View source for Chinese character radicals

{{Short description|Indexing component of Chinese characters}}
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[[File:媽部首.svg|thumb|The radical for the [[Chinese character]] {{zhc|c=媽|p=mā|l=mother}} is the semantic component {{kxr|woman}} on its left side.]]
{{Table Hanzi}}

A '''radical''' ({{zh|c=部首|p=bùshǒu|l=section header}}), or '''indexing component''', is a visually prominent [[Chinese character components|component]] of a [[Chinese character]] under which the character is traditionally listed in a [[Chinese dictionary]]. The radical for a character is typically a [[semantic component]], but it can also be another structural component or an artificially extracted portion of the character. In some cases, the original semantic or [[Phonology|phonological]] connection has become obscure, owing to changes in the meaning or pronunciation of the character over time.

The use of the English term ''radical'' is based on an analogy between the structure of Chinese characters and the [[inflection]] of words in European languages.{{efn|As [[Léon Wieger]] explains:
{{blockquote|The inflected words of European languages are decomposed into ''radical'' and ''termination''. The radical gives the meaning; the termination indicates case, time, mood. The first sinologists applied those grammatical terms belonging to inflected languages, to the Chinese language which is not an inflected one.{{sfn|Wieger|1927|p=14}}}}}} Radicals are also sometimes called ''classifiers'', but this name is more commonly applied to the grammatical [[Chinese classifier|measure words]] in Chinese.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2013|p=34}}

== History ==
In the earliest Chinese dictionaries, such as the ''[[Erya]]'' (3rd century{{nbs}}BC), characters were grouped together in broad semantic categories.
Because the vast majority of characters are [[phono-semantic]] compounds, combining a semantic component with a phonetic component, each semantic component tended to recur within a particular section of the dictionary. In the 2nd century{{nbs}}AD, the [[Han dynasty]] scholar [[Xu Shen]] organized his etymological dictionary ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' by selecting 540 recurring graphic elements he called {{zhp|p=bù|c=部|tr=categories}}.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2013|p=74}} Most were common semantic components, but they also included shared graphic elements such as a dot or horizontal stroke. Some were even artificially extracted groups of strokes, termed "glyphs" by Serruys,<ref>(Serruys 1984, p.{{nbs}}657)</ref> which never had an independent existence other than being listed in ''Shuowen''. Each character was listed under only one element, which is then referred to as the radical for that character. For example, characters containing {{zhi|c=女|p=nǚ|tr=female}} or {{zhi|c=木|p=mù|tr=tree, wood}} are often grouped together in the sections for those radicals.

Mei Yingzuo's 1615 dictionary ''[[Zihui]]'' made two further innovations. He reduced the list of radicals to 214 and arranged characters under each radical in increasing order of the number of additional [[stroke (CJK character)|stroke]]s—the radical-and-stroke method still used in the vast majority of present-day Chinese dictionaries. These innovations were also adopted by the more famous ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'' of 1716. Thus the standard 214 radicals introduced in the ''Zihui'' are usually known as the [[Kangxi radical]]s. These were first called {{zhp|p=bùshǒu|c=部首|tr=section header}} in the ''Kangxi Dictionary''.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2013|p=74}} Although there is some variation in such lists – depending primarily on what secondary radicals are also indexed – these canonical 214 radicals of the ''Kangxi Dictionary'' still serve as the basis for most modern [[Chinese dictionaries]]. Some of the graphically similar radicals are combined in many dictionaries, such as {{zhi|c=月|p=yuè|tr=moon}} and the {{Lang|zh|月}} form ({{Lang|zh|⺼}}) of {{zhi|c=肉|p=ròu|tr=meat, flesh}}.

After the writing system reform in [[mainland China]], the traditional set of [[Kangxi radicals]] became unsuitable for indexing Simplified Chinese characters. In 1983, the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language and the State Administration of Publication of China published ''The Table of Unified Indexing Chinese Character Components (Draft)'' ({{Lang|zh|汉字统一部首表（草案}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.china-language.gov.cn/wenziguifan/scanning/gfsc/gfbz10.htm |script-title=zh:汉字统一部首表（草案） |access-date=2013-03-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524144704/http://www.china-language.gov.cn/wenziguifan/scanning/gfsc/gfbz10.htm |archive-date=2013-05-24}}</ref> In 2009, the [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]] and the [[State Language Work Committee]] issued ''The [[Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components]]'' (GF 0011-2009 {{Lang|zh|汉字部首表}}), which includes 201 principal indexing components and 100 associated indexing components<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moe.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2015/01/13/20150113090108815.pdf |script-title=zh:汉字部首表 |publisher=[[中华人民共和国教育部]] |date=2009-01-12 |access-date=2021-01-03}}</ref> (In China's normative documents, "radical" is defined as any component or {{zhi|c=偏旁|p=piānpáng}} of Chinese characters, while {{Lang|zh|部首}} is translated as "indexing component".<ref name="Identifying">{{Lang|zh|GB13000.1字符集汉字部首归部规范}} (Specification for Identifying Indexing Components of GB 13000.1 Chinese Characters Set)</ref>).

== Shape and position ==
Radicals may appear in any position in a character. For example, {{Lang|zh|女}} appears on the left side in the characters {{Lang|zh|姐, 媽, 她, 好}} and {{Lang|zh|姓}}, but it appears at the bottom in {{Lang|zh|妾}}. Semantic components tend to appear on the top or on the left side of the character, and phonetic components on the right side or at the bottom.{{sfn|Chan|2013}} These are loose rules, however, and exceptions are plenty. Sometimes, the radical may span more than one side, as in {{Lang|zh|園}} = {{zhi|c=囗|tr=enclosure}} + {{Lang|zh|袁}}, or {{Lang|zh|街}} = {{zhi|c=行|tr=go, movement}} + {{Lang|zh|圭}}. More complicated combinations exist, such as {{Lang|zh|勝}} = {{zhi|c=力|tr=strength}} + {{Lang|zh|朕}}—the radical is in the lower-right quadrant.

In many characters, the components (including radicals) are distorted or modified to fit into a block with other elements. They may be narrowed, shortened, or have different shapes entirely. Changes in shape, rather than simple distortion, may result in fewer [[Chinese character strokes|strokes]]. In some cases, combinations may have alternates. The shape of the component can depend on its placement with other elements in the character.

The shape {{Lang|zh|[[阝]]}} is indexed as two different radicals depending on where it appears in the character. Placed on the right, as in {{zhi|c=都|p=dū|tr=metropolis}} (also read as {{zhi|p=dōu|tr=all}}), it represents an abbreviated form of {{zhi|c=邑|p=yì|tr=city}}; placed on the left, as in {{zhi|c=陸|p=lù|tr=land}}, it represents an abbreviated radical form of {{zhi|c=阜|p=fù|tr=mound, hill}}.

Some of the most important variant combining forms (besides {{Lang|zh|邑}} → {{Lang|zh|阝}} and {{Lang|zh|阜}} → {{Lang|zh|阝}}per the above) are:
* {{zhi|c=刀|tr=knife}} → {{Lang|zh|刂}} when placed to the right of other elements:
** examples: {{Lang|zh|分, 召 ~ 刖}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|切}}
* {{zhi|c=人|tr=man}} → {{Lang|zh|亻}} on the left:
** {{Lang|zh|囚, 仄, 坐 ~ 他}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|从}}
* {{zhi|c=心|tr=heart}} → {{Lang|zh|忄}} on the left:
** {{Lang|zh|杺, 您, 恭* ~ 快}}
:<small>(*) {{Lang|zh|心}} occasionally becomes {{Lang|zh|⺗}} when written at the foot of a character.</small>
* {{zhi|c=手|tr=hand}} → {{Lang|zh|扌}} on the left:
** {{Lang|zh|杽, 拏, 掱 ~ 扡}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|拜}}
* {{zhi|c=水|tr=water}} → {{Lang|zh|氵}} on the left:
** {{Lang|zh|汆, 呇, 沊 ~ 池}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|沝}}
* {{zhi|c=火|tr=fire}} → 灬 at the bottom:
** {{Lang|zh|伙, 秋, 灱 ~ 黑}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|災}}
* {{zhi|c=犬|tr=dog}} → {{Lang|zh|犭}} on the left:
** {{Lang|zh|伏, 状 ~ 狙}}
** counter-example: {{Lang|zh|㹜}}

=== Semantic components ===
{{see also|Determinative}}
Over 80% of Chinese characters are [[phono-semantic]] compounds ({{linktext|lang=zh|形聲字}}):{{sfn|Liu|2010}} a semantic component gives a broad category of meaning, while a phonetic component suggests the sound. Usually, the radical is the semantic component.{{sfn|Woon|1987|p=148}}

Thus, although some authors use the term ''radical'' for semantic components ({{zhi|c=義符|p=yìfú}}),{{efn|Wieger uses the terms "keys of the dictionary" and "the 214 keys of K'ang-hsi" for {{zhi|c=部首|p=bùshǒu}}, reserving the term "radical" for any element bearing meaning.{{sfn|Wieger|1927|p=14}}}}{{sfn|Ramsey|1987|pp=136–137}} others distinguish the latter as ''determinatives''{{sfn|Boltz|1994|pp=67–68}} or ''significs''{{sfn|Norman|1988|p=62}} or by some other term.{{efn|Woon gives an extensive list of the translations of {{zhi|c=義符|p=yìfú}}: semantic element, radical, determinative, signific, signifying part, significant, significant part, semantic part, meaning element, meaning part, sense-indicator, radical-determinative, lexical morpheme symbol, ideographic element, and logographic part. Among them, "radical" and "ideographic" have both been strenuously objected to as misleading.{{sfn|Woon|1987|p=291}}}}{{efn|Professor Woon Wee Lee (1987) also explains:

{{blockquote|It is important to note that the concepts of semantic element and "section heading" ({{zhi|c=部首|p=bùshǒu}}) are different, and should be clearly distinguished. The semantic element is parallel to the phonetic element in terms of the phonetic compound, while the section heading is a terminology of Chinese lexicography, which is a generic heading for the characters arranged in each section of a dictionary according to the system established by Xu Shen. It is the "head" of a section, assigned for convenience only. Thus, a section heading is usually the element common to all characters belonging to the same section. (Cf. L. Wang, 1962:1.151). The semantic elements of phonetic compounds were usually also used as section headings. However, characters in the same section are not necessarily all phonetic compounds. ...In some sections, such as {{Lang|zh|品}} pin3 "the masses" (S. Xu 1963:48) and {{Lang|zh|爪}} zhua3 "a hand" (S. Xu 1963:63), no phonetic compound is incorporated. In other words, the section heading was not commonly used as a semantic element...To sum up, the selection of a section heading is to some extent arbitrary.{{sfn|Woon|1987|pp=147–148}}}}}}{{efn|When an etymon (original "root" form of a graph, such as {{zhi|c=采|p=cǎi|tr=to pick}}, in {{zhi|c=採|p=cǎi|tr=to pick}}) is analyzed alongside the remaining element(s), it cannot be said to be playing only a phonetic role. For instance, operating under the two misconceptions that a) all characters have exactly one semantic and one phonetic part, and b) each part can only play one role, many would mistakenly dissect {{Lang|zh|採}} as comprising {{zhi|c=扌|p=shǒu|Tr=hand}} semantic and {{zhi|c=采|p=cǎi}} phonetic. However, being the original graph, it must necessarily impart its original semantic meaning (showing as it does a hand ''picking'' from a tree) as well as its sound. In the case of {{zhi|c=陷|p=xiàn}} "pit trap; fall into", for instance, [[Duan Yucai]] notes in his annotation of the ''Shuowen Jiezi''<ref>Duan Yucai (v.14, p.732)</ref> that the Dà Xú {{Lang|zh|大徐}} edition acknowledges that {{Lang|zh|臽}} plays the dual roles of phonetic and semantic in {{Lang|zh|陷}}, stating "{{Lang|zh|从阝, 从臽, 臽 亦聲".}}}}

Many radicals are artificial extractions of portions of characters, some of which are further changed when applied (such as {{zhi|c=亅|p=jué, juě}} in {{zhi|c=了|p=liǎo}}), as explained by [[Paul Serruys|Serruys]] (1984), who therefore prefers the term "glyph" extraction rather than graphic extraction.<ref>Serruys (p.{{nbs}}657)</ref> This is even truer of modern dictionaries, which cut radicals to less than half the number in ''Shuowen'', at which point it becomes impossible to have enough to cover a semantic element of every character. A sample of the ''Far Eastern Chinese English Dictionary'' of mere artificial extraction of a stroke from sub-entries:
* {{zhi|c=一|p=yī}} in {{zhi|c=丁|p=dīng}} and {{zhi|c=且|p=qiě}}
* {{zhi|c=乙|p=yǐ}} in {{zhi|c=九|p=jiǔ}}
* {{zhi|c=亅|p=jué/juě}} in {{zhi|c=了|p=liǎo/le}}
* {{zhi|c=二|p=èr}} in {{zhi|c=亞|p=yà/yǎ}}
* {{zhi|c=田|p=tián}} in {{zhi|c=禺|p=yù}}
* {{zhi|c=豕|p=shǐ}} in {{zhi|c=象|p=xiàng}}.

=== Phonetic components ===
Radicals sometimes play a phonetic role instead of a semantic one:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Phonetic part!! pinyin!! meaning!! Character!! pinyin!! meaning
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{Lang|zh|[[臼]]}}
| rowspan="2" | {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jiù}}
| rowspan="2" | "a mortar"
| {{Lang|zh|舅}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jiù}} || "maternal uncle"<ref>(''Shuowen'' lists this under its semantic component {{zhi|c=男|p=nán|tr=male}}, but the 200-odd radicals used in modern dictionaries do not include all the semantic components that are used)</ref>
|-
| {{Lang|zh|舊}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jiù}} || "owl; old" <ref>(listed in the Far East on p.{{nbs}}1141 under the header {{Lang|zh|臼}})</ref>
|-
| {{Lang|zh|虎}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|hǔ}} || "tiger" || {{Lang|zh|虖}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|hū}} || "shout"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|鬼}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|guǐ}} || (originally "helmet"{{sfn|Wu|1990|p=350}}), now "ghost" || {{Lang|zh|魁}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|kúi}} || "leader"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|鹿}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|lù}} || "deer" || {{Lang|zh|麓}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|lù}} || foothills
|-
| {{Lang|zh|麻}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|má}} || "hemp" || {{Lang|zh|麼}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|ma, mó}} || "tiny"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|黃}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|huáng}} || "yellow" || {{Lang|zh|黌}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|hóng}} || "a school"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|羽}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|yǔ}} || "feather" || {{Lang|zh|翌}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|yì}} || "next"{{sfn|Qiu|2000|p=7}}
|-
| {{Lang|zh|齊}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|qí}} || "orderly"|| {{Lang|zh|齎}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jī}} || "to present"
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{Lang|zh|青}}
| rowspan="3" | {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|qīng}}
| rowspan="3" |"verdant" or "youth"
| {{Lang|zh|靖}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jìng}} || "peaceful"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|靚}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jìng}} || "to ornament; quiet"
|-
| {{Lang|zh|靜}} || {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|jìng}} || "quiet"
|}

In some cases, radicals chosen for their phonetic sense also have a coincidental semantic association.{{sfn|Woon|1987|p=148}}

=== Simplified radicals ===
The [[Simplified Chinese character|character simplification]] pursued in the People's Republic of China and elsewhere has modified a number of components, including those used as radicals. This has created a number of new radical forms. For instance, the character {{zhi|c=[[Radical 167|金]]|p=jīn}}, when used as a radical, is written {{Lang|zh|釒}}(that is, with the same number of strokes, and only a minor variation) in [[Traditional Chinese character|traditional writing]], but {{Lang|zh|钅}}in simplified characters. This means that simplified writing has resulted in significant differences not present in traditional writing. An example of a character using this radical is {{zh|p=yín|tr=silver|t=銀|s=银}}.

== Dictionary lookup ==
Many dictionaries support using radical classification to index and look up characters, although many present-day dictionaries supplement it with other methods. For example, modern dictionaries in PRC normally use the [[Pinyin]] transcription of a character to perform character lookup. Following the "section-header-and-stroke-count" method of [[Mei Yingzuo]], characters are listed by their radical and then ordered by the number of strokes needed to write them.

The steps involved in looking up a character are as follows:
# Identify the radical under which the character is most likely to have been indexed. If in doubt, the component on the left side or at the top is often a good first guess.
# Find the section of the dictionary associated with that radical.
# Count the number of strokes in the remaining portion of the character.
# Find the pages listing characters under that radical that have that number of additional strokes.
# Find the appropriate entry or experiment with different choices for steps 1 and 3.

As a rule of thumb, components at the left or top of the character, or elements which surround the rest of the character, are the ones most likely to be used as radical. For example, {{Lang|zh|信}} is typically indexed under the left-side component {{Lang|zh|人}} instead of the right-side {{Lang|zh|言}}; and {{Lang|zh|套}} is typically indexed under the top {{Lang|zh|大}} instead of the bottom {{Lang|zh|長}}. There are, however, idiosyncratic differences between dictionaries, and except for simple cases, the same character cannot be assumed to be indexed the same way in two different dictionaries.

In order to further ease dictionary lookup, dictionaries sometimes list radicals both under the number of strokes used to write their canonical form and under the number of strokes used to write their variant forms. For example, 心 can be listed as a four-stroke radical but might also be listed as a three-stroke radical because it is usually written as 忄 when it forms a part of another character. This means that the dictionary user need not know that the two are etymologically identical.

It is sometimes possible to find one and the same character indexed under multiple radicals. For example, many dictionaries list {{Lang|zh|義}} under both {{Lang|zh|羊}} and {{kxr|62}} (the radical of its lower part {{Lang|zh|我}}). Furthermore, with digital dictionaries, it is now possible to search for characters by cross-reference. Using this "multi-component method",<ref>which can be tried out at [http://nihongo.monash.edu/cgi-bin/wwwjdic?1R Jim Breen's WWWJDIC Server] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016101418/http://nihongo.monash.edu/cgi-bin/wwwjdic?1R |date=16 October 2013 }}, also [http://www.edrdg.org/cgi-bin/wwwjdic/wwwjdic?1C here]</ref> a relatively new development enabled by computing technology, the user can select ''all'' of a character's components from a table and the computer will present a list of matching characters. This eliminates the guesswork of choosing the correct radical and calculating the correct stroke count and cuts down searching time. One can query for characters containing both {{Lang|zh|羊}} and {{Lang|zh|戈}} and get back only five characters ({{Lang|zh|羢, 義, 儀, 羬}} and {{Lang|zh|羲}}) to search through. The Academia Sinica's {{Lang|zh|漢字構形資料庫}} Chinese character structure database<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~cdp/cdphanzi/|script-title=zh:中央研究院網站|website=sinica.edu.tw|access-date=4 April 2018|archive-date=5 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214421/https://www.sinica.edu.tw/~cdp/cdphanzi/|url-status=dead}}</ref> also works this way, returning only seven characters for this query. Harbaugh's Chinese Characters dictionary<ref>Harbaugh, Rick (1998). Chinese Characters: a Genealogy and Dictionary {{Lang|zh|中文字譜 – 漢英字元字典}}, Zhongwen.com publ., {{ISBN|0-9660750-0-5}}</ref> similarly allows searches based on any component. Some modern computer dictionaries allow the user to draw characters with a mouse, stylus or finger, ideally tolerating a degree of imperfection, thus eliminating the problem of radical identification altogether.

=== Sets of radicals ===
Though radicals are widely accepted as a method to categorize Chinese characters and locate a certain character in a dictionary, there is no universal agreement about either the exact number of radicals or the set of radicals to be used, due to the sometimes arbitrary nature of the selection process.

The [[Kangxi radicals|Kangxi]] radicals are a ''de facto'' standard which, although not implemented exactly in every Chinese dictionary, few dictionary compilers can afford to completely ignore. They serve as the basis for many computer encoding systems. Specifically, the [[Unicode]] standard's radical-stroke charts are based on the Kangxi set of radicals.

The count of commonly used radicals in modern abridged dictionaries is often less than 214. The ''Oxford Concise English–Chinese Dictionary'' has 188. A few dictionaries also introduce new radicals based on the principles first used by Xu Shen, treating groups of radicals that are used together in many different characters as a kind of radical.

In modern practice, radicals are primarily used as [[lexicographic]] tools and as learning aids when writing characters. They have become increasingly disconnected from [[semantics]], [[etymology]] and [[phonetics]].

=== Limitations and flexibility ===
Some of the radicals used in Chinese dictionaries, even in the era of Kangxi, were not stand-alone current-usage characters. Instead, they indexed unique characters that lacked more obvious qualifiers. The radical {{zhi|out=c|c=鬯 |p=chàng|tr=sacrificial wine}} indexes only a few characters. Modern dictionaries tend to eliminate these when it is possible to find some more widely used graphic element under which a character can be categorized. Some use a system where characters are indexed under more than one radical and/or set of key elements to make it easier to find them.

== See also ==
* [[List of radicals in Unicode]]
* [[Chinese character description languages]]
* [[Chinese character orders]]
* [[List of kanji radicals by stroke count]]
* [[List of kanji radicals by frequency]]
* [[Stroke-based sorting]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{citation
 | title = The origin and early development of the Chinese writing system
 | first = William | last = Boltz
 | publisher = American Oriental Society | year = 1994
 | isbn = 978-0-940490-78-9
 | postscript = .
 }} (revised 2003)
* {{citation
 | title = Chinese | first = Jerry | last = Norman | author-link = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
 | location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988
 | isbn = 978-0-521-29653-3
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | last = Qiu | first = Xigui | author-link = Qiu Xigui
 | others = trans. by Gilbert L. Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]]
 | title = Chinese writing
 | location = Berkeley | publisher = Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-1-55729-071-7
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | first = S. Robert | last = Ramsey |author-link=S. Robert Ramsey | title = The Languages of China
 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-691-01468-5
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | title = Chinese Characters: Their Origin, Etymology, History, Classification and Signification. A Thorough Study from Chinese Documents
 | first = Léon | last = Wieger
 | year = 1927
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | first = Endymion | last = Wilkinson | title = Chinese History: A New Manual
 | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = Harvard University Asia Center
 | series = Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-674-06715-8
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | title = Chinese Writing: Its Origin and Evolution |script-title=zh:漢字的原始和演變
 | last = Woon | first = Wee Lee 雲惟利
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hv8PAAAAYAAJ
 | publisher = Univ. of East Asia | location = Macau | year = 1987
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{citation
 | title = The Origin and Dissemination of Chinese Characters |script-title=zh:中國文字只起源與繁衍
 | first = Teresa L. | last = Wu
 | publisher = Caves Books | location = Taipei | year = 1990
 | isbn = 978-957-606-002-1
 | postscript = .
 }}
* {{Cite thesis
 |last=Chan
 |first=Yi-Chin
 |title=Learning to Read Chinese: The Relative Roles of Phonological Awareness and Morphological Awareness
 | type=PhD
 | date=2013
 | url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/12968/Chan_ku_0099D_13162_DATA_1.pdf?sequence=1
 }}
* {{cite journal
 |last1=Liu
 |first1=Phil
 |title=Holistic versus analytic processing: Evidence for a different approach to processing of Chinese at the word and character levels in Chinese children
 |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
 |date=December 2010
 |volume=107
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 |pages=466–478
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* {{Cite thesis
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Luó Zhènyù (羅振玉) 1958. 增訂殷墟書契考釋 (revised and enlarged edition on the interpretation of oracle bone inscriptions). Taipei: Yiwen Publishing (cited in Wu 1990).
* Serruys, Paul L-M. (1984) "On the System of the Pu Shou 部首 in the Shuo-wen chieh-tzu 說文解字", in 中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊 Zhōngyāng Yánjiūyuàn Lìshǐ Yǔyán Yánjiūsuǒ Jíkān, v. 55:4, pp.{{nbs}}651–754.
* [[Xu Shen]] ''Shuōwén Jǐezì'' (說文解字), is most often accessed in annotated versions, the most famous of which is [[Duan Yucai]] (1815). 說文解字注 ''Shuōwén Jǐezì Zhù'' (commentary on the ''Shuōwén Jíezì''), compiled 1776–1807
{{Refend}}

{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Chinese radical}}
{{commons category|CJKV radicals and their variants in regular script style (in SVG format)|radicals and their variants in regular script}}
{{commons category|The 214 Kangxi radicals in the dictionary's own style (in SVG format)|the 214 Kangxi radicals}}
{{commons category|The 540 Shuowen radicals|the 540 Shuowen radicals}}

{{Unicode CJK Unified Ideographs}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}
{{Simplified Chinese radicals}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Radical, Chinese character}}
[[Category:Chinese character components|Radical]]
[[Category:Hanja|Radical]]
[[Category:Kanji|Radical]]