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{{Scandinavia|History}}
The '''Christianization of Scandinavia''', as well as other [[Nordic countries]] and the Baltic countries, took place between the 8th and the 12th centuries. The realms of [[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] established their own [[Archbishop|archdioceses]], responsible directly to the [[pope]], in 1104, 1154 and 1164, respectively. The [[Religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Christianity]] of the Scandinavian people required more time, since it took additional efforts to establish a network of churches.

The earliest signs of [[Christianization]] were in the 830s with [[Ansgar]]'s construction of churches in [[Birka]] and [[Hedeby]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Winroth |first=Anders |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq59r |title=The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-17026-9 |pages=104–118 |jstor=j.ctt1nq59r |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq59r |url-status=live }}</ref> The conversion of Scandinavian kings occurred over the period 960–1020.<ref name=":0" /> Subsequently, Scandinavian kings sought to establish churches, dioceses and Christian kingship, as well as destroy pagan temples.<ref name=":0" /> Denmark was the first Scandinavian country to Christianize, as [[Harald Bluetooth]] declared this around AD 965,<ref name="National Museum of Denmark">{{cite web | title=Christianity comes to Denmark | website=National Museum of Denmark | url=https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/religion-magic-death-and-rituals/christianity-comes-to-denmark/ | access-date=3 February 2023 | archive-date=3 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203013042/https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/religion-magic-death-and-rituals/christianity-comes-to-denmark/ | url-status=live }}</ref> and raised the larger of the two [[Jelling Stones]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/jelling-stenene-ca-935-985/|title=Jellingstenene, ca. 950–965|website=danmarkshistorien.dk|access-date=4 September 2020|archive-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107075013/https://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/jelling-stenene-ca-935-985/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to historian [[Anders Winroth]], Christianity was not forced upon Scandinavians by foreign states or foreign missionaries, but instead willfully adopted by Scandinavian kings who saw the religion as politically advantageous.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Winroth |first=Anders |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq59r |title=The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe |date=2012 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-17026-9 |pages=161–162 |jstor=j.ctt1nq59r |access-date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517021818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1nq59r |url-status=live }}</ref>

Although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it took considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people in some regions,<ref>Elena Melnikova, "How Christian Were Viking Christians?." Ruthenika, Suppl. 4 (2011) pp. 90–107</ref><ref name="Schön170">Schön 2004, 170</ref> while the people were Christianized before the king in other regions. During the [[Early Middle Ages]] the papacy had not yet manifested itself as the central [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] authority, thus making it possible for regional variants of Christianity to develop.<ref name="Sanmark04-15">Sanmark 2004: 15</ref>

== Mission of Hamburg-Bremen ==
[[File:Jellingsten.1..jpg|thumb|260px|[[Harald Bluetooth]]'s runestone, at [[Jelling]]]]
[[File:Jamtkors.png|thumb|100px|The [[Christian cross]] from the [[Frösö Runestone]], symbolizing the Christianization of [[Jämtland]]]]
[[Image:Dalby Heligkorskyrka.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Dalby Church|The Holy Cross Church]] in [[Dalby, Lund Municipality|Dalby]]]]
[[File:DR 290 Sövestad 1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Viking Age [[image stone]] [[Sövestad Runestones#Sövestad 1|Sövestad 1]] from [[Skåne]] depicts a man carrying a cross.]]

Recorded missionary efforts in Denmark started with [[Willibrord]], ''Apostle to the Frisians'', who preached in [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]], which at the time was part of Denmark.<ref>Latourette, ''A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500'' (1938) pp. 81–87.</ref> He went north from [[Frisia]] sometime between 710 and 718 during the reign of King [[Ongendus]].<ref>[[Arild Huitfeldt|Hvitfeldt, Arild]]. Danmarks Riges Krønike</ref> Willibrord and his companions had little success: the king was respectful but had no interest in changing his beliefs. [[Angantyr|Agantyr]] did permit 30 young men to return to Frisia with Willibrord. Perhaps Willibrord's intent was to educate them and recruit some of them to join his efforts to bring Christianity to the Danes.<ref name="CEWillibrord">"St Willibrord" Catholic Encyclopedia, 1913</ref> A century later [[Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims]] and [[Willerich]], later [[Bishop of Bremen]], [[Baptism|baptized]] a few persons during their 823 visit to Denmark. He returned to Denmark twice to proselytize but without any recorded success.<ref name="CEWillibrord"/>

In 826, the King of [[Jutland]] [[Harald Klak]] was forced to flee from Denmark by [[Horik I]], Denmark's other king. Harald went to [[Louis the Pious|Emperor Louis I]] of Germany to seek help getting his lands in Jutland back. Louis I offered to make Harald Duke of Frisia if he would give up the old gods. Harald agreed, and his family and the 400 Danes with him were baptized in [[Ingelheim am Rhein]].<ref>Robinson, Charles (1915). ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OrRAAAAAIAAJ The Conversion of Europe]''.</ref> When Harald returned to Jutland, Emperor Louis and [[Ebbo of Rheims]] assigned the monk [[Ansgar]] to accompany Harald and oversee Christianity among the converts.<ref>Rimbert, "Anskar: The Apostle of the North, 801–865", trans. C.H. Robinson in Carolingian Civilization: A Reader ed. Paul Edward Dutton (Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press, 2004), chap. 10</ref> When Harald Klak was forced from Denmark by King Horik I again, Ansgar left Denmark and focused his efforts on the Swedes. Ansgar traveled to Birka in 829 and established a small Christian community there. His most important convert was Herigar, described as a prefect of the town and a counselor to the king. In 831 the [[Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen|Archdiocese of Hamburg]] was founded and assigned responsibility for proselytizing Scandinavia.<ref name="CEHamburg">"Ancient See of Hamburg". ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. 1913</ref>

Horik I sacked [[Hamburg]] in 845 where Ansgar had become the archbishop. The seat of the archdiocese was transferred to [[Bremen]].<ref name="CEHamburg"/> In the same year there was a pagan uprising in Birka that resulted in the martyrdom of Nithard and forced the resident missionary Bishop Gautbert to flee.<ref>Rimbert, "Anskar: The Apostle of the North, 801–865", trans. C.H. Robinson in ''Carolingian Civilization: A Reader'' ed. Paul Edward Dutton (Broadview Press, 2004), chap. 17.</ref> Ansgar returned to Birka in 854 and Denmark in 860 to reestablish some of the gains of his first visits. In Denmark he won over the trust of then-King [[Horik II]] (not Horik I, who was murdered in 854 and opposed Christianity) who gave him land in [[Hedeby]] (proto-town to be replaced by [[Schleswig]]) for the first Christian chapel. A second church was founded a few years later in [[Ribe]] on Denmark's west coast. Ribe was an important trading town, and as a result, southern Denmark was made a diocese in 948 with Ribe as its seat, a part of the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen under its first bishop, St. Leofdag who was murdered that year while crossing the Ribe River.<ref>"Danmark's Ældste Domkirke" ''Kristelig Dagblad'' 25 July 2007</ref>

The supremacy of the archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen over ecclesiastical life in the north gradually declined as the papacy, from the pontificate of [[Pope Gregory VII]] onwards, involved itself more with the North directly.<ref name="Sanmark04-107">Sanmark 2004: 107</ref> A significant step in this direction was the foundation of an archbishopric for the whole of Scandinavia at [[Lund]] in 1103–04.<ref name="Sanmark04-107"/>

Both the accounts of Willibrod and of Harald are semi-mythical, and integrate mythical and legendary themes from the Nordic pagan tradition into their Christian stories. A syncretized variant of the story of Harald, that has him battling Ragnar Lodbrok to establish Christianity in Denmark, appears in Book Nine of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum. Ebbo is the name of a mythical Nordic figure, Ibor, also known as Egil or Orvandil, who is an archer, elf, and smith who turns against the Aesir gods and wages war upon them, and the story of Ebbo of Rheims integrates themes of the divine Ebbo's story, including peasant (non-Aesir) birth and migration. Harald's usurpation and his efforts at [[Christianization]] are related to several stories of "usurpation" and "changes in sacrifices", including the usurpation of Mithothyn and the introduction of the worship of Frey at Uppsala, in that they utilize similar motifs and mythical figures.

==Scandinavian countries==
{{Norse people}}

===Denmark===
The spread of Christianity in Denmark occurred intermittently. Danes encountered Christians when they participated in [[Viking]] raids from the 9th century to the 1060s. Danes were still tribal in the sense that local chiefs determined attitudes towards Christianity and Christians for their clan and kinsmen. Bringing Christian slaves or future wives back from a Viking raid brought large numbers of ordinary Danes into close contact with Christians for perhaps the first time.

As the chiefs and kings of Denmark became involved in the politics of [[Normandy]], [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[France]], and Germany, they adopted a kinder attitude toward their Christian subjects. In some cases the conversion of the chief or king appears to be purely political to assure an alliance or prevent powerful Christian neighbours from attacking. There were instances when the conversion of a powerful chief (Danish: ''[[Earl|jarl]]'') or one of the kings was followed by wholesale conversions among their followers. In a few instances conversion was brought about by [[trial by ordeal]] miracles wrought by saintly Christians in the presence of the king or other great men of the time.

Christian missionaries recognized early on that the Danes did not worship stone or wooden idols as the north Germans or some Swedes did. They could not simply destroy an image to prove that Christ was a superior god. The great religious sites at [[Viborg, Denmark|Viborg]], [[Lejre]], [[Lund]], and [[Odense]] were also the location of Denmark's great assembly places (Danish: ''landsting''). Religious sites in Denmark were often located at sacred springs, magnificent beech groves, or isolated hilltops. Missionaries simply asked to build chapels in those places. Over time the religious significance of the place transferred itself to the chapel.

Even after becoming Christian, Danes blended the two belief systems together. Families who lived close to the earth did not want to offend the local spirits (Danish: ''landvætter''), so offerings were left just as they had been in pre-Christian times. Sacred springs (Danish: ''kilder'') were simply consecrated to one of the local saints associated with the spring and life went on much as it had before. Christian missionaries were able to help the process along by locating churches on or near sacred places, in some cases actually using wood from the sacred groves for church construction. [[Thor]]'s [[Mjolnir|hammer sign]] was easily absorbed by the cross.

Denmark has several saints, canonized by local bishops as was the custom in early Scandinavia or revered by locals as saints. Often these saints derive their veneration from deeds associated with the Christianization of Denmark. Viborg has St Kjeld, [[Aarhus]] has St Niels (also called St Nickolas), Odense has St Canute (Danish: ''Sanct Knud''). Others include [[Canute Lavard]], [[Ansgar]], [[:de:Dieter von Vestervig|St Thøger]] of [[Vendsyssel]], St Wilhelm, St Leofdag of Ribe, and others gave their lives and efforts to the task of making the Danes Christian.

King [[Gorm the Old]] (Danish: ''den Gamle''), who was known in his lifetime as Gorm the Sleepy, was the first king of all of Denmark. Until his day, Danish kings were presumably local kings without influence over all the Danes. Denmark consisted of Jutland and [[Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig and Holstein]] all the way down to the [[Eider River]], the main islands of [[Zealand (Denmark)|Zealand]], [[Funen]], [[Langeland]], the nearby lesser islands, and [[Skåneland]]. Gorm was said to be "hard and heathen", but Queen Thyra's influence permitted Christians to live more or less without trouble. The double barrow of Gorm and Thyra at [[Jelling]] contained a mixture of pagan and Christian iconography, including a decorated [[Gorm's Cup|silver cup]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roesdahl |first=Else |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.683.8845&rep=rep1&type=pdf |title=Viking Revaluations: Viking Society Centenary Symposium, 14–15 May 1992 |publisher=Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London |year=1993 |editor1-last=Faulkes |editor1-first=Anthony |pages=132 |chapter=Pagan Beliefs, Christian Impact and Archaeology—a Danish View |citeseerx=10.1.1.683.8845 |editor2-last=Perkins |editor2-first=Richard |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901054511/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.683.8845&rep=rep1&type=pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Gorm and Queen Thyra's son, King [[Harald Bluetooth]], boasted on one of the stones at [[Jelling]] that he had "made the Danes Christian". Harald Bluetooth is also mentioned in the inscription on the [[Curmsun Disc]], dated AD 960s–980s. On the reverse of the disc there is an octagonal ridge, which runs around the edge of the object. In the center of the octagonal ridge there is a Latin cross which may indicate that Harald Bluetooth was Christian.

The first Danish king to convert to Christianity was [[Harald Klak]], who had himself baptised during his exile in order to receive the support of [[Louis the Pious]].<ref name="Sanmark04-81">Sanmark 2004: 81</ref> Rimbert reports that he set out to return home, accompanied by missionaries;<ref>Rimbert, [http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/Bronnen_VA.htm The Life of Anskar (extract)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614031619/http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/Bronnen_VA.htm |date=14 June 2011 }}</ref> however, Sanmark regards it as "unlikely" that he actually returned home and thus considers his impact on the conversion of Denmark as "probably minor."<ref name="Sanmark04-81"/>

Christianity only gained a strong hold in Denmark following the baptism of [[Harald Bluetooth]].<ref name="Sanmark04-81"/> Initially, Harald had remained pagan, although he had allowed public preaching by Christian missionaries as early as 935. Around 960, Bluetooth converted to Christianity,<ref name="Sanmark04-81"/> reportedly when the Frisian monk Poppo held a fire-heated lump of iron in his hand without injury. Harald's daughter, [[Gunhilde]], and his son, [[Sweyn Forkbeard]] were baptized, too. There was also a political reason for conversion. German histories record Harald being baptized in the presence of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Otto I]], Sweyn Forkbeard's godfather. One consequence of his conversion is that Danish kings abandoned the old royal enclosure at Jelling and moved their residence to [[Roskilde]] on the island of Zealand.

Sweyn rebelled against his father, who spent an inordinate amount of time and money raising a great stone at Jelling to commemorate his accomplishments. One day King Harald asked a traveller if he had ever seen human beings move such a heavy load. "I have seen Sweyn drag all of Denmark away from you, sir. Judge for yourself which of you bears the heavier weight."<ref>Hvitfeldt, Arild. Danmarks riges Krønike</ref> Harald left the stone lying in the path, realizing at last that Sweyn had nearly succeeded in stealing the whole kingdom. Several battles brought the rebellion to stalemate, but in 985 Harald was wounded by an arrow and later died in [[Jomsborg]].

Sweyn Forkbeard tried to wrest control of the church in Denmark away from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and as a result was slandered by German historians of his day. He has been accused of relapsing from his Christian beliefs and persecuting Christians in England. In fact Sweyn gave land to the large cathedral at Lund to pay for the maintenance of the chapter. His army destroyed Christian churches in England as part of his invasion following the [[St. Brice's Day massacre]] of Danes organized by [[Ethelred the Unready|Aethelred]]. But when Sweyn became King of England and of Denmark, politics required that he show a kinder face toward the church which had opposed him.

Another Christianizing influence was the mass emigration of Danes to England and Normandy in the Viking years. Thousands of Danes settled in east central England and in northern France displacing or intermarrying with the locals who were Christian. Once part of a Danish clan became Christian, it often meant that the rest of the family's view toward Christianity softened.

By the early 11th century, certainly during the reign of [[Canute IV of Denmark|Canute IV]], Denmark can be said to be a Christian country. Later known as St. Canute, Canute IV was murdered inside St. Albans Church in 1086 after nobles and peasants alike rebelled at his enforcing the tithe to pay for the new monasteries and other ecclesiastical foundations which were introduced into Denmark for the first time during his reign. Both the institutions and the tax were considered foreign influences, and Canute's refusal to use the regional assemblies as was customary to establish new laws, resulted in his death and that of his brother, Prince Benedict, and seventeen other housecarls. In many ways the [[canonization]] of St. Canute in 1188 marks the triumph of Christianity in Denmark. When St. Canute's remains were moved into [[Odense Cathedral]], the entire nation humbled itself with a three-day [[fasting|fast]]. Although he was not the first Dane to be made a saint, it was the first time for a king, the symbol of a more or less united Denmark, was recognized as an example worthy of veneration by the faithful.

From that time until 1536 when Denmark became a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] country under the King (or Queen) of Denmark as the titular head of the Danish National Church, (Danish: ''Folkekirke'') the struggle between the power of the king and nobles and the church would define much of the course of [[History of Denmark|Danish history]].

===Norway===
{{See also|History of Norway}}
[[File:Olav Tryggvasons saga - Haakon jarl 2 - C. Krohg.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[Haakon Sigurdsson|Haakon Jarl]] was given missionaries by the king of Denmark, but before departure, Haakon sent the missionaries back.]]

The first recorded attempts at spreading Christianity in Norway were made by King [[Haakon the Good]] in the tenth century, who was raised in England. His efforts were unpopular and were met with little success. The subsequent King [[Harald Greycloak|Harald Greyhide]], also a Christian, was known for destroying [[Heathen hofs|pagan temples]] but not for efforts to popularize Christianity.

He was followed by the staunchly pagan [[Haakon Sigurdsson|Haakon Sigurdsson Jarl]], who led a revival of paganism with the rebuilding of temples. When [[Harold I of Denmark]] attempted to force Christianity upon him around 975, Haakon broke his allegiance to Denmark. A Danish invasion force was defeated at the [[battle of Hjörungavágr]] in 986.

In 995 [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]] became King Olaf I of Norway. Olaf had raided various European cities and fought in several wars. In 986, however, he (supposedly) met a Christian [[prophet|seer]] on the [[Isles of Scilly]]. As the seer foretold, Olaf was attacked by a group of [[Mutiny|mutineers]] upon returning to his ships. As soon as he had recovered from his wounds, he let himself be baptized. He then stopped raiding Christian cities and lived in England and Ireland. In 995 he used an opportunity to return to Norway. When he arrived, Haakon Jarl was already facing a revolt, and Olaf Tryggvason could convince the rebels to accept him as their king. Haakon Jarl was later betrayed and killed by his own slave, while he was hiding from the rebels in a pig sty.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Olaf I then made it his priority to convert the country to Christianity using all means at his disposal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://medieval-europe-paris-2007.univ-paris1.fr/S.Nordeide.pdf|title=The Christianization of Norway|last=Dr. Sæbjørg Walaker Nordeide|first=Enseignant-Chercheur, Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Bergen|access-date=23 May 2017|archive-date=22 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222204154/http://medieval-europe-paris-2007.univ-paris1.fr/S.Nordeide.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Expanding his efforts to the Norse settlements in the west the [[kings' sagas]] credit him with Christianizing the [[Faroes]], [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]], [[Iceland]], and [[Greenland]].

After Olaf's defeat at the [[Battle of Svolder]] in 1000 there was a partial return to paganism in Norway under the rule of the [[Jarls of Lade]]. In the following reign of [[Saint Olaf]], pagan remnants were stamped out and Christianity entrenched.

Nicholas Breakspear, later [[Pope Adrian IV]], visited Norway from 1152 to 1154. During his visit, he set out a church structure for Norway. The [[Papal bull]] confirming the establishment of a Norwegian [[Archdiocese of Nidaros|archdiocese at Nidaros]] is dated 30 November 1154.<ref name="kaufhold-116">Kaufhold 2001: 116</ref>

Thirteenth-century [[runic inscription]]s from the merchant town of Bergen in Norway show little Christian influence, and one of them appeals to a [[Valkyrie]].<ref>Schön 2004, 173</ref>

===Sweden===
{{See also|History of Sweden|Temple at Uppsala}}
[[File:Ansgarius predikar Christna läran i Sverige by Hugo Hamilton.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ansgar made an unsuccessful attempt as early as in the 830s.]]
The first known attempts to Christianize Sweden were made by [[Ansgar]] in 830, invited by the Swedish king Björn. Setting up a church at [[Birka]] he met with little Swedish interest. A century later [[Unni (archbishop)|Unni]], archbishop of [[Hamburg]], made another unsuccessful attempt. In the 10th century English missionaries made inroads in [[Västergötland]].

Newer archaeological research suggests there were Christians in Götaland already during the 9th century; it is further believed Christianity came from the southwest and moved towards the north.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2008 |title=När Sverige blev kristet |url=https://popularhistoria.se/sveriges-historia/nar-sverige-blev-kristet |website=Popularhistoria.se |access-date=4 September 2020 |archive-date=21 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221161448/http://popularhistoria.se/artiklar/nar-sverige-blev-kristet |url-status=live }}</ref>

The supporters of the [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] at Uppsala drew a mutual agreement of toleration<ref name="KaufholdP86">Kaufhold 2001, 86</ref> with [[Olof Skötkonung]], the first Christian king of Sweden, who ascended to the throne in the 990s. Presumably Olof Skötkonung was not in a powerful enough position to violently enforce the observance of Christianity in [[Uppland]].<ref name="Sanmark04-85">Sanmark 2004: 85</ref> Instead he established an [[Diocese|episcopal see]] at [[Skara]] in [[Västergötland]], near his own stronghold at [[Husaby]] around 1000.<ref name="Sanmark04-85"/><ref>{{Citation|title=From prehistory to Viking hegemony|date=2008|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/concise-history-of-sweden/from-prehistory-to-viking-hegemony/84C61F3A658D1ACCB30EEF88DFCF130B|work=A Concise History of Sweden|series=Cambridge Concise Histories|page=15|editor-last=Kent|editor-first=Neil|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CBO9781107280205.002|isbn=978-0-521-81284-9|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615232306/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/concise-history-of-sweden/from-prehistory-to-viking-hegemony/84C61F3A658D1ACCB30EEF88DFCF130B|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Another episcopal see was established at [[Sigtuna]] in the 1060s<ref name="Sanmark04-85"/> by King [[Stenkil]], according to Adam of Bremen.<ref name="Sanmark04-109">Sanmark 2004: 109</ref> This seat was moved to Gamla Uppsala probably some time between 1134 and 1140.<ref name="Sanmark04-109"/> This might have been because of Uppsala's importance as an old royal residence and thing site, but it may also have been inspired by a desire to show that the resistance to Christianity in Uppland had been defeated.<ref name="Sanmark04-109"/> By papal initiative an archdiocese for Sweden was established at Uppsala in 1164.<ref name="Sanmark04-109"/><ref>Kaufhold 2001, 117</ref>

What may be one of the most violent occurrences between Christians and pagans was a conflict between [[Blot-Sweyn]] and [[Inge the Elder]] in the 1080s. This account survives in the ''[[Orkneyinga saga]]'' and in the last chapter of ''[[Hervarar saga]]'' where the saga successively moves from legendary history to historic Swedish events during the centuries before its compilation. The reigning king Inge decided to end the traditional pagan sacrifices at Uppsala which caused a public counter-reaction. Inge was forced into exile, and his brother-in-law Blot-Sweyn was elected king on condition that he allow the sacrifices to continue. After three years in exile, Inge returned secretly to Sweden in 1087, and having arrived at [[Old Uppsala]], he surrounded the hall of Blot-Sweyn with his [[housecarl|húskarls]] and set the hall on fire, slaying the king as he escaped from the burning house. ''Hervarar saga'' reports that Inge completed the Christianization of the Swedes, but the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' suggests that Inge could not assume power directly, but had to dispose of yet another pagan king, [[Eric of Good Harvests]].<ref>The epithet of this last king reflects one of the purposes of pre-Christian Germanic kingship, to promote harmony and good harvests, ''árs ok friðar''.</ref>

According to M. G. Larsson, the reason why the Swedish core provinces had coexistence between paganism and Christianity throughout the 11th century was because there was a general support for the transition towards the new religion.<ref name="Larsson160">Larsson 2002, 160</ref> However, the old pagan rites were important and central for legal processes and when someone questioned ancient practices, many newly Christianized Swedes could react strongly in support of paganism for a while.<ref name="Larsson160"/> Larsson theorizes that, consequently, the vacillation between paganism and Christianity that is reported by the sagas and by Adam of Bremen was not very different from vacillations that appear in modern ideological shifts.<ref name="Larsson160"/> It would have been impossible for King Inge the Elder to rule as a Christian king without strong support from his subjects, and a Norwegian invasion of Västergötland by [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Barefoot]] put Inge's relationship with his subjects to the test: he appears to have mustered most of the Swedish [[leidang]], 3,600 men, and he ousted the Norwegian occupation force.<ref name="Larsson161">Larsson 2002, 161</ref>

Although Sweden was officially Christianized by the 12th century, the Norwegian king [[Sigurd the Crusader]] undertook a [[Kalmare ledung|crusade]] against [[Småland]], the south-eastern part of the Swedish kingdom, in the early 12th century, and officially it was in order to convert the locals.

Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of [[Lovön]] near modern-day [[Stockholm]] have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150 to 200 years.<ref name="Schön172">Schön 2004, 172</ref>

===Gotland===
On the Swedish island of [[Gotland]], a Gotlandic law book known as the [[Gutalagen]] was officially in use from the 1220s until 1595. In practice it remained in use until 1645.  This law book stated that the performance of [[blót]]s was punishable by a fine.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.guteinfo.com/?id=1957&meny=gutalagen|title=Gutalagen, en landslag|website=www.guteinfo.com|access-date=4 September 2020|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919122812/https://www.guteinfo.com/?id=1957&meny=gutalagen|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Jämtland===
{{See also|History of Jämtland}}
On the northernmost [[runestone]] of the world standing on the island [[Frösön]] in central [[Jämtland]], the [[Frösö Runestone]], it is said that a man called Austmaðr Christianized the region, probably in the period 1030–1050 when the runestone was raised. Little is known of Austmaðr, but he is believed to have been the [[lawspeaker]] of the regional thing [[Jamtamot|Jamtamót]].

== Other Nordic countries ==
The Scandinavian medieval kings also ruled over provinces outside of Scandinavia. These provinces are today known as the Nordic countries.

===Faroe Islands===
{{See also|History of the Faroe Islands}}
[[Sigmundur Brestisson]] was the first Faroe-man to convert to the Christian faith, bringing Christianity to the Faroes at the decree of [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]]. Initially Sigmundur sought to convert the islanders by reading the decree to the [[Løgting|Alting]] in [[Tórshavn]] but was nearly killed by the resulting [[angry mob]]. He then changed his tactics, went with armed men to the residence of the chieftain [[Tróndur í Gøtu]] and broke in his house by night. He offered him the choice between accepting Christianity or face [[Decapitation|beheading]]; he chose the former.
Later on, in 1005, Tróndur í Gøtu attacked Sigmundur by night at his yard in Skúvoy, whereupon Sigmundur fled by swimming to [[Sandvík]] on [[Suðuroy]]. He reached land in Sigmundargjógv in Sandvík, but a farmer in the village killed the exhausted Sigmundur and stole his precious golden [[arm ring]].

===Finland===
{{See also|History of Finland}}
Judging by archaeological finds, Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century. The Catholic church was strengthened with growing Swedish influence in the 12th century and the Finnish "crusade" of [[Birger Jarl]] in the 13th century. Finland was part of Sweden since then until the 19th century.

===Iceland===
{{Main|Christianization of Iceland}}
[[Irish monks]] known as [[Papar]] are said to have been present in Iceland before its settlement by the [[Norsemen|Norse]] in the 9th century.

Following King Olaf I's taking of Icelandic hostages, there was tension between the Christian and pagan factions in 10th century Iceland. Violent clashes were avoided by the decision of the [[Althing]] in 1000 AD to put the arbitration between them to [[Þorgeir Ljósvetningagoði]], the leader of the pagan faction. He opted, after a day and a night of meditation, that the country should convert to Christianity as a whole, while pagan worship in private would continue to be tolerated.<ref>[http://thingvellir.is/english/history/christianity/ Christianity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027230807/http://www.thingvellir.is/english/history/christianity/ |date=27 October 2006 }}, from a site on the Icelandic parliament.</ref>

==Motives for conversion==
{{more citations needed section|date=October 2021}}
Some conversions appear to have taken place for political and material gain, while others were for spiritual reasons. For instance, some may have simply wanted to take the rich gifts (such as a fine, white baptismal garment) that were being handed out by Frankish nobles, who acted as the baptismal candidates' sponsors, when they were baptized. In the case of King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark, for example, he only partially converted to the new faith (at least at first) to preserve his independence from the Germans, who posed an even greater threat at the time than the Franks had been prior to this. He also saw that Christianity had much to offer to his rule. It not only helped to exalt his status, but it also provided practical help. The Missionary bishops were literate, and those who had experience of the royal government in Germany or England had the potential to be valuable advisors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sawyer|first=Birgit|author2=Sawyer, Peter|title=Why Trust The White Christ?|journal=Christian History|year=1999|volume=18|issue=3|pages=22–25}}</ref> There was also an economic motive to convert as pagan kings were fascinated with Christian wealth. As a result, some chose to accept the new faith as a way to gain access to this wealth.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fodor|first=Eugene|title=Fodor's Scandinavia|year=1983|location=New York|page=37}}</ref>

== Cultural Impacts ==
As increasing numbers of Scandinavians converted to Christianity, syncretism became more apparent, and the lines between religion and culture became increasingly blurred. Many converted and sought to help the Catholic missionaries; in doing so they often used traditional means that were often associated with their religious past, leading to the integration of Christian and pagan cultural symbols throughout the years of conversion. For example, prior to the building of churches, converts sought to aid both their relatives and the work of the missionaries by erecting rune-stones. Originally associated with paganism, these later rune-stones, inscribed with Christian imagery, came to exemplify the flexibility that was required of both the native traditions and Christianity throughout mass conversion. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Sawyer |first=Birgit |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/48033 |title=The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia |date=7 February 2000 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |isbn=978-0-19-820643-9 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198206439.001.0001}}</ref>

==Last pagans==
{{see also|Christianization of the Sámi people}}
In 1721, a new [[Denmark–Norway|Danish–Norwegian]] colony was started in [[Greenland]] with the objective of converting the inhabitants to Christianity. Around the same time efforts were made in Norway and Sweden to convert the [[Sámi people|Sámi]], who had remained pagan long after the conversion of their neighbours. Some Sámi remained unconverted until the 18th century.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500'' (1938) pp. 106–43.</ref>

==Aftermath==
A 2009 research article by Phil Zuckerman showed that Scandinavian countries such as Denmark and Sweden were among the least religious nations in the world; nevertheless, "many Danes and Swedes, for instance, will profess belief in 'something,' although not necessarily the God of the Bible." According to Zuckerman, historical developments of culture and religion in Denmark and Sweden were crucially informing factors in explaining the state of irreligiosity.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://tapir.pdc.no/pdf/NJRS/2009/2009-01-4.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215021650/http://tapir.pdc.no/pdf/NJRS/2009/2009-01-4.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2017 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Christianization of Lithuania]]
* [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']]
* [[Germanic Christianity]]
* ''[[Heimskringla]]'' – A mediaeval work that relates the lives of the two Norwegian missionary kings
* [[Northern Crusades]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Berend, Nora. ''Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' c. 900–1200'' (2010).
* Katajala-Peltomaa, Sari. "Fatherhood, Masculinity and Lived Religion in Late-Medieval Sweden." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 38.2 (2013): 223–44.
* Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''A history of expansion of Christianity. Vol 2. The thousand years of uncertainty: AD 500–AD 1500'' (1938) pp.&nbsp;106–43.
* Latourette, Kenneth Scott.''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. II: The Nineteenth Century in Europe, the Protestant and Eastern Churches'' (1959): pp.&nbsp;131–96.
* Latourette, Kenneth Scott. ''Christianity in a Revolutionary Age. A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Vol. IV: The Twentirth Century in Europe, the Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Churches.'' (1961): 310–36
* Melnikova, Elena. "How Christian Were Viking Christians?." ''Ruthenica,'' Suppl. 4 (2011). pp.&nbsp;90–107; [http://history.org.ua/JournALL/ruthenica/ruthenica_2011_suppl4/9.pdf online]; also [http://www.medievalists.net/2013/06/15/how-christian-were-viking-christians/ online]
* Meylan, Nicolas. "Mana in the North: Power and Religion in Medieval Scandinavian Historiography," ''History of Religions'' (Nov 2016) 56#2 149–66. {{doi|10.1086/688215}}
* [[Alexandra Sanmark|Sanmark, Alexandra]]: ''Power and conversion: a comparative study of Christianization in Scandinavia''; Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Occasional papers in archaeology: 34; {{ISBN|91-506-1739-7}} Also: Ph.D. Thesis, 2002 London, University College [https://uhi.academia.edu/AlexandraSanmark/Books/138551/Power_and_Conversion._A_Comparative_Study_of_Christianization_in_Scandinavia pdf] bibliography pp.&nbsp;297–317.
* Winroth, Anders. ''The conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, merchants, and missionaries in the remaking of Northern Europe'' (Yale UP, 2012).

===In other languages===
* Hoftun, Oddgeir (2008). ''Kristningsprosessens og herskermaktens ikonografi i nordisk middelalder'', Oslo: Solum forlag. {{ISBN|978-82-560-1619-8}} {{in lang|no}}
* Kaufhold, Martin (2001), ''Europas Norden im Mittelalter'', Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft {{ISBN|3-89678-418-8}} {{in lang|de}}
* Larsson, M. G. (2002). ''Götarnas riken. Upptäcktsfärder till Sveriges enande''. Atlantis, Stockholm. {{ISBN|91-7486-641-9}}. {{in lang|sv}}
* Schön, Ebbe. (2004). ''Asa-Tors hammare, Gudar och jättar i tro och tradition''. Fält & Hässler, Värnamo. {{ISBN|91-89660-41-2}} {{in lang|sv}}

{{Timeline of the history of Scandinavia}}
{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Catholic Church in Sweden}}
{{Christian History|collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christianization Of Scandinavia}}
[[Category:Christianization of Europe|Scandinavia, Christianization of]]
[[Category:Germanic Christianity]]
[[Category:History of Scandinavia]]
[[Category:9th-century Christianity]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Denmark]]
[[Category:Christianity in medieval Norway]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Sweden]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:Christianity in Northern Europe]]