View source for Chrysanthemum

{{short description|Genus of flowering plants in the daisy family}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Chrysanthemum nangkingense.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Chrysanthemum indicum]]''
| display_parents = 2
| taxon = Chrysanthemum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicolson |first1=Dan H. |title=Report of the General Committee: 8 |journal=Taxon |date=May 1999 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=373–378 |doi=10.2307/1224444 |jstor=1224444 |bibcode=1999Taxon..48..373N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tropicos.org/Name/40008423|title=Chrysanthemum L.|website=[[Tropicos]] }}</ref>
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
| type_species = ''[[Chrysanthemum indicum]]''
| synonyms = * ''Chrysanthemum'' subsect. ''Dendranthema'' <small>(DC.) DC. ex Kitam.</small>
* ''Neuractis'' <small>Cass.</small>
* ''Pyrethrum'' sect. ''Dendranthema'' <small>DC.</small>
* ''Leucanthemum'' <small>(Tourn.) L.</small>
* ''Dendranthema'' <small>(DC.) Des Moul.</small>
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=o /><ref name="POWO"/>
}}
{{infobox Chinese
| pic = Chrysanthemum (Chinese characters).svg
| piccap = The Chinese character for "chrysanthemum"
| picupright = 0.2
| c = 菊花
| l = "chrysanthemum-flower"
| p = júhuā
| w = chü<sup>2</sup>-hua<sup>1</sup>
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|j|ü|2|.|h|ua|1}}
| suz = jioh-ho
| j = guk<sup>1</sup>-faa<sup>1</sup>
| y = gūk-fāa
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|g|uk|1.|f|aa|1}}
| poj = {{Zhwb|kak-hue|kiok-hue}}
| kanji = 菊花
| hiragana = きくか<br />きっか
| romaji = kiku ka<br />kikka
| hangul = 국화
| hanja = 菊花
| rr = Gukhwa
| mr = Kukhwa
| h = kiug faˋ
}}

'''Chrysanthemums''' ({{IPAc-en|k|r|ɪ|ˈ|s|æ|n|θ|ə|m|ə|m|z}} {{respell|kriss|AN|thə|məmz}}), sometimes abbreviated to '''mums''' or '''chrysanths''',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gardenista.com/posts/chrysanthemums-rethinking-fast-food-flower/ |title=Chrysanthemums: Rethinking a Fast-Food Flower |date=17 September 2019}}</ref> are [[perennial]] [[herbaceous]] [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Asteraceae]] that bloom in the autumn.<ref name="POWO">{{cite web |title=''Chrysanthemum'' L. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:331492-2 |access-date=10 September 2025}}</ref> They are [[native plant|native]] to [[East Asia]] and [[northeastern Europe]]. Most species originate from East Asia, and the [[center of diversity]] is in [[China]].<ref name=liu>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Ping-Li |last2=Wan |first2=Qian |last3=Guo |first3=Yan-Ping |last4=Yang |first4=Ji |last5=Rao |first5=Guang-Yuan |title=Phylogeny of the Genus Chrysanthemum L.: Evidence from Single-Copy Nuclear Gene and Chloroplast DNA Sequences |journal=PLOS ONE |date=1 November 2012 |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e48970 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048970 |pmid=23133665 |pmc=3486802 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...748970L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Many thousands of horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.

== Description ==
[[File:NIEdot318.jpg|thumb|Historical painting of chrysanthemums from the ''New International Encyclopedia'', 1902]]
[[File:Pollens of Chrysanthemum.jpg|thumb|Pollen]]

The [[genus]] ''Chrysanthemum'' consists of [[perennial]] [[herbaceous]] [[flowering plant]]s, sometimes [[subshrub]]s. The [[leaves]] are alternate, divided into leaflets and may be [[pinnatisect]], lobed, or [[serrate]] (toothed) but rarely entire; they are connected to stalks with [[indumentum|hairy]] bases.{{sfn|Oberprieler et al|2007}}

The compound [[inflorescence]] is an array of several [[pseudanthium|flower heads]], or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of [[bract|phyllaries]]. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. [[Pollen grains]] are approximately 34 microns.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The fruit is a ribbed [[achene]].<ref name=china>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=106957 ''Chrysanthemum''.] Flora of China. eFloras.</ref>{{sfn|Oberprieler et al|2007}}

== Etymology ==
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the {{langx|grc|χρυσός}} ''chrysos'' (gold) and {{langx|grc|ἄνθεμον|label=none}} ''anthemon'' (flower).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://landscaping.about.com/od/landscapecolor/p/chrysanthemums.htm|title=Chrysanthemums and Hardy Mums – Colorful Fall Flowers|author=David Beaulieu|work=About.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110035953/http://landscaping.about.com/od/landscapecolor/p/chrysanthemums.htm|archive-date=10 Jan 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Chrysanthemum}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==
The genus ''Chrysanthemum'' was first formally described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753, with 14 [[species]], and hence bears his name (<small>L.</small>) as the [[botanical authority]].{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753}} The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago{{When|date=October 2019}} into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus ''Dendranthema''. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the [[International Botanical Congress]] in 1999 changed the [[type species|defining species]] of the genus to ''[[Chrysanthemum indicum]]'', restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus ''Chrysanthemum''.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Genera now separated from ''Chrysanthemum'' include ''[[Argyranthemum]]'', ''[[Glebionis]]'', ''[[Leucanthemopsis]]'', ''[[Leucanthemum]]'', ''[[Rhodanthemum]]'', and ''[[Tanacetum]]''.

=== Species ===
{{As of|2025|September}}, ''[[Plants of the World Online]]'' accepted the following species:<ref name="POWO"/>
{{Div col|colwidth=24em}}
* [[Chrysanthemum × aphrodite|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''aphrodite'']] <small>Kitam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum arcticum]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum]]'' <small>Ling</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum arisanense]]'' <small>Hayata</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum bizarre]]'' <small>C.Z.Shen</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum chalchingolicum]]'' <small>Grubov</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum chanetii]]'' <small>H.Lév.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum crassum]]'' <small>(Kitam.) Kitam.</small>
* [[Chrysanthemum × cuneifolium|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''cuneifolium'']] <small>Kitam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum dabieshanense]]'' <small>Z.X.Fu, A.G.Zhen & Y.P.Ma</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum dichrum]]'' <small>(C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum foliaceum]]'' <small>(G.F.Peng, C.Shih & S.Q.Zhang) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum glabriusculum]]'' <small>(W.W.Sm.) Hand.-Mazz.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum horaimontanum]]'' <small>Masam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum hypargyreum]]'' <small>Diels</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum indicum]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum integrifolium]]'' <small>Richardson</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum japonense]]'' <small>(Makino) Nakai</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium]]'' <small>Makino</small>
* [[Chrysanthemum × leucanthum|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''leucanthum'']] <small>(Makino) Makino</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum longibracteatum]]'' <small>(C.Shih, G.F.Peng & S.Y.Jin) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum makinoi]]'' <small>Matsum. & Nakai</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum maximoviczii]]'' <small>Kom.</small>
* [[Chrysanthemum × miyatojimense|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''miyatojimense'']] <small>Kitam.</small>
* [[Chrysanthemum × morifolium|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'']] <small>(Ramat.) Hemsl.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum morii]]'' <small>Hayata</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum naktongense]]'' <small>Nakai</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum nankingense]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum neo-oreastrum]]'' <small>C.C.Chang</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum ogawae]]'' <small>Kitam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum okiense]]'' <small>Kitam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum oreastrum]]'' <small>Hance</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum ornatum]]'' <small>Hemsl.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum parvifolium]]'' <small>C.C.Chang</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum potentilloides]]'' <small>Hand.-Mazz.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum rhombifolium]]'' <small>(Y.Ling & C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.</small>
* [[Chrysanthemum × shimotomaii|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''shimotomaii'']] <small>Makino</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum sinuatum]]'' <small>Ledeb.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum vestitum]]'' <small>(Hemsl.) Kitam.</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum yantaiense]]'' <small>M.Sun & J.T.Chen</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum yoshinaganthum]]'' <small>Makino</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum zawadzkii]]'' <small>Herbich</small>
* ''[[Chrysanthemum zhuozishanense]]'' <small>L.Q.Zhao & Jie Yang</small>
{{Div col end}}

Former species include:
* ''Chrysanthemum carinatum'' = ''[[Ismelia|Ismelia carinata]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium'' = ''[[Tanacetum cinerariifolium]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum coccineum'' = ''[[Tanacetum coccineum]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum coronarium'' = ''[[Glebionis coronaria]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum frutescens'' = ''[[Argyranthemum frutescens]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum maximum'' = ''[[Leucanthemum maximum]]''
* ''[[Chrysanthemum pacificum]]'' = ''[[Ajania pacifica]]''
* ''Chrysanthemum segetum'' = ''[[Glebionis segetum]]''

== Ecology ==

Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. They are a flower associated with the month of November.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cityflowers.co.in/blogs/news/flower-of-the-month-chrysanthemums|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306130710/http://www.cityflowers.co.in/blog/flower-of-the-month-chrysanthemums/|title=Flower of the Month: Chrysanthemums|archive-date=6 March 2016|website=CityFlowersIndia}}</ref>

== Cultivation ==
[[File:Chrysanthemum Market (菊市場) in Japan, Taisho era (1914 by Elstner Hilton).jpg|thumb|A chrysanthemum market in Japan, 1914]]
Chrysanthemums ({{lang-zh|c=菊花|p=Júhuā}}) were first cultivated in China as a flowering [[herb]] as far back as the 15th century [[BCE]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mums.org/history-of-the-chrysanthemum/|title=History of the Chrysanthemum |website=National Chrysanthemum Society, USA |archive-date=10 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510021842/http://www.mums.org/history-of-the-chrysanthemum/}}</ref> Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630.<ref name=china /> By 2014, it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China.<ref>The Scientific World Journal Volume 2014, [https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2014/625658/ Article ID 625658]</ref> The plant is renowned as one of the [[Four Gentlemen]] ({{lang|zh|四君子}}) in [[Chinese art|Chinese]] and [[Art of East Asia (disambiguation)|East Asian Art]]. The plant is particularly significant during the [[Double Ninth Festival]].{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Chrysanthemum cultivation in Japan began during the [[Nara period|Nara]] and [[Heian period]]s (early 8th to late 12th centuries) and gained popularity in the [[Edo period]] (early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes. They were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity.<ref name = "odawara">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160804014132/http://www.city.odawara.kanagawa.jp/global-image/Press/20115257-2.pdf History of chrysanthemums.] [[Odawara|Odawara City]]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20201203225846/https://blog.hiroshima-bot.jp/2020/10/1024118.html Chrysanthemum exhibition] [[Hiroshima Botanical Garden]]</ref> In addition, from the [[Meiji period]] (late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over {{Convert|20|cm|frac=8}} in diameter, called the ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style, were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums.<ref name = "odawara"/> The [[imperial crest of Japan]] is a chrysanthemum, and the institution of the monarchy is also called the [[Chrysanthemum Throne]]. A number of festivals and shows take place throughout Japan in autumn when the flowers bloom. {{Nihongo|[[Chrysanthemum Day]]|菊の節句|Kiku no Sekku}} is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when [[John Stevens (inventor, born 1749)|Colonel John Stevens]] imported a [[cultivar|cultivated variety]] known as Dark Purple from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within [[Elysian Fields, Hoboken, New Jersey|Elysian Fields]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]].<ref name="Curtis' Botanical Magazine">The New York Botanical Garden, ''Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume X'' Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797</ref>

=== Classification ===
For horticultural purposes, all ''Chrysanthemum'' cultivars are split into 13 divisions based upon flower form, a classification developed by the National Chrysanthemum Society (USA).{{sfn|National Chrysanthemum Society|1978}}{{sfn|NYBG|2024}}

== Uses ==

=== Ornamental uses ===
[[File:Chrysanthemum indicum 11012013.jpg|thumb|''C. indicum'']]
[[File:Chrysanthemum x morifolium Dompierre 3.jpg|thumb|Different colors of ''Chrysanthemum x morifolium'']]
[[File:Nagoya Castle Chrysanthemum Competition 2017 11.jpg|thumb|Example of a Japanese [[chrysanthemum bonsai]]]]
Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are usually brighter and more striking than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like [[pom-pom|pompons]] or [[button]]s. This genus contains many [[hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] and thousands of [[cultivar]]s developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is [[Chrysanthemum × morifolium|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'']] (syn. ''C.'' × ''grandiflorum''), derived primarily from ''C.&nbsp;indicum'', but also involving other species.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]] (confirmed 2017).<ref>{{cite web  | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants – Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 19 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 24 January 2018}}</ref>

In Japan, a form of [[chrysanthemum bonsai]] was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. A bonsai-like effect can also be created by using pieces of dead wood with the flower growing over the back along the wood, to give the illusion from the front that the a miniature tree blooms in chrysanthemums.

=== Culinary uses ===
Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species ''C. morifolium'' are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as [[chrysanthemum tea]] ([[wikt:菊|菊]] [[wikt:花|花]] [[wikt:茶|茶]], [[pinyin]]: ''júhuā chá'', in Chinese). In Korea, a [[Korean wine#Flower wines|rice wine]] flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called ''gukhwaju'' ({{Korean|hangul=국화주|labels=no}}).

Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as ''[[mixian (noodle)|mixian]]'' in broth or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. They are commonly used in [[hot pot]] and stir fries. In Japanese cuisine, small chrysanthemums are used as garnish for [[sashimi]].

=== Insecticidal uses ===
[[Pyrethrum]] (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' or ''Tanacetum cinerariaefolium'') is economically important as a natural source of [[insecticide]]. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called [[pyrethrin]]s, which occur in the [[achene]]s, are extracted and sold in the form of an [[oleoresin]]. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all [[insect]]s, and inhibit female [[mosquito]]es from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an [[insect repellent]] effect.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=Exposure of insects to pyrethrins results in paralysis; unclear that pyrethrins are detectable or avoided by insects}} They are harmful to [[fish]], but are far less toxic to [[mammal]]s and [[bird]]s than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being [[biodegradation|biodegradable]], and also [[Chemical decomposition|decompose]] easily on exposure to light. [[Pyrethroid]]s such as [[permethrin]] are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as [[Agromyzidae|leafminer flies]] including [[Liriomyza trifolii|''L.&nbsp;trifolii'']].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/veg/leaf/a_serpentine_leafminer.htm|title=American serpentine leafminer - Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess)|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref>

[[Persian powder]] is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.

=== Environmental uses ===
Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce [[indoor air quality|indoor air pollution]] by the [[NASA Clean Air Study]].<ref name="nasastudy">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/download/nasa_techdoc_19860066312/19860066312.pdf|title=Foliage Plants for Removing Indoor Air Pollutants from Energy-efficient Homes|author1=B. C. Wolverton |author2=Rebecca C. McDonald |author3=E. A. Watkins, Jr |access-date=27 December 2013}}</ref>

== In culture ==
In some European countries (e.g., France, [[Belgium]], Italy, Spain, [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], [[Croatia]]), incurve chrysanthemums symbolize [[death]] and are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism;{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} similarly, in China, Japan, and [[Korea]] of East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty.{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}<ref>[http://www.poemlover.com/flower.asp Flower Meaning]. Retrieved 22 September 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012210806/http://poemlover.com/flower.asp |date=12 October 2007 }}</ref> In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teleflora.com/about-flowers/chrysanthemum.asp|title=Chrysanthemum (Mums) Flower Meaning & Symbolism |website=Teleflora}}</ref> with New Orleans as a notable exception.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbase.com/septembermorn/metairie_cemetery|title=Metairie Cemetery|work=PBase}}</ref>

In the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[language of flowers]], the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languageofflowers.com/flowermeaning.htm|website=Language of Flowers|title=Flower Meanings, Flower Sentiments|access-date=2016-11-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124141728/http://languageofflowers.com/flowermeaning.htm|archive-date=24 November 2016}}</ref> The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.1stinflowers.com/fom_november.html |title=Birth Month Flower of November – The Chrysanthemum – Flowers, Low Prices, Same Day Delivery |publisher=1st in Flowers! |date=27 October 2008 |access-date=27 March 2010}}</ref>

=== East Asia ===
==== China ====
[[File:Red lacquerware dish, Ming Dynasty.jpg|thumb|[[Ming dynasty]] red [[lacquerware]] dish with carved chrysanthemums and dragons]]
* The chrysanthemum is the city flower of [[Beijing]] and [[Kaifeng]]. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jürchens]] in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2012-07-04/023424707272.shtml|title=中国开封菊花花会更名为中国开封菊花文化节_新浪新闻|website=news.sina.com.cn|access-date=2017-11-29}}</ref>
* The chrysanthemum is one of the "[[Four Gentlemen]]" ({{lang|zh|四君子}}) of China (the others being the [[Prunus mume|plum blossom]], the [[orchid]], and [[bamboo]]). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by [[Tao Yuanming|Tao Qian]], an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers.
* A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in [[Tongxiang]], near [[Hangzhou]], China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zftec.gov.cn/english/open/govern/detail.jsp?m_id=561 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031216082741/http://www.zftec.gov.cn/english/open/govern/detail.jsp?m_id=561 |archive-date=16 December 2003 |title=Remarkable Investment Attraction Result of Tongxiang City |publisher=Zhejiang Foreign Frade and Economic Cooperation Bureau |access-date=17 July 2009}}</ref>
* Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China.<ref>{{Cite web|author=2010年03月27日星期六 二月十二庚寅(虎)年 |url=http://www.guoxue.com/365/index.php?kid=006 |title=国学365-中国历代菊花诗365首 |publisher=Guoxue.com |access-date=27 March 2010}}</ref>
* The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie ''[[Curse of the Golden Flower]]'' is a chrysanthemum.
* "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén {{lang|zh|菊花门}}), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations).<ref>{{Cite book | title=Niubi: the real Chinese you were never taught in school |author=Chao, E. |publisher=Plume |year=2009}}</ref>
* An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
* The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese [[Double Ninth Festival]].
* In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties.<ref>"Chinese Symbols." The British Museum, 2008. Accessed 4 October 2017.
</ref> Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire.
* [[Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China]] listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tang|first1=Weici|title=Chinese Drugs of Plant Origin: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Use in Traditional and Modern Medicine|last2=Eisenbrand|first2=Gerhard|publisher=Springer Berlin / Heidelberg|year=1992|isbn=978-3-642-73739-8|page=302}}</ref>

==== Japan ====
[[File:Flag of the Japanese Emperor.svg|thumb|[[List of Japanese flags#Imperial flags|Imperial Standard of the Emperor of Japan]]]]
[[File:Blade and Mounting for a Short Sword (Wakizashi).jpg|thumb|The [[scabbard]] of a ''[[wakizashi]]'' with chrysanthemums painted using ''[[maki-e]]'', a decoration technique of [[Japanese lacquerware]]. 18th century, [[Edo period]].]]
[[File:Khalili Collection Kimono 03.jpg|thumb|Outer [[Kimono]] for a Young Woman (Uchikake). Motif: Chrysanthemums and fences.]]
Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of China in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme of ''[[waka (poetry)|waka]]'' (Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in the [[Heian period]], and ''[[Kokin Wakashū]]'' is the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during the [[Kamakura period]], when the retired [[Emperor Go-Toba]] adopted it as the [[Mon (emblem)|mon (family crest)]] of the [[Imperial house of Japan|Imperial family]], it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During the [[Edo period]] from the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums, [[cherry blossoms]], [[Japanese iris]], [[morning glory]], etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and many [[chrysanthemum exhibition]]s were held. From the [[Meiji period]] in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of ''ogiku'' style cultivars with a diameter of 20&nbsp;cm or more became popular.<ref name=chrysanthemum>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture|last=Buckley|first=Sandra|date=2002|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref name = "odawara"/><ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/13051/13051-h/13051-h.htm#page49 LOVE OF FLOWERS.] "Sketches of Japanese manners and customs"  Jacob Mortimer Wier Silver, 1867</ref>

In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the [[Shinjuku Gyo-en]], [[Meiji Shrine]] and [[Yasukuni Shrine]] in [[Tokyo]]. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, ''kankokuheisha'') has adopted the chrysanthemum crest.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=271|title=Shinmon|last=Inoue|first=Nobutaka|date=2 June 2005|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Shinto|access-date=17 November 2008}}</ref> Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditional [[Japanese art]]s like [[porcelain]], [[lacquerware]] and ''[[kimono]]''.<ref name=chrysanthemum />

Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many [[Japanese people]] who enter prize plants in contests.<ref name=chrysanthemum /> Chrysanthemum "dolls", often depicting fictional characters from both traditional sources like ''[[kabuki]]'' and contemporary sources like Disney, are displayed throughout the fall months, and the city of [[Nihonmatsu]] hosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin of [[Nihonmatsu Castle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.city.nihonmatsu.lg.jp/kanko/kiku/kiku.html|title=二本松の菊人形|publisher=City.nihonmatsu.lg.jp|access-date=27 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723064541/http://www.city.nihonmatsu.lg.jp/kanko/kiku/kiku.html|archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref> They are also grown into [[chrysanthemum bonsai]] forms.
* In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] and the [[Imperial House of Japan|Imperial family]]. In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" (菊花紋章, ''kikukamonshō'' or'' kikkamonshō''), i.e. a [[mon (crest)|mon]] of chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include:
** The [[imperial crest of Japan]] is used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Colin|title=Badges of honor: what Japan's legal lapel pins really mean|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2015/02/23/issues/badges-honor-japans-legal-lapel-pins-really-mean/|access-date=26 February 2015|work=[[The Japan Times]]}}</ref>
** The [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] is the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne.
** The Supreme [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]] is a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of the [[Government of Japan|Japanese government]].
** In Imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://oldmilitarymarkings.com/japanese_markings.html|title=Markings on Japanese Arisaka Rifles and Bayonets of World War II|website=oldmilitarymarkings.com}}</ref>
* The [[Nagoya Castle]] Chrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is for ''bonsai'' flowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes.

<gallery>
File:Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg|Chrysanthemum crest on the [[battleship]] [[Japanese battleship Mikasa|''Mikasa'']]
File:高台寺蒔絵-Sake Ewer (Hisage) with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields.jpg|''Maki-e'' [[Sake]] Ewer with Chrysanthemums and [[Government Seal of Japan|Paulownia Crests]] in Alternating Fields. Early 17th century, [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]].
File:Flower show-J. M. W. Silver.jpg|Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns.
File:Hirakata-kikuningyo3231.JPG|"Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005)
File:Chrysanthemum,kiku,katori-city,japan.JPG|Chrysanthemums in the Japanese ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style
</gallery>

==== Korea ====

[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Chrysanthemums Rock and Bird.jpg|thumb|19th-century Korean painting|256x256px]]The flower is found extensively in inlaid [[Goryeo ware|Goreyo ware]] and were reproduced in stamp form in [[Buncheong|Buncheong wares]]. Several twentieth century potters, especially Kim Se-yong, created double-wall wares featuring each individual petal painted in white clay against a [[celadon]] background. A vase produced using this technique and presented in 1999 to [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]] can be found in the [[Royal Collection]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kim Se-Yong (b.1946) - Vase |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/74658 |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.rct.uk |language=en}}</ref>
Laying a wreath of white chrysanthemums to mourn at funerals has been common since the early 20th century. Before the 20th century, white clothing was traditionally worn in funeral settings. However, the introduction of Western culture made black the prevalent color. White chrysanthemums were instead used to preserve the tradition of using white to mourn at funerals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-02-15 |script-title=ko:[이건 왜?] 장례식에 흰 국화를 쓰는 까닭은 |url=https://www.hankyung.com/article/2009021530161 |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=[[The Korea Economic Daily]] |language=ko}}</ref>

Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the [[Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival]].<gallery>
File:Funeral parlor for the Park Won-soon, Mayor of Seoul.jpg|White chrysanthemums at a Korean funeral parlor
File:Double-openwork celadon moon jar with chrysanthemums.jpg|[[celadon]] [[moon jar]] with chrysanthemums, Kim Se-yong
File:청자 상감 국화 넝쿨 무늬 완.jpg|[[Goryeo ware]] bowl with chrysanthemum inscription. early 11th century, [[Goryeo|Goryeo dynasty]].
File:Celadon inlaid peony and chrysanthemum pattern melon-shaped bottle.jpg|Celadon inlaid peony and chrysanthemum pattern melon-shaped bottle, Goryeo dynasty
File:Chrysanthemums in Masan port during gagopa chrysanthemum festival.jpg|Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival
</gallery>

=== West Asia ===
==== Iran ====
In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Jivanji J. |last1=Modi |title=Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees |location=Bombay |publisher=M.J.Karani |date=1937 |page=375 |oclc=3009874 }}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
==== Australia ====
In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burkesbackyard.com.au/2000/archives/2000/in_the_garden/flowering_plants_and_shrubs?p=1456|title=Flowering Plants and Shrubs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927065830/http://www.burkesbackyard.com.au/2000/archives/2000/in_the_garden/flowering_plants_and_shrubs?p=1456|archive-date=27 September 2011}}</ref>

=== North America ===
==== United States ====
* On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public.
* The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of [[Redwood City, California]], grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.<ref name="La Peninsula, xlii 1">La Peninsula, xlii (1)</ref>
* In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration.<ref name="La Peninsula, xlii 1" />
* The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of [[Chicago]] by Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] in 1966.<ref>[http://www.chipublib.org/cplbooksmovies/cplarchive/symbols/flower.php Chrysanthemum: The Official Flower of Chicago.] Chicago Public Library.</ref>
* The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of [[Salinas, California]].<ref>[http://www.ci.salinas.ca.us/services/engineering/pdf/handouts/BMP%20brochures/NPDES-Available%20Resources.pdf City of Salinas Permit Center.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005233741/http://www.ci.salinas.ca.us/services/engineering/pdf/handouts/BMP%20brochures/NPDES-Available%20Resources.pdf |date=5 October 2013 }} City of Salinas Community Development Department.</ref>
* The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several [[fraternities and sororities]], including [[Chi Phi]], [[Phi Kappa Sigma]], [[Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ou.edu/studentlife/fsps/igc/chapters/phi-mu-alpha.html|title=Phi Mu Alpha|website=www.ou.edu}}</ref> [[Lambda Kappa Sigma]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sigmaalphaucd.org/#/about-us/4551333663|title=Sigma Alpha, University of California, Davis chapter}}</ref> [[Sigma Alpha (professional sorority)|Sigma Alpha]], and [[Triangle Fraternity]].

=== Europe ===
==== Italy ====
Italian composer [[Giacomo Puccini]] wrote ''[[Crisantemi]]'' (1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friend [[Amadeo of Spain|Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta]]. In [[Italy]] (and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the [[cemetery]] and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the [[Day of the Dead|Day of the Dead (2 November).]]

==== Poland ====
Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during [[All Saints' Day]] and [[All Souls' Day]] in [[Poland]].<ref>{{cite web |title=All Saints' Day |url=https://polska.pl/experience-poland/traditions-and-holidays/all-saints-day/ |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
The [[National Plant Collection|UK National Collection]] of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near [[Warwick]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floraldaily.com/article/4325/UK-National-Plant-Collection-to-preserve-chrysanthemums |title=UK: National Plant Collection to preserve chrysanthemums |website=Floral Daily |date=10 March 2016 |access-date=13 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014083436/http://www.floraldaily.com/article/4325/UK-National-Plant-Collection-to-preserve-chrysanthemums |archive-date=14 October 2017 }}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>

File:Chrysanthemum February 2008-2.jpg|Bud of a garden chrysanthemum
File:Chrysanthème tokyo.jpg|[[Chrysanthemum × morifolium|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'']] 'Tokyo'
File:Chrysanthemum 094557.jpg|Purple Chrysanthemum
File:Chrysanthemum morifolium 08NOV.jpg|pink ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium''
File:Red chrysanthemum.jpg|Red chrysanthemum
File:Chrysanthemum Plant (1) 06.jpg|Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum
File:Chrysanthemum 'Vesuvius'.jpg|''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' 'Vesuvius'
File:Złocień Zawadzkiego P39.jpg|''[[Chrysanthemum zawadskii]]''
File:Chrysanthemum indicum2.jpg|''[[Chrysanthemum indicum]]''
File:Chrysanthemum japonense var ashizuriense1.jpg|''[[Chrysanthemum japonense]]'' var. ''ashizuriense''
File:Beautiful Chrysanthemum.JPG|A peach coloured chrysanthemum
File:Tiger tail mum 0004.JPG|Tiger Tail chrysanthemum
File:Chrysanthemum leaves.JPG|Leaves of chrysanthemum plant
File:Chrysanthemum × morifolium Dompierre 1.jpg|A chrysanthemum show
File:Chrysanthemum 02.jpg|Yellow Chrysanthemum.
File:Chrysanthemum 01.jpg|Purple Chrysanthemum
File:CHRYSANTHS MIXEDweb.jpg|Chrysanthamums, mixed, part of a display at Hampton Court Flower Show.
File:Chrysanthemum_2020.jpg|Garden in Kalimpong, India
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Photoperiodism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=o>{{Cite web|url=http://dixon.iplantcollaborative.org/CompositaeWeb/default.aspx?Page=NameDetails&TabNum=0&NameId=7d8ff3fe-021f-48b9-93a5-7c97067e94dc|title=Flann, C (ed) 2009+ Global Compositae Checklist|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=14 November 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141114104402/http://dixon.iplantcollaborative.org/CompositaeWeb/default.aspx?Page=NameDetails&TabNum=0&NameId=7d8ff3fe-021f-48b9-93a5-7c97067e94dc}}</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
;Books
* {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Bailey|editor1-first=L.H.|editor1-link=L.H.Bailey|title=The standard cyclopedia of horticulture; a discussion, for the amateur, and the professional and commercial grower, of the kinds, characteristics and methods of cultivation of the species of plants grown in the regions of the United States and Canada for ornament, for fancy, for fruit and for vegetables; with keys to the natural families and genera, descriptions of the horticultural capabilities of the states and provinces and dependent islands, and sketches of eminent horticulturists|format=6 vols.|location=New York|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]|date=1919|orig-date=1914|edition=3rd.|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/23351#/summary|chapter=Chrysanthemum|volume=2|pages=753–766|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/64399#page/177/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book |last1=Burbidge |first1=Frederick William |title=The Chrysanthemum: Its History, Culture, Classification, and Nomenclature |date=1884 |publisher="The Garden" Office |location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfICAAAAYAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Herrington |first1=Arthur |title=The Chrysanthemum |date=November 2008 |orig-date=1905 Orange Judd, New York|publisher=[[Applewood Books]] |location=Bedford MA|isbn=978-1-4290-1286-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GXUrlxV5FYC }}
* {{cite book |last1=Joshi |first1=Harshita |title=Chrysanthemum and Marigold |date= 2019 |publisher=Agrihortico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CCPDwAAQBAJ }}
*  {{cite book |editor-last=Kadereit |editor-first=Joachim W. |editor2-last=Jeffrey |editor2-first=Charles |title= Asterales |series=The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, [[Klaus Kubitzki]] (ed.)|volume=VIII: Eudicots|year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VhUZnM8S47IC|isbn=978-3-540-31051-8|publisher=[[Springer Verlag|Springer-Verlag]]|location=Berlin|last1=Oberprieler|first1=C|last2=Vogt|first2=R|last3=Watson|first3=LE|page=357|chapter=Chrysanthemum|ref={{harvid|Oberprieler et al|2007}}}}{{link note|note=''see'' [https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/plant+sciences/book/978-3-540-31050-1 publisher information]}}
* {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Linnaeus|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|year=1753|volume=2|chapter=Chrysanthemum|chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13830#page/329/mode/1up|pages=887–890|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm}}, ''see also'' [[Species Plantarum]]{{Sfn|Linnaeus|1753}}
* {{Cite book |last=National Chrysanthemum Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNtFAAAAYAAJ |title=Handbook on Chrysanthemum Classification: A Comprehensive List of Cultivars for the Natural Season Grower Including Available Source and Response |date=1978 }}

;Articles
* {{cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=S. M. P. |last2=Abi-Tarabay |first2=H. |last3=Heuvelink |first3=E. |title=Temperature affects Chrysanthemum flower characteristics differently during three phases of the cultivation period |journal=The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology |date=January 2005 |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=209–216 |doi=10.1080/14620316.2005.11511919 |bibcode=2005JHSB...80..209C |s2cid=86353882 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hao |first1=Da-Cheng |last2=Song |first2=Yanjun |last3=Xiao |first3=Peigen |last4=Zhong |first4=Yi |last5=Wu |first5=Peiling |last6=Xu |first6=Lijia |title=The genus Chrysanthemum: Phylogeny, biodiversity, phytometabolites, and chemodiversity |journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]] |date=11 August 2022 |volume=13 |article-number=973197 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.973197 |pmid=36035721 |pmc=9403765 |bibcode=2022FrPS...1373197H |ref={{harvid|Hao et al|2022}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Ping-Li |last2=Wan |first2=Qian |last3=Guo |first3=Yan-Ping |last4=Yang |first4=Ji |last5=Rao |first5=Guang-Yuan |title=Phylogeny of the Genus Chrysanthemum L.: Evidence from Single-Copy Nuclear Gene and Chloroplast DNA Sequences |journal=[[PLOS One]] |date=1 November 2012 |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e48970 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048970 |pmid=23133665 |pmc=3486802 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...748970L |ref={{harvid|Liu et al| 2012}} |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Van Der Ploeg |first1=A. |last2=Heuvelink |first2=E. |title=The influence of temperature on growth and development of chrysanthemum cultivars |journal=The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology |date=January 2006 |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=174–182 |doi=10.1080/14620316.2006.11512047 |bibcode=2006JHSB...81..174V |s2cid=86403236 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Chu-Ze |last2=Zhang |first2=Chu-Jie |last3=Chen |first3=Jie |last4=Guo |first4=Yan-Ping |title=Clarifying Recent Adaptive Diversification of the Chrysanthemum-Group on the Basis of an Updated Multilocus Phylogeny of Subtribe Artemisiinae (Asteraceae: Anthemideae) |journal=[[Frontiers in Plant Science]] |date=26 May 2021 |volume=12 |article-number=648026 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2021.648026 |pmid=34122473 |pmc=8187803 |bibcode=2021FrPS...1248026S |ref={{harvid|Shen et al|2021}} |doi-access=free }}

;Websites
* {{Cite web |last=NYBG |author-link=New York Botanical Garden|title=Chrysanthemum Classifications |url=https://libguides.nybg.org/c.php?g=655086&p=4597561 |access-date=21 September 2025|date=24 May 2024|website=Mertz Library - Research Guides - Plant & Gardening Help - Chrysanthemums }}

{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons-inline}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Chrysanthemum}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090120151515/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2563 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Chrysanthemum'']
* [http://landscaping.about.com/od/landscapecolor/p/chrysanthemums.htm About.com page on Chrysanthemums] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110035953/http://landscaping.about.com/od/landscapecolor/p/chrysanthemums.htm |date=10 January 2012 }}
* [http://www.mums.org/ United States National Chrysanthemum Society website]
* [http://www.bgbm.org/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0102AppendixIIIANGEs000.htm ICBN: List of conserved genera] (scroll down for ''Chrysanthemum'')<!--make this a reference-->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151219221939/http://www.ag.auburn.edu/hort/landscape/Potmum.htm Auburn University (College of Agriculture) web page on Chrysanthemums]
* [http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7404.html University of California web page on aphid management]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q59882}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chrysanthemum| ]]
[[Category:Asteraceae genera]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:National symbols of Japan]]
[[Category:Plants used in bonsai]]