southeastern [[Phrygia]] and Cilicia. He knew well the writings of [[Xenophon]], and how the Cilician Gates had been "impassable if obstructed by the enemy". Alexander reasoned that by force alone he could frighten the defenders and break through, and he gathered his men to do so. In the cover of night, they attacked, startling the guards and sending them and their satrap into full flight, setting their crops aflame as they made for [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]. This good fortune allowed Alexander and his army to pass unharmed through the Gates and into Cilicia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fox |first=Robin Lane |title=Alexander the Great |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00lane |url-access=registration |publisher=The Dial Press |year=1974 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00lane/page/154 154]–155 |isbn=978-0-8037-0945-4}}</ref>

During Alexander III's invasion, a lesser officer named [[Arsames (satrap of Cilicia)|Arsames]] who had fled to Cilicia from the northwest to organise new resistance there defended it against the Macedonian forces.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

During the Hellenistic period, Cilicia became disputed between the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] and the [[Seleucid Empire]], with the latter being mostly in control of it,, while the Teucrid dynasty ruled at the city of Olba.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}

Although no later Persian empire ever regained control of Cilicia, one Seleucid officer named Aribazus and attested as administrator of Cilicia in 246 BC was possibly of Persian descent.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

During the [[Hellenistic]] era, numerous cities were established in Cilicia, which minted coins showing the badges (gods, animals, and objects) associated with each polis.<ref>For a full list of ancient cities and their coins see asiaminorcoins.com – [http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/index.php?cat=21 ancient coins of Cilicia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031224049/http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/gallery/index.php?cat=21 |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref>

The Seleucids, especially [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes|Antiochus IV]], focused on Hellenising Cilicia by establishing or rebuilding several poleis, such as Seleucia on the Calycadnus, Antioch on the Cydnus (Tarsus), Seleucia on the Pyramus ([[Mopsuestia]]), Hierapolis ([[Castabala (city)|Castabala]]), and [[Epiphania (Cilicia)|Epiphaneia]].{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=329-330}}

In the 3rd century BC, sporadic Ptolemaic presence was attested in Rugged Cilicia.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

With the weakening of the Seleucid kingdom in the late 2nd century BC, [[Cilician pirates|piracy]] spread in the Mediterranean which had its main bases in Rugged Cilicia.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

=== Roman and Byzantine periods ===
{{Main|Cilicia (Roman province)|Cibyrrhaeot Theme}}
[[File:Asia Minor in the 2nd century AD - general map - Roman provinces under Trajan - bleached - English legend.jpg|thumb|200px|The Roman provinces of Asia Minor under Trajan, including Cilicia]]
In 102 BC, the [[Roman Republic]] establiched a [[Roman province|{{transl|la|provincia}}]] of the [[Praetor|{{transl|la|praetor}}]] [[Marcus Antonius (orator)|Marcus Antonius]] in Cilicia to fight the Cilician pirates, with the command being renewed repeatedly.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

In 83 BC, the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian]] king [[Tigranes the Great|Tigranes II]] conquered Plain Cilicia, and he deported Cilicians to [[Tigranocerta]].{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

Between 78 and 74 BC, [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus]] conquered the population of Rugged Cilicia, which made a permanent Roman presence in Cilicia possible.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

In 69 BC, [[Lucullus]] returned the Cilician deportees to Tigranocerta back to their homeland.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

After [[Pompey]] was given the {{transl|la|imperium proconsulare maius}}, he was able to defeat the Cilician pirates in 67 BC, and he arranged for his defeated enemies to be settled in Pompeiopolis (formerly Soli) and other depopulated Cilician towns. This victory strengthened the Roman presence in Cilicia,{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}} and in 64 BC the province was extended to include Plain Cilicia.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}
[[File:Anazarbus klikya city south gate.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A Roman-period triumphal arch at [[Anazarbus]], later converted into the city's south gate]]

In 56 BC, the province of Cilicia was temporarily extended to include a large inland territory reaching Phrygia so that it could protect the province of Asia and made the presence of a Roman garrison there unnecessary.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}

In 51 BC, the [[Parthian Empire]] was able to take advantage of the weakness of the Roman Republic to invade Cilicia ({{langx|xpr|{{script|Prti|𐭊𐭉𐭋𐭊𐭉𐭀}}}}).{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

In 51 or 50 BC, the [[Proconsul|{{transl|la|proconsul}}]] [[Cicero]] successfully campaigned in Cilicia against the Eleutherokilikes in the Amanus Mountains, which further solidified the Roman presence in CIlicia.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

After Julius Caesar's death, the {{transl|la|provincia}} of Cilicia was dissolved in 43 BC, and most of Rugged Cilicia was given to [[Amyntas of Galatia]], then to [[Archelaus of Cappadocia]]. Plain Cilicia meanwhile was ruled by the kingdom of [[Tarcondimotus I]] as well as other smaller client-states of the Roman Republic, or administered as part of Syria.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

Tarcondimotus I had supported the losing side of [[Caesar's civil war|both Roman]] [[War of Actium|civil wars]] by offering naval support to Pompey and [[Mark Antony]], due to which his son [[Philopator I|Tarcondimotus II Philopator]] was deposed in 30 BC, although he was restored to power between 20 BC and 17 AD.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

Parts of Cilicia were given to [[Antiochus IV of Commagene|Antiochus IV]] of Commagene by [[Caligula]], who incorporated the rest of it into Syria.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

A united province of Cilicia consisting of both Rugged and Plain Cilicia with Tarsus as capital was re-established in 72 AD by [[Vespasian]].{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

During the early 2nd century AD, 39 cities of Cilicia issued coins.{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=169}}

In 194 AD, [[Septimius Severus]] defeated [[Pescennius Niger]] at the Cilician Gates.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}} Under the [[Severan dynasty]], during the late 2nd to early 3rd centuries AD, the city of [[Anazarbus]], which was made into a metropolis, became a rival of Tarsus.{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

In 259 or 260, the Persian [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] king of kings [[Shapur I]] defeated the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], whose army included Cilician soldiers. After Valerian's defeat, the Sasanian forces burnt and sacked several cities in Syria, Cilicia ({{langx|pal|{{script|Phli|𐭪𐭫𐭪𐭩𐭠𐭩}}}}) and Cappadocia, and devastated large parts of Cilicia.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

Under Diocletian's reforms, Cilicia was split into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secunda which included the northwestern part of Syria now known as Hatay, and a province named [[Isauria]] with its capital at Seleucia which included Rugged Cilicia.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

Cilicia had numerous Christian communities and is mentioned six times in the [[Book of Acts]] and once in the [[Epistle to the Galatians]] (1:21).<ref name="edwards3">{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Robert W., "Architecture: Cilician" |title=The Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Early Christian Art and Archaeology, ed., Paul Corby Finney |date=2016 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |isbn=978-0-8028-9016-0 |pages=106–108}}</ref> After Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Cilicia was included in the territories of the patriarchate of Antioch.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Robert W., "Isauria" |title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, eds., G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, & Oleg Grabar |date=1999 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=0-674-51173-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe/page/377 377] |url=https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe/page/377}}</ref> The region was divided into two civil and ecclesiastical provinces: ''Cilicia Prima'', with a [[metropolis (religious jurisdiction)|metropolitan diocese]] at [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] and [[suffragan diocese]]s for [[Pompeiopolis]], [[Elaiussa Sebaste|Sebaste]], [[Augusta (Cilicia)|Augusta]], [[Corycus]], [[Adana]], [[Mallus (city)|Mallus]] and [[Zephyrium]]; and ''Cilicia Secunda'', with a metropolitan diocese at [[Anazarbus]] and suffragan dioceses for Mopsuestia, [[Aigai (Aeolian)|Aegae]], [[Epiphania, Cilicia|Epiphania]], [[Irenopolis, Cilicia|Irenopolis]], [[Flavias]], [[Diocese of Castabala|Castabala]], [[Iskenderun|Alexandria]], [[Citidiopolis]] and [[Arsuz|Rhosus]]. Bishops from the various dioceses of Cilicia were well represented at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 and at the later ecumenical councils.<ref>Le Quien, ''Oriens Christianus'', ii. 869–908</ref>

In 400, [[Theodosius I]] divided Plain Cilicia into the provinces of Cilicia Prima, headquartered at Tarsus, and Cilicia Secunda, whose capital was Anazarbus.{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}{{sfn|Täuber|2003b|p=331}}

The Christian Church in Cilicia was under the authority of the [[Patriarch of Antioch]].{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}

Cilicia remained prosperous, due to which several, largely ecclesiastical, construction works were undertaken there.{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}

From the middle of the 7th century, Cilicia became more and more close to the border between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Caliphate]], resulting in the depopulation of the region.{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}

=== Early Islamic period ===
In the 7th century Cilicia was invaded by the Muslim Arabs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kaegi |first=Walter Emil |year=1969 |title=Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3162702 |journal=Church History |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=139–149 |doi=10.2307/3162702 |jstor=3162702 |s2cid=162340890 |issn=0009-6407|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The area was for some time an embattled no-man's land. The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Cilicia around {{c.|700}}.{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}} Under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], Cilicia was resettled and transformed into a fortified frontier zone (''[[thughur]]''). Tarsus, re-built in 787/788, quickly became the largest settlement in the region and the Arabs' most important base in their raids across the [[Taurus Mountains]] into Byzantine-held Anatolia.

In medieval [[Arabic]] Cilicia was known as ''Ath-Thugur As-Shamiyya'' meaning "Levantine outskirts".

The Muslims held the country until it was reoccupied by the Emperor [[Nicephorus II]] in 965.<ref name=EB1911 />{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}} During the Byzantine resettlement of Cilicia, many Armenians migrated to Cilicia, where they founded in 1071 the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|kingdom of Lesser Armenia]].{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}

=== Armenian Cilicia and the Crusades ===
{{Main|Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia}}
{{See also|List of monarchs of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia}}
[[File:Cilician Armenia-en.svg|thumb|right|200px|The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia, 1199–1375]]

During the time of the [[First Crusade]], the area was controlled by the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]]. The [[Seljuk Turk]]ish invasions of Armenia were followed by an exodus of Armenians migrating westward into the Byzantine Empire, and in 1080 [[Ruben I of Armenia|Ruben]], a relative of the last king of [[Ani (Armenia)|Ani]], founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a small principality which gradually expanded into the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]]. This Christian state, surrounded by Muslim states hostile to its existence, had a stormy history of about 300 years, giving valuable support to the Crusaders, and trading with the great commercial cities of Italy.<ref name=EB1911 />

It prospered for three centuries due to the vast network of fortifications which secured all the major roads as well as the three principal harbours at [[Yumurtalık|Ayas]], [[Corycus|Koŕikos]], and [[Mopsuestia]].<ref name=edwardsrw>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Robert W. |title=The Fortifications of Armenian Cilicia: Dumbarton Oaks Studies XXIII |date=1987 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-88402-163-7 |pages=3–288}}</ref> Through their complex alliances with the Crusader states, the Armenian barons and kings often invited Crusaders to maintain castles in and along the borders of the Kingdom, including [[Bagras]], [[Trapessac]], [[Toprakkale, Osmaniye|T‛il Hamtun]], [[Düziçi|Harunia]], [[Silifke Castle|Selefkia]], [[Amouda]], and [[Sarvandikar]].

[[Constantine I, Prince of Armenia|Gosdantin]] (r. 1095 – c.&nbsp;1100) assisted the [[First Crusade|Crusaders]] on their march to [[Antioch]], and was created knight and [[marquis]]. [[Thoros I of Armenia|Thoros I]] (r. c.&nbsp;1100 – 1129), in alliance with the Christian princes of Syria, waged successful wars against the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks. [[Leo II, Prince of Armenia|Levon II]] (Leo the Great (r. 1187–1219)), extended the kingdom beyond [[Taurus Mountains|Mount Taurus]] and established the capital at [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]]. He assisted the Crusaders, was crowned King by the [[Archbishop of Mainz]], and married one of the [[Lusignan]]s of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Cyprus]].<ref name=EB1911 />

==== Mongols ====
[[File:Ethnic Map Of Cilicia Eng.jpg|thumb|200px|Ethnic map of Cilicia and vicinity at the thirteenth century AD]]

[[Hetoum I of Armenia|Hetoum I]] (r. 1226–1270) made an alliance with the [[Mongols]],<ref name=EB1911 /> sending his brother [[Sempad the Constable|Sempad]] to the Mongol court in person.<ref>Peter Jackson, ''Mongols and the West'', p. 74. "King Het'um of Lesser Armenia, who had reflected profoundly upon the deliverance afforded by the Mongols from his neighbors and enemies in Rum, sent his brother, the Constable Smbat (Sempad) to Guyug's court to offer his submission."</ref><ref>Angus Donal Stewart, "Logic of Conquest", p. 8. "The Armenian king saw an alliance with the Mongols – or, more accurately, swift and peaceful subjection to them – as the best course of action."</ref> The Mongols then assisted with the defence of Cilicia from the [[Mamluk]]s of Egypt, until the Mongols themselves converted to Islam.<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|wstitle=Cilicia|volume=6|pages=365–366|inline=1}}</ref>

==== Turkmens ====
The [[Ilkhanate]] lost cohesion after the death of [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan|Abu Sa'id]] (r. 1316–1335), and thus could not support the Armenian Kingdom in guarding Cilicia. Internal conflicts within the Armenian Kingdom and the devastation caused by the [[Black Death]] that arrived in 1348, led nomadic Türkmens to turn their eyes towards unstable Cilicia. In 1352, Ramazan Beg led Turkmens settled south of Çaldağı and founded their first settlement, [[Camili, Yüreğir|Camili]]. Later that year, Ramazan Beg visited [[Cairo]] and was licensed by the Sultan to establish the new frontier ''Turkmen Emirate'' in Cilicia.<ref name=Shai>{{cite book |last=Har-El |first=Shai |title=Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman-Mamluk War, 1485–91 |location=Leiden, New York, Köln |publisher=E.J. Brill |year=1995 |isbn=978-9004101807}}</ref>

Yüreğir Türkmens lived as a small community for 7 years in southeast of Adana, and named their new land, [[Yüreğir]].

==== Collapse ====
When [[Leo V of Armenia|Levon V]] died (1342), John of Lusignan was crowned king as [[Constantine IV of Armenia|Gosdantin IV]]; but he and his successors alienated the native Armenians by attempting to make them conform to the [[Roman Catholic|Roman Church]], and by giving all posts of honour to [[Latins (Middle Ages)|Latins]], until at last the kingdom, falling prey to internal dissensions, ceded Cilicia Pedias to the [[Ramadanid]]-supported [[Mamluk Egypt|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] in 1375.<ref name=EB1911 />{{sfn|Berger|2003|p=331}}

=== Mamluk and Turkmen rule ===
[[File:Carte du Moyen-Orient en 1328-es.svg|thumb|200px|right|During the Ramadanid era, Cilicia was a buffer state between two Islamic powers.]]

In 1359, Mamluk Sultanate Army marched into Cilicia and took over Adana and [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], two major cities of the plain, leaving few castles to Armenians. In 1375, Mamluks gained the control of the remaining areas of Cilicia, thus ending the three centuries rule of Armenians.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Cilicia Pedias became part of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1375.<ref name=EB1911 /> Mamluk Sultanate authorized Ramazan Beg led Türkmen Emirate to administer Cilicia, but took direct control of the towns, Tarsus, [[Yumurtalık|Ayas]], [[Sarvandikar]], [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]] at the four corners of Cilicia plain and appointed an [[Amir]] and a Garrison for each. Tarsus, the former capital of Cilicia, were settled by the [[moors]] that arrived from Egypt. Türkmen Emirate which began to be known as Ramadanids, set the city of Adana as their center of power, and many Türkmen families of Yüreğir origin moved to the city.

After the death of Ramazan Bey, his son Ibrahim Bey made alliance with the [[Karaman Emirate]]. Alaeddin Bey and Ibrahim Bey together tried to break the Mameluks' might in the province. After this [[Military alliance|alliance]] a great Mameluk army moved in and began to plunder but Ibrahim Bey's army achieved a great victory against the Mameluks in Belen. Also in this battle Temur Bey, the general of the Mameluks, had been captured. Yilboga, the amir of Aleppo moved on to the Turkmens after this defeat and he conquered Misis Castle.

Ramadanids were the only emirate in [[Anatolia]] that were not a successor of the [[Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate]]. They are often misclassified as an [[Anatolian beyliks|Anatolian beylik]], though they were an entity under Mamluks. The Ramadanids played an important role in 15th century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-[[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] relations, being a [[buffer state]] located in the Mamluk ''[[al-'Awasim]]'' frontier zone. Cilicia were one of the last regions of Anatolia to fall under Turkish rule, and were part of the Seljuqs for a short time, thus were not effected from [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] tariqa expansionism of the 13th century.  Yüreğir Turks moved to Cilicia in the late 14th century, and had a distinct culture that influenced from Bektashi traditions which accompanied [[Shamanism|Shamanic rituals]] with [[Islam]]. Living together and having cultural exchange with the large Armenian community, Yüreğir Turks flourished a laid back culture.

The [[Karamanids|Karamanid Principality]], one of the [[Oghuz Turk|Turkmen]] [[Anatolian beyliks]] emerged after the collapse of the [[Anatolian Seljuks]], took over{{when|date=September 2021}} the rule of Cilicia Thracea.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

=== Ottoman period ===
In 1516, [[Selim I]] incorporated the beylik into the Ottoman Empire after his [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|conquest of the Mamluk state]]. The [[bey]]s of Ramadanids held the administration of the Ottoman [[sanjak]] of [[Adana]] in a hereditary manner until 1608, with the area serving as a vassal of the Ottomans.<ref>Prof. Dr. Yılmaz KURT, "Ramazanoğulları’nın Sonu: Adana’da Çemşid Bey İsyȃnı (1606–1607)", Tarihin İçinden, Ankara Üniversitesi</ref>
[[File:CUINET(1892) 2.017 Adana Vilayet.jpg|thumb|left|175px| [[Adana Vilayet]] in 1892]]

[[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] ended the Ramadanid administration of Adana sanjak in 1608, ruling it directly from Constantinople then after. The autonomous sanjak was then split from the [[Aleppo Eyalet]] and established as a new province under the name of [[Adana Eyalet]]. A governor was appointed to administer the province. In late 1832, [[Egypt Eyalet|Eyalet of Egypt]] [[Wali (administrative title)|Vali]] [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]] invaded [[Syria]], and reached Cilicia. The [[Convention of Kütahya]] that was signed on 14 May 1833, ceded Cilicia to the ''de facto'' independent [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]].

[[Alawites]] brought to Cilicia from Syria to work at the flourishing agricultural lands. İbrahim Paşa, the son of Muhammed Ali Paşa, demolished the Adana Castle and the city walls in 1836. He built the canals for irrigation and transportation and also built water systems for the residential areas of the towns. Adana had the infrastructure it needed by the second half of the 19th century to become major center of Southeastern Anatolia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Toksöz |first=Meltem |title=Nomads, Migrants and Cotton in the Eastern Mediterranean: The Making of the Adana-Mersin Region, 1850–1908 |location= |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-9004191051}}</ref>

After the [[Oriental Crisis of 1840|Oriental crisis]], the Convention of Alexandria that was signed on 27 November 1840, required the return of Cilicia to Ottoman sovereignty. The [[American Civil War]] that broke out in 1861 disturbed the cotton flow to Europe and directed European cotton traders to fertile Cilicia. The region became the centre of cotton trade and one of the most economically strong regions of the Empire within decades. In 1869, Adana Eyalet was re-established as [[Adana Vilayet]], after the re-structuring in the Ottoman Administration.<ref name="SunyGocek2011">{{cite book |author1=Ronald Grigor Suny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPEduby8jNIC&pg=PA67 |title=A Question of Genocide:Armenians and Turks at the End of the Ottoman Empire |author2=Fatma Muge Gocek |author3=Norman M. Naimark |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-979276-4 |page=67}}</ref> [[Adana–Mersin railway]] line was opened in 1886, connecting Cilicia to international ports through [[Port of Mersin]].

A thriving regional economy, the doubling of Cilician Armenian population due to flee from the [[Hamidian massacres]], and the end of autocratic [[Abdul Hamid II|Abdulhamid]] rule with the [[Young Turk Revolution|revolution]] of 1908, empowered the Armenian community and envisioned an autonomous Cilicia. Enraged supporters of Abdulhamid that organized under Cemiyet-i Muhammediye amidst the [[31 March Incident|countercoup]],<ref name=Agos>{{cite web |url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/11235/106-yildonumunde-adana-katliaminin-ardindaki-gercekler |title=106. yıldönümünde Adana Katliamı'nın ardındaki gerçekler |date=4 October 2015 |publisher=Agos Gazetesi |access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref> led to a series of anti-Armenian pogroms in 14–27 April 1909.<ref>{{citation |last=Yeghiayan |first=Puzant |title=Ատանայի Հայոց Պատմութիւն [The History of the Armenians of Adana] |location=Beirut |publisher=Union of Armenian Compatriots of Adana |year=1970 |pages=211–272 |language=hy}}</ref> The [[Adana massacre]] resulted in the deaths of roughly 25,000 Armenians, orphaned [[Adana Dar-ül Eytam|3500 children]] and caused heavy destruction of Christian neighbourhoods in the entire [[Vilayet of Adana|Vilayet]].<ref>See Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in ''Armenian Cilicia'', eds. [[Richard G. Hovannisian]] and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 351–353.</ref>

The Cilicia section of the [[Berlin–Baghdad railway]] was opened in 1912, connecting the region to the Middle East. Over the course of the [[Armenian genocide]], an Ottoman telegraph was received by the Governor to deport the more than 70,000 Armenians of the Adana Vilayet to Syria.<ref name=Hrant>{{cite web |url=https://hrantdink.org/tr/faaliyetler/projeler/kulturel-miras/1477-adana-arastirmasi-ve-saha-calismasi |title=Adana araştırması ve saha çalışması |publisher=Hrant Dink Foundation |access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref> Armenians of Zeitun had organized a successful resistance against the Ottoman onslaught. In order to finally subjugate Zeitun, the Ottomans had to resort to treachery by forcing an Armenian delegation from Marash to ask the ''Zeituntsi''s to put down their arms. Both the Armenian delegation, and later, the inhabitants of Zeitun, were left with no choice.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jernazian |first=Ephraim K. |title=Judgment Unto Truth: Witnessing the Armenian Genocide |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1990 |location=New Jersey |pages=[https://archive.org/details/judgmentuntotrut00ephr/page/53 53–55] |isbn=0-88738-823-X |url=https://archive.org/details/judgmentuntotrut00ephr/page/53}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Mersin, Cilicie, Syrie ( actuellement en Turquie ) - Corps d'armée s'apprêtant à recevoir le général Gouraud.jpg|thumb|175px|right|French taking over Cilicia as [[Henri Gouraud (general)|General Gouraud]] arrives Mersin]]

[[Armistice of Mudros]] that was signed on 30 October 1918 to end the [[World War I]], ceded the control of Cilicia to France. French Government sent four battalions of the [[French Armenian Legion|Armenian Legion]] in December to take over and oversee the repatriation of more than 170,000 Armenians to Cilicia. Returning Armenians negotiated with France to establish an autonomous ''State of Cilicia''. The Armenians formed the [[Armenian National Union]] which acted as an unofficial Cilician Armenian government composed of the four major political parties and three Armenian religious denominations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.armenian-history.com/Nyuter/HISTORY/G_Moumdjian/Social-Political.htm |title=Cilicia Under French Mandate, 1918–1921 – Social and Political Life |last=Moumdjian |first=Garabed K. |work=armenian-history.com |accessdate=4 March 2010}}</ref> [[Mihran Damadian]], the chief negotiator for Armenians, signed the provisional ''Constitution of Cilicia'' in 1919 to bring new order to the region.<ref name="HrantAdana">{{cite web |url=https://hrantdink.org/attachments/article/1398/Adana_Raporu_new.pdf |title=Ermeni Kültür Varlıklarıyla Adana |publisher=HDV Yayınları |accessdate=12 March 2020}}</ref>

The French forces were spread too thinly in the region and, as they came under withering attacks by Muslim elements both opposed and [[Turkish national movement|loyal]] to [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]], eventually reversed their policies in the region. A truce arranged on 28 May between the French and the Kemalists, led to the retreat of the French forces south of the Mersin-Osmaniye railroad.

[[File:Adana Vilayet Hall.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Cilicie palais de gouvernement]]

With the changing political environment and interests, the French further reversed their policy: The repatriation was halted, and the French ultimately abandoned all pretensions to Cilicia, which they had originally hoped to attach to their [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|mandate over Syria]].<ref>Moumjian, Garabet K. "Cilicia Under French Administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems" in ''Armenian Cilicia'', pp. 457–489.</ref> [[Cilicia Peace Treaty]] was signed on 9 March 1921 between France and [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Turkish Grand National Assembly]]. The treaty did not achieve the intended goals and was replaced with the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|Treaty of Ankara]] that was signed on 20 October 1921. Based on the terms of the agreement, France recognized the end of the [[Cilicia War]], and French troops together with the remaining Armenian volunteers withdrew from the region in early January 1922.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/asmin/cilicia191823.html |title=Cilicia in the years 1918–1923 |publisher=Zum.de |access-date=2 October 2014}}</ref>

[[Maronites|Maronite]] community were re-settled in [[Lebanon]] by the French Administration. Later in 1922, roughly 10,000 Greeks were forced to move to Greece by the policy of [[Greco-Turkish population exchange]].<ref name="HrantAdana" /><ref name="Hrant" /> Cilicia Armenians settled in [[Lebanon]], at the newly founded Armenian [[Bourj Hammoud]] town, just north-east of [[Beirut]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bourjhamoud.com/bourj-hamoud/about/ |title=Bourj Hammmoud |publisher=bourjhammoud.com |accessdate=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509123832/https://bourjhamoud.com/bourj-hamoud/about/ |archive-date=9 May 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> From the 1920s, around 60 percent of the Cilician Armenians moved to [[Argentina]]. An informal census of 1941 revealed that, 70 percent of all the [[Armenian Argentine]]s in [[Buenos Aires]] had Adana origins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agos.com.tr/tr/yazi/16826/adanadan-buenos-airese-uzun-bir-yolculuk-arjantinde-ermeni-diasporasi |title=Adana'dan Buenos Aires'e uzun bir yolculuk |date=25 October 2016 |publisher=Agos Gazetesi |accessdate=29 January 2020}}</ref>

=== Republic of Turkey ===
The region become part of the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] in 1921 with the signing of the Treaty of Ankara. On 15 April 1923, just before the signing of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]], the Turkish government enacted the "Law of Abandoned Properties" which confiscated properties of Armenians and Greeks who were not present on their property. Cilicia were one of the regions with the most confiscated property, thus [[muhacir]]s (en: immigrants) from Balkans and [[Crete]] were relocated in the old Armenian and Greek neighbourhoods and villages of the region. All types of properties, lands, houses and workshops were distributed to them. Also during this period, there was a property rush of Muslims from [[Kayseri]] and [[Darende]] to Cilicia who were granted the ownership of large farms, factories, stores and mansions. Within a decade, Cilicia had a sharp change demographically, socially and economically and lost its diversity by turning into solely Muslim/Turkish.<ref name=HrantAdana />

Remaining Jews and Christians were hit by the heavy burden of the [[Varlık Vergisi|Wealth Tax]] in 1942, which caused them to leave Cilicia, selling their properties for peanuts to families like [[Sabancı family|Sabancı]], who built their wealth on owning confiscated or cheaply purchased properties.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}} Forcible change in means of production led to abuse of wealth and harsh treatment of labor later in the 20th century, as the new possessors did not have the necessary management attributes that the previous owners had for centuries.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

=== Legacy ===
According to one Greek myth, Cilicia was named after [[Cilix]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Κίλιξ}}|translit=Kílix}}), a [[Phoenicia]]n who went to live there after searching for his sister [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] following the instructions of his father, the king [[Agenor]] of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] or [[Sidon]].{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=168}}

In another Greek myth, the name of Cilicia was derived from a people named the {{Transliteration|grc|Kilikes}} ({{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Κίλικες}}}}), who were Greeks who originally lived in the [[Troad]], and who settled the coastland of Cilicia under the leadership of the seer [[Mopsus]].{{sfn|Grant|1997|p=168}}{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}} The Karatepe Luwian-Phoenician [[Karatepe bilingual|bilingual inscription]] mentions the House of Mopsus ({{langx|hlu|{{script|Hluw|𔑾𔗧𔗔𔗔‎}}|translit=Muksas}}; {{langx|phn|{{script|Phnx|𐤌𐤐𐤔‎}}|translit={{sc|mpš}}}}) as the reigning dynasty of the kingdom of Ḫiyawa.{{sfn|Täuber|2003a|p=330}}

== Society and culture ==
=== Ancient ===
==== Ethnicity ====
The inhabitants of Ancient Cilicia were [[Luwians]] who had settled in this region in the 2nd millennium BC, and Cilicia itself had become an important centre of Luwian settlement in Anatolia in the aftermath of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=166}}

This Luwian population persisted in Cilicia in the 1st millennium BC until the later Hellenistic and Roman periods, hence why the onomastics of this region, especially in its western part (Rough Cilicia), were Luwian in character, implying that it was inhabited by a large number of Luwian speakers until the early 1st millennium AD.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=166}}

===== Persian influence =====
Like in the rest of the western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, Persians had moved in Cilicia, and archaeological evidence such as reliefs from Silifke, Adana and Korykos suggest that a Persian nobility as well as a Persianised nobility existed in Cilicia during the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

===== Cultural diversity =====
Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid Cilicia was culturally very diverse, as attested by:{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}
* Aramaic funerary inscriptions and an Aramaic foundation text at Meydancık;
* coins minted at Soli and Tarsus of Persian, modified Persian, and non-Persian types;
* Greek and Aramaic inscriptions.

==== Social organisation ====
The population of the eastern part of ancient Cilicia was urbanised and participated in commercial and industrial activities, while the inhabitants of its western regions were tribally organised and led simpler lifestyles.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=165}}

=== Modern ===
Significant Christian communities ([[Antiochian Greek Christians]] and [[Armenians]]) are found in [[Adana]], [[İskenderun]], and [[Mersin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Diasporas of the Modern Middle East: Contextualising Community |first=Anthony |last=Gorman |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7486-8613-1 |page=32 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |quote=}}</ref>

=== Administrative structure ===
==== Ancient ====
Temple estates had existed in Cilicia since the pre-Achaemenid period, although the best documentation regarding them is from the Hellenestic period. Known temple estates include the temple of Zeus at [[Olba (ancient city)|Olbē]] and the temple of Artemis Perasia at [[Castabala (city)|Kastabala]].{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

==== Achaemenid ====
Like the other western satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire, the satrap of Cilicia owned an estate with a palace at Tarsus, which was a large and thriving city during the Achaemenid period. Subordinate to the satrap in the local administration were lower rank officials, with some of them being landed aristocrats owning estates and villages, and others being priests in the sanctuaries of Cilicia who administered the temple estates, as well as other even lesser officials.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

The temple estates persisted through the Achaemenid period, implying that their existence was not perceived as detrimental to the authority of the satrap of Cilicia.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

The duties of the satrap including maintaining peace within his satrapy to ensure agriculture could be conducted and tribute could be produced, as well as to keep the locations at higher altitudes and the mountain passes under control loyal to the Achaemenid crown, to which it contributed 360 horses and 140 [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] of silver for defence.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

Cilicia also provided troops to the land and maritime military forces of the Achaemenid Empire, and the satrapy itself acted as an assembly point for them.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

Little is known of the large cities in the Achaemenid period, although Tarsus and Soli are known to have minted coins which were used in the Achaemenid military campaigns against Cyprus and Egypt.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

During the Achaemenid period, the administration of Cilicia was stable and efficient, thanks to which it was agriculturally very productive and was capable of holding large military concentrations. The fact that the king of kings Darius I expected 500 talents of silver as tribute from Cilicia attests that its administration was of the necessary competence to generate a revenue that was more than trivial.{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

==== Hellenistic ====
In the Hellenistic period, the Cilician temple estates adopted Greek culture under the influence of Seleucid administration:{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}
* the high priests of Zeus at Olbe were able to expand their authority after the fall of the Achaemend Empire, and they became culturally Hellenised, with their dynasts shifting their names from Tarkuaris ({{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Ταρκυαρις}}}}, from [[Luwian language|Luwian]] {{Transliteration|hlu|Tarḫuwarris}}{{sfn|Houwink ten Cate|1961|p=127}}) to Teukros ({{lang|grc|{{script|Grek|Τευκρος}}}});
* the chief priest of the temple of Artemis Perasia at Castabala was also a dynast who became culturally Hellenised.

==== Modern ====
Modern Cilicia is split into four administrative provinces: [[Mersin Province|Mersin]], [[Adana Province|Adana]], [[Osmaniye Province|Osmaniye]] and [[Hatay Province|Hatay]]. Each province is governed by the Central Government in [[Ankara]] through an appointed Provincial governor. Provinces are then divided into districts governed by the District Governors who are under the provincial governors.

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" border="1" style="font-size:90%"
|+
|-
! Province
! Seat
! Area (km<sup>2</sup>)
! Districts (West to East)
! Population
! class="unsortable" | Map
|-
| bgcolor="lightgray" | [[Mersin Province|Mersin]]
| align="center" | [[Mersin]]
| align="center" | 15,853
| align="left" | [[Anamur]], [[Bozyazı]], [[Aydıncık, Mersin|Aydıncık]] (Kelenderis), [[Gülnar]], [[Mut]], [[Silifke]], [[Erdemli]], [[Mezitli]], [[Yenişehir, Mersin|Yenişehir]] [[Toroslar]], [[Akdeniz, Mersin|Akdeniz]], [[Çamlıyayla]] (Namrun), [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]]
| align="center" | 1,891,145
| [[File:Mersin districts of Cilicia.jpg|105px]]
|-
| bgcolor="lightgray" | [[Adana Province|Adana]]
| align="center" | [[Adana]]
| align="center" | 14,030
| align="left" | [[Seyhan]], [[Çukurova, Adana|Çukurova]], [[Yüreğir]], [[Sarıçam]], [[Pozantı]], [[Karaisalı]], [[Karataş]], [[Yumurtalık]] (Ayas), [[Ceyhan]], [[İmamoğlu]], [[Aladağ, Adana|Aladağ]] (Karsantı), [[Kozan, Adana|Kozan]](Sis), [[Feke]] (Vahka), [[Saimbeyli]] (Hadjin), [[Tufanbeyli]]
| align="center" | 2,263,373
| [[File:Adana districts of Cilicia II.jpg|90px]]
|-
| bgcolor="lightgray" | [[Osmaniye Province|Osmaniye]]
| align="center" | [[Osmaniye]]
| align="center" | 3,767
| align="left" | [[Sumbas]], [[Kadirli]] (Karsbazar), [[Toprakkale, Osmaniye|Toprakkale]] (Tall Hamdūn), [[Düziçi]], [[Osmaniye]], [[Hasanbeyli]], [[Bahçe, Osmaniye|Bahçe]]
| align="center" | 553,012
| [[File:Osmaniye districts of Cilicia.png|105px]]
|-
| bgcolor="lightgray" | [[Hatay Province|Hatay]]
| align="center" | [[Antakya]]
| align="center" | 5,524
| align="left" | [[Erzin, Turkey|Erzin]], [[Dörtyol]] (Chork Marzban), [[Hassa, Turkey|Hassa]], [[İskenderun]], [[Arsuz]], [[Belen, Hatay|Belen]], [[Kırıkhan]], [[Samandağ]](Süveydiye), [[Antakya]], [[Defne]], [[Reyhanlı]], [[Kumlu]], [[Yayladağı]], [[Altınözü]]
| align="center" | 1,670,712
| [[File:Hatay districts of Cilicia.jpg|90px]]
|}

=== Religion ===
==== Ancient ====
Reflecting the diversity of Cilicia in the Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid periods, various deities of different origins have been attested there in antiquity:{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}
* an Aramaic [[Kesecek Köyü inscription|funerary inscription from Kesecek Köyü]] to the north-east of Tarsus was accompanied by depictions of Semitic deities;
* one Cilician coin depicted [[Baaltars|Baal of Tarsus]] with an Achaemenid [[Winged sun|winged disk]];
* another Cilician coin depicted the Semitic god [[Nergal]] wearing Persian clothes, possibly resulting from an identification of him with [[Mithra]].

As a result of the strong impact of 200 years of rule by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, [[Fire temple|fire altars]] and [[magi]] were still present at Tarsus and in the rest of Cilicia in the {{c.|260s AD}}, as recorded by the Sasanian high priest [[Kartir]].{{sfn|Weiskopf|1991}}

== Demographics ==
Cilicia is heavily populated due to its abundant resources, climate and plain geography. The population of Cilicia as of 31 December 2022 is 6,435,986.<ref name=tuik>{{Cite web |title=Address-based population registration system (ADNKS) results dated 31 December 2022, Favorite Reports |url=https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/medas/?kn=95&locale=en |access-date=19 September 2023 |publisher=[[TÜİK]] |language=en |format=XLS}}</ref>

Hatay is the most rural province of Cilicia and also Hatay is the only province that the rural population is rising and the urban population is declining. The major reason is the mountainous geography of Hatay.

[[Adana Province]] is the most urbanized province, with most of the population centred in the city of [[Adana]]. [[Mersin Province]] has a larger rural population than [[Adana Province]], owing to its long and narrow stretch of flat land in between the [[Taurus Mountains]] and the Mediterranean.

== Economy ==
Cilicia is well known for the vast fertile land and highly productive agriculture. The region is also industrialized; [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]], [[Adana]] and [[Ceyhan]] host numerous plants. [[Mersin]] and [[İskenderun]] seaports provide transportation of goods manufactured in Central, South and Southeast Anatolia. [[Ceyhan]] hosts oil, natural gas terminals as well as refineries and shipbuilders.

=== Natural resources ===
==== Agriculture ====
The Cilicia plain has some of the most fertile soil in the world in which 3 harvests can be taken each year. The region has the second richest flora in the world and it is the producer of all agricultural products of Turkey except hazelnut and tobacco. Cilicia leads Turkey in soy, peanuts and corn harvest and is a major producer of fruits and vegetables. Half of Turkey's citrus export is from Cilicia. [[Anamur]] is the only sub-tropical area of Turkey where bananas, mango, kiwi and other sub-tropical produce can be harvested.

Cilicia is the second largest honey producer in Turkey after the [[Muğla]]–[[Aydın]] region.<ref name=Arıcılık>{{cite web |url=http://www.assale.net/ari/turkiye-de-aricilik |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408003506/http://www.assale.net/ari/turkiye-de-aricilik |url-status=usurped |archive-date=8 April 2022 |title=Türkiye'de Arıcılık |publisher=Assale |access-date=1 June 2009}}</ref> [[Samandağ]], [[Yumurtalık]], [[Karataş]] and [[Bozyazı]] are some of the towns in the region where fishing is the major source of income. Gray mullet, red mullet, sea bass, lagos, calamari and gilt-head bream are some of the most popular fish in the region. There are [[aquaculture]] farms in Akyatan, Akyağan, [[Yumurtalık]] lakes and at Seyhan Reservoir. While not as common as other forms of agriculture, dairy and livestock are also produced throughout the region.

==== Mining ====
* [[Zinc]] and [[lead]]: [[Kozan, Adana|Kozan]]-Horzum seam is the major source.
* [[Chromium|Chrome]] is found around [[Aladağlar]].
* [[Baryte]] resources are around [[Mersin]] and [[Adana]].
* [[Iron]] is found around [[Feke]] and [[Saimbeyli]].
* [[Asbestos]] mines are mostly in [[Hatay Province]].
* [[Limestone]] reserves are very rich in Cilicia. The region is home to four lime manufacturing plants.
* [[Pumice]] resources are the richest in Turkey. 14% of country's reserves are in Cilicia.

=== Manufacturing ===
Cilicia is one of the first industrialized regions of Turkey. With the improvements in agriculture and the spike of agricultural yield, agriculture-based industries are built in large numbers. Today, the manufacturing industry is mainly concentrated around [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], [[Adana]] and [[Ceyhan]]. Textile, leather tanning and food processing plants are plentiful. İsdemir is a large steel plant located in [[İskenderun]].

The [[petrochemical industry]] is rapidly developing in the region with the investments around the Ceyhan Oil Terminal. Petroleum refineries are being built in the area. [[Ceyhan]] is also expected to host the shipbuilding industry.

=== Commerce ===
[[Adana]] is the commercial centre of the region where many of the public and private institutions have their regional offices. [[Mersin]] and [[Antakya]] are also home to regional offices of public institutions. Many industry fairs and congresses are held in the region at venues such as the TÜYAP Congress and Exhibition Centre in [[Adana]] and the Mersin Congress Centre.

'''Mersin Seaport''' is the third largest seaport in Turkey, after [[Istanbul]] and [[İzmir]]. There are 45 piers in the port. The total area of the port is {{convert|785|km2|acre|abbr=off}}, and the capacity is 6,000 ships per year.

'''İskenderun Seaport''' is used mostly for transfers to Middle East and Southeastern Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oib.gov.tr/portfoy/tcdd_iskenderun.htm |title=İskenderun Port Authority |publisher=Republic of Turkey Privatization Administration |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227012007/http://www.oib.gov.tr/portfoy/tcdd_iskenderun.htm |archive-date=27 December 2016 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''Ceyhan Oil Terminal''' is a marine transport terminal for the [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]] (the "BTC"), the [[Kirkuk–Ceyhan Oil Pipeline]], the planned [[Samsun-Ceyhan pipeline|Samsun-Ceyhan]] and the Ceyhan-Red Sea pipelines. Ceyhan will also be a natural gas terminal for a planned pipeline to be constructed parallel to the Kirkuk-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and for a planned extension of the [[Blue Stream]] Gas Pipeline from Samsun to Ceyhan.

[[Dörtyol]] Oil Terminal is a marine transport terminal for Batman-Dörtyol oil pipeline which started operating in 1967 to market [[Batman Province|Batman]] oil. The pipeline is 511&nbsp;km long and has an annual capacity of 3.5&nbsp;million tons.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.botas.gov.tr/index.asp |title=Batman-Dörtyol Petrol Boru Hattı (Turkish) |publisher=BOTAŞ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827162929/http://www.botas.gov.tr/index.asp |archive-date=27 August 2011 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
[[File:Yemiskumu.jpg|thumb|Yemiskumu Beach ([[Ayaş, Mersin|Ayaş]], Erdemli district of Mersin Province)]]

While the region has a long coastline, international tourism is not at the level of the neighbouring [[Antalya Province]]. There are a small number of hotels between [[Erdemli]] and [[Anamur]] that attracts tourists. Cilicia tourism is mostly cottage tourism serving the Cilicia locals as well as residents of [[Kayseri]], [[Gaziantep]] and surrounding areas. Between [[Silifke]] and [[Mersin]], high-rise and low-rise cottages line the coast, leaving almost no vacant land. The coastline from [[Mersin]] to [[Karataş]] is mostly farmland. This area is zoned for resort tourism and is expected to have a rapid development within the next 20 years. [[Karataş]] and [[Yumurtalık]] coasts are home to cottages with a bird conservatory between the two areas. Arsuz is a seaside resort that is mostly frequented by [[Antakya]] and [[İskenderun]] residents.

Plateaus on the Taurus mountains are cooler escapes for the locals who wants to chill out from hot and humid summers of the lower plains. Gözne and [[Çamlıyayla]] (Namrun) in [[Mersin Province]], Tekir, Bürücek and Kızıldağ in [[Adana Province]], [[Zorkun]] in [[Osmaniye Province]] and Soğukoluk in [[Hatay Province]] are the popular high plain resorts of Cilicia which are often crowded in summer. There are a few hotels and camping sites in the Tekir plateau.

==== Balneary tourism ====
The region is a popular destination for [[thermal springs]]. Hamamat Thermal Spring, located on midway from [[Kırıkhan]] to [[Reyhanlı]], has a very high sulphur ratio, making it the second in the world after a thermal spring in India.<ref name=Kaplıcası>{{cite web |publisher=Kaplıca ve Termal Turizm |url=http://www.termalturizm.info/archives/40 |title=Hatay Hamamat Kaplıcası (Turkish) |access-date=21 February 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021065608/http://www.termalturizm.info/archives/40 |archive-date=21 October 2016}}</ref> It is the largest spa in the region and attracts many [[Syria]]ns due to proximity. Haruniye Thermal Spring is located on the banks of the [[Ceyhan River]] near [[Düziçi]] town and has a serene environment. Thermal springs are a hot spot for people with rheumatism.<ref name=Kaplıcaları>{{cite web |url=http://www.termalturizm.info/archives/44 |title=Haruniye Kaplıcaları (Turkish) |publisher=Kaplıca ve Termal Turizm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806191447/http://www.termalturizm.info/archives/44 |archive-date=6 August 2016 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Kurttepe, Alihocalı and Ilıca [[mineral springs]], all located in [[Adana Province]], are popular for toxic cleansing. Ottoman Palace Thermal Resort & Spa in [[Antakya]] is one of Turkey's top resorts for revitalization.

==== Religious tourism ====
[[File:Antioch Saint Pierre Church Front.JPG|thumb|[[Church of Saint Peter]] near [[Antakya]]]]

Lying at a crossroads of three major religions, namely [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], the region is home to numerous landmarks that are important for people of faith. Tarsus is the birthplace of [[Paul the Apostle]], who returned to the city after his conversion. The city was a stronghold of Christians after his death. Ashab-ı Kehf cavern, one of the locations claimed to be the resting place of the legendary [[Seven Sleepers]], holy to Christians and Muslims, is located north of Tarsus.

[[Antakya]] is another destination for the spiritual world, where, according to the New Testament the followers of [[Jesus Christ]] were first called Christians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biblehub.com/acts/11-26.htm |title=Acts of the Apostles 11:26}}</ref> the [[Church of Saint Peter]] near [[Antakya]] ([[Antioch]]) is one of [[Christianity]]'s oldest [[Church (building)|churches]].<ref>Clyde E. Fant, Mitchell Glenn Reddish, [https://books.google.com/books?id=248rXe16v9YC A guide to biblical sites in Greece and Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030015745/https://books.google.com/books?id=248rXe16v9YC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=30 October 2022 }} (Oxford University Press US, 2003), pg. 149</ref> It is the home of Saint Peter, one of the [[12 apostles]] of Jesus.<ref name=Hatay>{{cite web |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313E603BF9486D4371DB5239F8263FFA15F |title=Hatay |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023170052/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313E603BF9486D4371DB5239F8263FFA15F |archive-date=23 October 2014 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref> [[Antioch]] was called "the cradle of [[History of Christianity|Christianity]]" as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of both [[Hellenistic Judaism]] and [[early Christianity]],<ref>"The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." – "Antioch," ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'', Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabib01cheyuoft online .pdf file]. '''Warning:''' Takes several minutes to download).</ref>

== Places of interest ==
=== Ancient sites ===
[[File:Fortressarmenians5.jpg|thumb|Kızkalesi (Korykos)]]

'''Kizkalesi (Maiden Castle)''', a fort on a small island across Kızkalesi township, was built during the early 12th century by Armenian kings of the [[Rubenids|Rubeniyan]] dynasty to defend the city of Korykos (present-day Kızkalesi).

'''Heaven & Hell''', situated on a large hill north of Narlıkuyu, consists of the [[grabens]] resulting from assoil of [[furring]]s{{clarify|date=May 2023}} for thousands of years. The natural phenomenon of the grabens is named 'Hell & Heaven' because of the exotic effects on people. Visitors can access the cave of the mythological giant [[Typhon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay_eng.asp?TntAKEId=38 |title=Heaven & Hell |publisher=ÇUKTOB |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227085343/http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay_eng.asp?TntAKEId=38 |archive-date=27 February 2012 |access-date=21 February 2020 |quote=Heaven & Hell consists of the grabens result from assoil of furrings in the thousands of years. Natural fenomen of this grabens is called as Heaven & Hell because of the exotic effects on people.You can go Heaven hole from an ancient path which has 452 steps and you can reach 260-meter long mythological giant Typhon cave.}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2023}}

The ancient Roman town of '''[[Soloi]]-Pompeiopolis''', near the city of [[Mersin]].

'''Yılanlı Kale (Castle of Serpents)''', an 11th-century Crusader castle built on a historical road connecting the Taurus mountains with the city of Antakya. The castle has 8 round towers, a military guardhouse and a church. It is located 5&nbsp;km. west of [[Ceyhan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay_eng.asp?TntAKEId=53 |title=Yılanlı Kale |publisher=ÇUKTOB |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182525/http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay_eng.asp?TntAKEId=53 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''[[Anazarbus]] Castle''', built in the 3rd century, served as the centre of the ancient metropolis of Anavarza. The city was built on a hill and had strategic importance, controlling the Cilician plain. The main castle and the city walls represent remains of the city. The city wall is 1500&nbsp;m. long and 8-10m. high, with 4 entrances to the city. The castle is located 80&nbsp;km. northeast of [[Adana]].

'''Şar (Comona)''', an ancient city located in northernmost Cilicia, some 200&nbsp;km. north of [[Adana]], near [[Tufanbeyli]]. It was an historical centre of the [[Hittites]]. Remaining structures today include the amphitheatre built during the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period, ruins of a church from the [[Byzantine]] era and Hittite rock-works.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adana.gov.tr/?sayfa=10&alt=turizm |title=Adana Governorship (Turkish)}}</ref>

The '''Church of St. Peter''' in [[Antakya]] was a cave on the slopes of Habibi Neccar mountain converted into a church. The church is known as the first Christians' traditional meeting place. [[Pope Paul VI]] declared the church a [[List of Christian pilgrimage sites|"Place of Pilgrimage"]] for Christians in 1963, and since then a special ceremony takes place on [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|29 June]] each year.

'''St. Simeon Monastery''', a 6th-century giant structure built on a desolate hill 18&nbsp;km south of Antakya. The most striking features of this monastery are its cisterns, its storage compartment, and the walls. It is believed that [[Simeon Stylites the Younger|St. Simeon]] resided here atop a 20-meter stone column for 45 years.

=== Parks and conservation areas ===
[[Akyatan Lagoon]] is a large wildlife refuge which acts as a stopover for migratory birds voyaging from Africa to Europe. The wildlife refuge has a {{cvt|14700|ha|adj=on}} area made up of forests, lagoon, marsh, sandy and reedy lands. Akyatan lake is a natural wonder with endemic plants and endangered bird species living in it together with other species of plants and animals. 250 species of birds are observed during a study in 1990. The conservation area is located 30&nbsp;km south of [[Adana]], near Tuzla.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay.asp?TntAKId=60 |title=Akyatan Bird Sanctuary |publisher=Çukurova Touristic Hoteliers Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009020027/http://www.cuktob.org.tr/tanitim_detay.asp?TntAKId=60 |archive-date=9 October 2011 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''Yumurtalık Nature Reserve''' covers an area of 16,430 hectares within the Seyhan-Ceyhan delta, with its lakes, lagoons and wide collection of plant and animal species. The area is an important location for many species of migrating birds, the number gets higher during the winters when the lakes become a shelter when other lakes further north freeze.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tourism.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E4F81ED62E0BCB915 |title=Yumurtalık Nature Reserve |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism |access-date=21 February 2020 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305111903/http://tourism.gov.tr/en/genel/belgegoster.aspx?17a16ae30572d3137ee1f1486ee5030e4f81ed62e0bcb915 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''Aladağlar National Park''', located north of [[Adana]], is a huge park of around 55,000 hectares, the summit of Demirkazik at 3756&nbsp;m is the highest point in the middle Taurus mountain range. There is a huge range of flora and fauna, and visitors may fish in the streams full of trout. Wildlife includes wild goats, bears, lynx and sable. The most common species of plant life is black pine and cluster pine trees, with some cedar dotted between, and fir trees in the northern areas with higher humidity. The Alpine region, from the upper borders of the forest, has pastures with rocky areas and little variety of plant life because of the high altitude and slope.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E8020F3B0746F34B3 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805055211/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E8020F3B0746F34B3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2012 |title=Aladağlar National Park |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

[[Karatepe-Aslantaş National Park]] located on the west bank of [[Ceyhan River]] in [[Osmaniye]] Province. The park includes the Karatepe [[Hittites|Hittite]] fortress and an open-air museum.

'''Tekköz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve''', located 30&nbsp;km north of [[Dörtyol]], is known for having an ecosystem different from the Mediterranean. The main species of trees around Kengerliduz are beech, oak and fir, and around Tekkoz are hornbeam, ash, beach, black pine and silver birch. The main animal species in the area are wild goat, roe deer, bear, hyena, wild cat, wagtail, wolf, jackal and fox.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E91C5B747978912DF |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805084738/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E91C5B747978912DF |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2012 |title=Tekkoz-Kengerlidüz Nature Reserve |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''Habibi Neccar Dağı Nature Reserve''' is famous for its cultural as well as natural value, especially for St Pierre Church, which was carved into the rocks. The Charon monument, 200&nbsp;m north of the church, is huge sculpture of Haron, known as Boatman of Hell in mythology, carved into the rocks. The main species of tree are cluster pine, oaks and sandalwood. The mountain is also home to foxes, rabbits, partridges and stock doves. Nature reserve is 10&nbsp;km east of [[Antakya]] and can be accessible by public transport.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E91C5B747978912DF |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120805084738/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3137EE1F1486EE5030E91C5B747978912DF |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 August 2012 |title=Habibi Neccar Dagi Nature Reserve |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{See also|Education in Turkey}}

There are numerous private primary and high schools besides the state schools in the region. Most popular high school in the region is Tarsus American College, founded as a missionary school in 1888 to serve Armenian community and then became a secular school in 1923. Adana Anatolian High School and Adana Science High School most important high schools in the Cilicia. In other cities, Anatolian High School and School for Science are the most popular high schools of the city.

The region is home to five state and two foundation universities.

'''[[Çukurova University]]''' is a state university founded in 1973 with the union of the faculties of Agriculture and Medicine.. Main campus is in the city of [[Adana]], and the College of Tourism Administration is in [[Karataş]]. There is an engineering faculty in [[Ceyhan]], and vocational schools in [[Kozan, Adana|Kozan]], [[Karaisalı]], [[Pozantı]] and [[Yumurtalık]]. The university is one of the well-developed universities of Turkey with many cultural, social and athletic facilities, currently enrolls 40,000 students.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haberfx.net/cude-ogrenci-kayitlarina-iftar-ayari-haberi-73938/ |title=ÇÜ'de Öğrenci Kayıtları (Turkish) |publisher=Haber FX |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802041044/http://www.haberfx.net/cude-ogrenci-kayitlarina-iftar-ayari-haberi-73938/ |archive-date=2 August 2012}}</ref>

'''[[Mersin University]]''' is a state university founded in 1992, and currently serving with 11 faculties, 6 colleges and 9 vocational schools. The university employs more than 2100 academicians and enrolls 26,980 students.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mersin.edu.tr/haberleri.php?id=6&hid=543 |title=Student Statistics |publisher=Mersin University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825060503/http://www.mersin.edu.tr/haberleri.php?id=6&hid=543 |archive-date=25 August 2010 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref> Main campus is in the city of [[Mersin]]. In [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], there is Faculty of Technical Education and Applied Technology and Management College. In [[Silifke]] and [[Erdemli]], university has colleges and vocational schools. There are also vocational schools in [[Anamur]], [[Aydıncık, Mersin|Aydıncık]], [[Gülnar]], and [[Mut]].

'''[[Mustafa Kemal University]]''' is a state university located in [[Hatay Province]]. University was founded in 1992, currently has 9 faculties, 4 colleges and 7 vocational schools. Main campus is in [[Antakya]] and Faculty of Engineering is in [[İskenderun]]. The university employs 708 academicians and 14,439 students as of 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mku.edu.tr/operation.php?op=1 |title=University History (Turkish) |publisher=Mustafa Kemal University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028033601/http://www.mku.edu.tr/operation.php?op=1 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''[[Osmaniye Korkut Ata University|Korkut Ata University]]''' was founded in 2007 as a state university with the union of colleges and vocational schools in [[Osmaniye Province]] and began enrollment in 2009. The university has 3 faculties and a vocational school at the main campus in the city of [[Osmaniye]] and vocational schools in [[Kadirli]], [[Bahçe, Osmaniye|Bahçe]], [[Düziçi]] and [[Erzin, Turkey|Erzin]]. University employs 107 academicians and enrolled 4000 students in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osmaniye.edu.tr/turkish/english.asp |title=Information about University |publisher=Korkut Ata University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123071143/http://www.osmaniye.edu.tr/turkish/english.asp |archive-date=23 January 2010 |access-date=21 February 2020}}</ref>

'''[[Adana Science and Technology University]]''' is a recently founded state university that is planned to have ten faculties, two institutions and a college. It will accommodate 1,700 academic, 470 administrative staff, and it is expected to enroll students by 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType=RadikalDetayV3&CategoryID=86&ArticleID=1044752 |title=Adana'ya bilim üniversitesi(Turkish) |publisher=Radikal |access-date=31 March 2011}}</ref>

'''[[Çağ University]]''' is a not-for-profit tuition based university founded in 1997. It is located on midway from [[Adana]] to [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]. University holds around 2500 students, most of them commuting from Adana, Tarsus and Mersin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cag.edu.tr/cag.php?Kod=Genel&Alan=Genel&sayfaID=1 |title=Çağ University (Turkish) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621113725/http://www.cag.edu.tr/cag.php?Kod=Genel&Alan=Genel&sayfaID=1 |archive-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''[[Toros University]]''' is a not-for-profit tuition based university located in [[Mersin]]. The university started enrolling students in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mersinajans.com/detay.asp?hid=11400 |title=Toros Üniversitesi'ne rektör atandı. (Turkish) |publisher=Mersin Ajans |access-date=21 February 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301181013/http://www.mersinajans.com/detay.asp?hid=11400 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

== Sports ==
[[Soccer|Football]] is the most popular sport in Cilicia, professionally represented at all levels of the [[Turkish football league system|Football in Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tff.org/Default.aspx?pageID=119 |title=TFF Databank |publisher=Turkish Football Federation |access-date=25 July 2023}}</ref>

{{center|'''Football Clubs in Cilicia'''}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1em auto;"
|-
! Club
! Sport
! League
! Venue (capacity)
! Founded
|-
| [[Adana Demirspor]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Süper Lig]]
| [[New Adana Stadium]] (33,543)
| align=center | 1940
|-
| [[Hatayspor]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Süper Lig]]
| New Hatay Stadium (25000)
| align=center | 1967
|-
| [[Adanaspor]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF First League]]
| [[New Adana Stadium]] (33,543)
| align=center | 1954
|-
| [[İskenderun FK]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF Second League]]
| [[İskenderun 5 Temmuz Stadium|5 Temmuz]] (8217)
| align=center | 1978
|-
| [[Yeni Mersin İdman Yurdu]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF Second League]]
| [[Mersin Arena]] (25000)
| align=center | 2019
|-
| [[Adana 01 FK]]
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF Second League]]
| Ali Hoşfikirer Stadium (2544)
| align=center | 2019
|-
| Osmaniyespor
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF Third League]]
| 7 Ocak (6635)
| align=center | 2011
|-
| Silifke Belediyespor
| [[Association football|Football (men)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[TFF Third League]]
| Silifke Şehir (4000)
| align=center | 1964
|-
| [[Adana İdman Yurdu]]
| [[women's association football|Football (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Football Super League|Women's Super League]]
| Muharrem Gülergin
| align=center | 1993
|}

{{wide image|The Marathon - West stands of Adana Demirspor.jpg|600px|align-cap=center|[[Adana Demirspor]] are the most popular club of Cilicia}}

{{center|'''Basketball Clubs in Cilicia'''}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:1em auto;"
|-
! Club
! Sport
! League
! Venue (capacity)
! Founded
|-
| [[Mersin Büyükşehir Belediyesi (women's basketball)|Mersin BŞB]]
| [[Women's Basketball|Basketball (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Basketball League|Women's Super League]]
| [[Edip Buran Arena]] (1750)
| align=center | 1993
|-
| [[Hatay Büyükşehir Belediyesi (women's basketball)|Hatay BŞB]]
| [[Women's Basketball|Basketball (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Basketball League|Women's Super League]]
| Antakya Sport Hall (2500)
| align=center | 2009
|-
| [[Adana Basketbol Kulubü]]
| [[Women's Basketball|Basketball (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Basketball League|Women's Super League]]
| [[Adana Atatürk Sports Hall]] (2000)
| align=center | 2000
|-
| [[Mersin Basketbol Kulübü]]
| [[Women's Basketball|Basketball (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Basketball League|Women's Super League]]
| [[Edip Buran Arena]] (1750)
| align=center | 
|-
| [[Tosyalı Toyo Osmaniye]]
| [[Women's Basketball|Basketball (women)]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Turkish Women's Basketball League|Women's Super League]]
| [[Tosyalı Sports Hall]]
| align=center | 2000
|}

== Transportation ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2021}}

Cilicia has a well-developed transportation system with two airports, two major seaports, motorways and railway lines on the historical route connecting Europe to Middle East.

=== Air ===
Cilicia is served by two airports. [[Adana Şakirpaşa Airport]] is an international airport that have flights to European destinations. There are daily domestic flights to [[Istanbul]], [[Ankara]], [[İzmir]], [[Antalya]] and [[Trabzon]]. [[Adana Şakirpaşa Airport]] serves the provinces of [[Mersin Province|Mersin]], [[Adana Province|Adana]] and [[Osmaniye Province|Osmaniye]].

[[File:TCDD Network Map 2023.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Railway connections of Cilicia]]
[[Hatay Airport]], opened in 2007, is a domestic airport, and currently has flights to [[Istanbul]], [[Ankara]] and [[Nicosia]], [[Northern Cyprus|TRNC]]. Hatay Airport mostly serves [[Hatay Province]].

Another under construction airport is [[Çukurova Regional Airport]], According to the newspaper [[Hürriyet]], the project's cost will be 357&nbsp;million Euro. When finished, it will serve to 15&nbsp;million people, and the capacity will be doubled in the future.

=== Sea ===
There are daily seabus and vehicle-passenger ferry services from [[Taşucu]] to [[Kyrenia]], [[Northern Cyprus]]. From [[Mersin]] port, there are ferry services to [[Famagusta]].

=== Road ===
The [[List of highways in Turkey#Motorways|O50–O59]] motorways crosses Cilicia. Motorways of Cilicia extends to [[Niğde]] on the north, [[Erdemli]] on the west and [[Şanlıurfa]] on the east, and [[İskenderun]] on the south. [[State road D400 (Turkey)|State road D-400]] connects Cilicia to Antalya on the west. [[Adana]]–[[Kozan, Adana|Kozan]], [[Adana]]–[[Karataş]], [[İskenderun]]–[[Antakya]]–[[Aleppo]] double roads are other regional roads.

=== Railway ===
Parallel to the highway network in Cilicia, there is an extensive railway network. Adana-Mersin train runs as a commuter train between Mersin, Tarsus and Adana. There are also regional trains from Adana to Ceyhan, Osmaniye and İskenderun.

== Society ==
Cilicia was one of the most important regions for the [[Ottoman Armenians]] because it managed very well to preserve Armenian character throughout the years. In fact, the Cilician highlands were densely populated by Armenians in small but prosperous towns and villages such as [[Hadjin]] and [[Süleymanlı|Zeitun]], two mountainous areas where autonomy was maintained until the 19th century.<ref name=ArmenianPpl>Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" in ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century''. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283-290. {{ISBN|1-4039-6421-1}}.</ref><ref name=Treatment>{{cite book |last=Bryce |first=James |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Textor Verlag |location=Frankfurt |year=2008 |pages=465–467 |isbn=978-3-938402-15-3}}</ref> In ports and cities of the Adana plain, commerce and industry were almost entirely in the hands of the Armenians and they remained so thanks to a constant influx of Armenians from the highlands. Their population was continuously increasing in numbers in Cilicia in contrast to other parts of the Ottoman Empire, where it was, since 1878, decreasing due to repression.

== List of rulers ==

=== Satraps ===
* [[Camisares]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Καμισσάρης}}|translit=Kamissárēs}}), {{reign|{{c.|390s}}|{{c.|385 BC}}}}
* [[Datames]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Δατάμης}}|translit=Datamēs}}; {{langx|peo|*Dātamah}}), {{reign|{{c.|385}}|{{c.|362 BC}}}}
* [[Mazaeus]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Μαζαῖος}}|translit=Mazaîos}}; {{langx|peo|*Mazdāyah}}), {{reign|{{c.|340s}}|333 BC}}

=== Roman client kings ===
* [[Tarcondimotus I]] ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Ταρκονδίμοτος}}|translit=Tarkondímotos}}; [[Luwian language|Luwian]]: {{Transliteration|hlu|*Tarḫuntamu(wa)tas}}{{sfn|Houwink ten Cate|1961|p=128}}), {{reign|{{c.|40s}}|31 BC}}
* Tarcondimotus II ({{langx|grc|{{script|Grek|Ταρκονδίμοτος}}|translit=Tarkondímotos}}; [[Luwian language|Luwian]]: {{Transliteration|hlu|*Tarḫuntamu(wa)tas}}{{sfn|Houwink ten Cate|1961|p=128}}), {{reign|{{c.|30s}}|{{c.|17 BC}}}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Cancik |editor-first1=Hubert |editor-link1=:de:Hubert Cancik |editor-last2=Schneider |editor-first2=Helmuth |editor-link2=:de:Helmuth Schneider (Althistoriker) |editor-last3=Salazar |editor-first3=Christine F. |editor-last4=Möller |editor-first4=Astrid |editor-link4=:de:Astrid Möller |editor-last5=Ruppel |editor-first5=Antonia |editor-last6=Warburton |editor-first6=David |editor-link6=:de:David A. Warburton |last=Berger |first=Albrecht |author-link=:de:Albrecht Berger (Byzantinist) |date=2003 |title=Cilices, Cilicia |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/NPOE/e613620.xml |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World |volume=3 |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]; [[Boston]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |access-date=1 November 2025 |page=331 |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e613620 |isbn=90-04-12259-1 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Bryce |first=Trevor |author-link=Trevor R. Bryce |date=2009 |title=The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire |location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-39485-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Grant (classicist) |title=A Guide to the Ancient World |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoancientwo0000gran |url-access=registration |publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc. |year=1997 |location=[[New York City]], [[United States]] |isbn=0-7607-4134-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Grayson |first=A.K. |author-link=:de:Albert Kirk Grayson |date=1975 |title=Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles |series=Texts from Cuneiform Sources |volume=5 |url= |location=[[Locust Valley, New York|Locust Valley]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[:de:Druckerei J. J. Augustin|J. J. Augustin Publisher]] }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Edzard |editor-first1=Dietz Otto |editor-link1=Dietz Otto Edzard |editor-last2=Calmeyer |editor-first2=P. |editor-last3=Moortgat |editor-first3=A. |editor-link3=Anton Moortgat |editor-last4=Otten |editor-first4=H. |editor-last5=Röllig |editor-first5=Wolfgang |editor-link5=:de:Wolfgang Röllig |editor-last6=v. Soden |editor-first6=W. |editor-link6=Wolfram von Soden |editor-last7=Wiseman |editor-first7=D. J. |editor-link7=Donald Wiseman |last=Hawkins |first=J.D. |author-link=:de:John David Hawkins |year=1975 |title=Ḫilakku |encyclopedia=[[Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie]] |trans-encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Ancient Near Eastern Studies |language=en |pages=402–403 |volume=4 |location=[[Berlin, Germany]]; [[New York City]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[De Gruyter|Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-006772-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Houwink ten Cate |first=Ph. H. J. |author-link= |date=1961 |chapter=The Compound Luwian Names of the Hellenistic Period |title=The Luwian Population Groups of Lycia and Cilicia Aspera During the Hellenistic Period |series=Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui |url=https://archive.org/details/luwianpopulation0000houw |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Becker |editor-first1=Jörg |editor-last2=Ralph |editor-first2=Hempelmann |editor-last3=Rehm |editor-first3=Ellen |editor-link3=:de:Ellen Rehm |last=Novák |first=Mirko |author-link1=:de:Mirko Novák |date=2010 |title=Kulturlandschaft Syrien. Festschrift für Jan-Waalke Meyer |series=Alter Orient und Altes Testament |volume=371 |trans-title=Syrian Cultural Landscape: Festschrift for Jan-Waalke Meyer |chapter=Kizzuwatna – Ḥiyawa – Quwe. Ein Abriss der Kulturgeschichte des Ebenen Kilikien |trans-chapter=Kizzuwatna – Ḥiyawa – Quwe. An outline of the cultural history of Plain Cilicia. |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/7615302 |location=[[Münster]], [[Germany]] |publisher=[[:de:Ugarit-Verlag|Ugarit-Verlag]] |pages=397-425 |isbn=978-3-868-35034-0 |access-date=20 November 2025 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Payne |editor-first1=Annick |editor-last2=Velhartická |editor-first2=Šárka |editor-last3=Wintjes |editor-first3=Jorit |editor-link3=:de:Jorit Wintjes |last=Simon |first=Zsolt |date=2021 |series=Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis |volume=295 |title=Beyond All Boundaries: Anatolia in the First Millennium BC |chapter=401 BC: The Year the Neo-Hittite Statehood Ended |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/44251904 |location=[[Leuven]], [[Belgium]] |publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]] |pages=675–688 |isbn=978-9-042-94884-6 |access-date=12 September 2025}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Cancik |editor-first1=Hubert |editor-link1=:de:Hubert Cancik |editor-last2=Schneider |editor-first2=Helmuth |editor-link2=:de:Helmuth Schneider (Althistoriker) |editor-last3=Salazar |editor-first3=Christine F. |editor-last4=Möller |editor-first4=Astrid |editor-link4=:de:Astrid Möller |editor-last5=Ruppel |editor-first5=Antonia |editor-last6=Warburton |editor-first6=David |editor-link6=:de:David A. Warburton |last=Täuber |first=Hans |author-link=:de:Hans Taeuber |date=2003a |title=Cilices, Cilicia |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/NPOE/e613620.xml |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World |volume=3 |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]; [[Boston]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |access-date=1 November 2025 |page=329-330 |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e613620 |isbn=90-04-12259-1 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Cancik |editor-first1=Hubert |editor-link1=:de:Hubert Cancik |editor-last2=Schneider |editor-first2=Helmuth |editor-link2=:de:Helmuth Schneider (Althistoriker) |editor-last3=Salazar |editor-first3=Christine F. |editor-last4=Möller |editor-first4=Astrid |editor-link4=:de:Astrid Möller |editor-last5=Ruppel |editor-first5=Antonia |editor-last6=Warburton |editor-first6=David |editor-link6=:de:David A. Warburton |last=Täuber |first=Hans |author-link=:de:Hans Taeuber |date=2003b |title=Cilicia |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/NPOE/e234510.xml |encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World |volume=3 |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]; [[Boston]], [[United States]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |access-date=1 November 2025 |page=329-330 |doi=10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e613620 |isbn=90-04-12259-1 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Cilicia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |year=1991 |last=Weiskopf |first=Michael |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation]]; [[Brill Publishers]] |location=New York City, United States |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/cilicia-3rd-cent |access-date=26 June 2024}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* Rutishauser, Susanne. 2020. ''Siedlungskammer Kilikien. Studien zur Kultur- und Landschaftsgeschichte des Ebenen Kilikien''. Schriften zur Vorderasiatischen Archäologie Bd. 16. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. {{ISBN|978-3-447-11397-7}}.
* Pilhofer, Philipp. 2018. ''[https://edoc.bbaw.de/files/3071/BBAW_TU184_Pilhofer_Bergland.pdf Das frühe Christentum im kilikisch-isaurischen Bergland. Die Christen der Kalykadnos-Region in den ersten fünf Jahrhunderten] (PDF; 27.4&nbsp;MB)'' (Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, vol. 184). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter ({{ISBN|978-3-11-057381-7}}).
* ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', No. 282/283, Symposium: Chalcolithic Cyprus. pp.&nbsp;167–175.
* Engels, David. 2008. "Cicéron comme proconsul en Cilicie et la guerre contre les Parthes", ''[[Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire]]'' 86, pp.&nbsp;23–45.
* Pilhofer, Susanne. 2006. [http://www.kilikien.de/romanisierung/romanisierung.pdf ''Romanisierung in Kilikien? Das Zeugnis der Inschriften''] (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 46). Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag ({{ISBN|3-8316-0538-6}}). And: 2., erweiterte Auflage, mit einem Nachwort von Philipp Pilhofer (Quellen und Forschungen zur Antiken Welt 60) Munich: Herbert Utz Verlag ({{ISBN|978-3-8316-7184-7}})

== External links ==
* [http://www.kilikien.de/ Ancient Cilicia – texts, photographs, maps, inscriptions]
* [https://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html Jona Lendering, "Ancient Cilicia"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728060651/http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/cilicia/cilicia.html |date=28 July 2014 }}
* [http://www.allaboutturkey.com/kilikya.htm Cilicia]
* [https://charlvarchive.org/ Photographs and Plans of the Churches and Fortifications in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20180805225007/http://armenianpilgrimages.com/ Pilgrimages to Historic Armenia and Cilicia]}}
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Turkey.html#Antalya WorldStatesmen- Turkey]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131215113112/http://armenocide.am/Genocide_maps.html Armenian Genocide Map's – Map of Kilikia (1909)]}}

{{History of Anatolia|state=expanded}}
{{Historical regions of Anatolia}}
{{Roman provinces AD 117}}
{{Late Roman Provinces|state=collapsed}}
{{Second Journey of Paul of Tarsus}}
{{Armenian diaspora}}

[[Category:Cilicia| ]]
[[Category:546 BC]]
[[Category:6th-century BC disestablishments]]
[[Category:Achaemenid satrapies]]
[[Category:Ancient Cilicia| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
[[Category:Geography of Adana Province]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Anatolia]]
[[Category:History of Adana Province]]