View source for Chicago Freedom Movement

{{Short description|Series of demonstrations in Chicago in 1965–1966}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = Chicago Freedom Movement
| latitude =
| longitude =
| partof = the [[Civil Rights Movement]]
| image =
| caption = Protest march in [[Chicago Lawn, Chicago|Marquette Park]] neighborhood during Chicago Freedom Movement
| date = 1965–1966 (2 years)
| place = [[Chicago, Illinois]]
| coordinates =
| causes =
* ''De facto'' [[racial segregation]] in education, housing and employment
* SCLC's establishment of a campaign in the Northern United States
| status  =
| result  =
* [[Freedom Sunday]] rally and [[Chicago City Hall]] march led by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] in 1966
* Chicago branch of [[Operation Breadbasket]] established in 1966
* Summit Agreement produced on August 26, 1966
* Unaffiliated march in [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]], September 1966
* Formation of the [[Leadership Council for Metropolitan Open Communities]] (LCMOC)
* Book ''[[Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?]]'' written by Martin Luther King Jr. in 1967
* Catalyst for the enactment of [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|Fair Housing Act of 1968]]
| concessions =
| side1=
* Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO)
* [[American Friends Service Committee]] (AFSC)
* [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC)
| side2=
* [[Chicago City Hall]]
* [[Chicago Board of Education]]
* [[Chicago Housing Authority]]
* Chicago Real Estate Board
* Chicago Mortgage Bankers Association
| leadfigures1=
'''CCCO member'''
* [[Albert Raby|Al Raby]]
'''AFSC members'''
* Kale Williams
* [[Bernard Lafayette]]
* David Jehnsen
* [[William Moyer|Bill Moyer]]
'''SCLC members'''
* [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]
* [[James Bevel]]
* [[Jesse Jackson]]
| leadfigures2=
'''[[Mayor of Chicago]]'''
* [[Richard J. Daley]]
'''[[Superintendent of Chicago Public Schools]]'''
* [[Benjamin Willis (educator)|Benjamin Willis]]
| map_type =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
}}
{{CRM in Midwest US}}
{{Living spaces}}
{{external media|title=MLK speech, against Chicago Slums|image1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2r800gaDs4 Chicago, Civil rights leaders address crowd in soldier field]}}
The '''Chicago Freedom Movement''', also known as the '''Chicago open housing movement''', was led by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[James Bevel]]<ref>"James L. Bevel The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by Randall Kryn, a paper in [[David Garrow]]'s 1989 book ''We Shall Overcome, Volume II'', Carlson Publishing Company</ref><ref name="krynmiddlebury">{{cite web|url=http://cfm40.middlebury.edu/node/287|title=Randy Kryn: Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel – Chicago Freedom Movement|website=cfm40.middlebury.edu|access-date=April 7, 2018|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174523/http://cfm40.middlebury.edu/node/287|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Al Raby]]. It was supported by the Chicago-based Coordinating Council of Community Organizations (CCCO) and the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC).

The movement included a large rally, marches and demands to the [[City of Chicago]]. These demands covered a range of areas beside [[housing discrimination in the United States]], including [[educational inequality]], transportation and
[[employment discrimination]], [[Income inequality in the United States|income inequality]], [[Race and health in the United States|health inequality]], [[Wealth inequality in the United States|wealth inequality]], [[crime in Chicago]], [[criminal justice reform in the United States]], community development, tenants rights and [[quality of life]]. [[Operation Breadbasket]], in part led by [[Jesse Jackson]], sought to harness [[African-American]] consumer power.

The Chicago Freedom Movement was the most ambitious [[civil rights]] campaign in the [[Northern United States]], lasted from mid-1965 to August 1966, and is largely credited with inspiring the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|1968 Fair Housing Act]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/12_chicago.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210094439/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/story/12_chicago.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 10, 2007 |title=Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Movement 1954–1985 |publisher=PBS Online / WGBH |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name=Kotz05>{{cite book|last=Kotz|first=Nick|title=Judgment days : Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King,&nbsp;Jr., and the laws that changed America|year=2005|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=0-618-08825-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/judgmentdayslynd00kotz/page/417 417]|chapter=14. Another Martyr|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/judgmentdayslynd00kotz/page/417}}</ref>

==Background==
{{see also|1931 Chicago housing protests|Redlining}}
During [[World War I]], tens of thousands of African Americans moved to [[Chicago]] as part of the many destinations in the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] to urban and industrial centers in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] and [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] in search of jobs, and to escape the [[Jim Crow laws]] and racial violence in the rural [[Southern United States|South]]. Large numbers of black migrants to the city resided in the [[South Side, Chicago|South Side]] area near the established [[Irish Americans|Irish]] and [[German Americans|German American]] communities as well as neighborhoods of many recent immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. As a result, social and racial tensions in the city intensified, as native-born residents, migrants and immigrants fiercely competed for jobs and limited housing due to overcrowding. Tensions eventually simmered into the [[Chicago race riot of 1919]] during the [[Red Summer]] era, in which ethnic Irish gangs attacked black neighborhoods on the South Side, leading to the deaths of 23 blacks and 15 whites as well as many arson damages to buildings.<ref name="manning">{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/27.html|title=African Americans|website=Encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org|access-date=September 23, 2017}}</ref>

In the 1920s, the Chicago Real Estate Board established a racially restrictive [[Covenant (law)|covenant]] policy in response to the rapid influx of southern black migrants who were allegedly feared in bringing down property values of white neighborhoods. Contractual agreements among property owners included prohibiting sale or lease of any part of a building to specific groups of people, usually African Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/lawsoutside.cgi?state=Illinois |title=Illinois Jim Crow |access-date=May 2, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927020322/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/lawsoutside.cgi?state=Illinois |archive-date=September 27, 2007 }}</ref> For the next few decades, blacks were prevented from purchasing homes in certain white neighborhoods in Chicago.<ref name="DWAD">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehistoryreader.com/contemporary-history/lorraine-hansberry-and-chicago-segregation/|title=Lorraine Hansberry and Chicago Segregation |author=Natalie Y. Moore|date=March 30, 2016}}</ref> Although highly skilled African Americans gained unprecedented access to city jobs, they were not given as many opportunities for work and were often left with less desirable positions, sometimes in dangerous or unpleasant settings. School boundary lines were carefully drawn to avoid integrating the [[Chicago Public Schools]] (CPS), and African American children attended all-black schools in overcrowded conditions, with less funding in materials. As a result, many black families were locked in the overcrowded South Side in shoddy conditions.<ref name="DWAD"></ref>

In 1910, the population of black residents were 40,000. By 1960, it grew to 813,000, fueled by the [[Second Great Migration (African American)|Second Great Migration]] of blacks into the city during [[World War II]] to work in the war industries and during the post-war economic expansion.<ref name="manning"></ref> The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] ruled in ''[[Shelley v. Kraemer]]'' in 1948 that racial covenant policies were unconstitutional, yet such practice continued without opposition over the next two decades. During the post-war economic boom, the [[Chicago Housing Authority]] (CHA) tried to ease the pressure in the overcrowded ghettos and put public housing sites in less congested areas in the city. The white residents did not take this very well and reacted with violence when black families tried to move into white areas, so city politicians forced the CHA to keep the status quo and develop high rise projects in black neighborhoods. Some of these became notorious failures. As industrial restructuring in the 1950s and later led to massive job losses to the suburbs amidst the [[white flight]], black residents changed from working-class families to poor families on welfare.<ref name="manning"/>

===Civil Rights Movement===
In the 1950s and 1960s, the growing discontent among black Americans about their continuous mistreatment in the US culminated into the formation of the [[Civil Rights Movement]]. [[Nonviolent]] actions led by African-Americans nationwide, such as the court case ''[[Brown vs. Board of Education]]'', the [[Montgomery bus boycott]], the [[Little Rock Nine]]'s enrollment in a segregated school, the [[Nashville sit-ins]], the [[Birmingham campaign]], the [[Freedom Summer]] voter registration drive and the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] helped spur federal action that slowly broke down legalized racial segregation in the South.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-27|title=The Civil Rights Act of 1964 |url=https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/the-civil-rights-act-of-1964|access-date=2021-01-22|website=millercenter.org|language=en}}</ref>

While much of the attention was focused on the South, little had been paid to the conditions in the [[Northern United States|North]] and [[Western United States|West]]. Civil rights activists attempted to expose and contest the inequities of life in Chicago. In 1962, then-[[University of Chicago]] student [[Bernie Sanders]] organized a [[University of Chicago sit-ins|15-day sit-in]] with other protesters to challenge the university's alleged off-campus segregated residential properties. In October 1963, tens of thousands of students and residents [[Chicago Public School Boycott|boycotted the CPS]] due to the segregationist policies of [[Superintendent of Chicago Public Schools]] [[Benjamin Willis (educator)|Benjamin Willis]], who was notorious for placing mobile units on playgrounds and parking lots to solve overcrowding in black schools. While city authorities made a promise to investigate the conditions raised by civil rights activists, they never made a serious effort to take action. Protests, sit-ins and demonstrations in Chicago continued throughout 1964 and 1965.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ralph|first=James|date=2005|title=Civil Rights Movements|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/293.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214230620/http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org:80/pages/293.html |archive-date=December 14, 2005 |access-date=2021-01-29|website=Encyclopedia of Chicago}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sadusky|first=Heather|date=2014-07-02|title=History of Civil Rights in Chicago|url=https://chicago.cbslocal.com/2014/07/02/history-of-civil-rights-in-chicago/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022214457/http://chicago.cbslocal.com/2014/07/02/history-of-civil-rights-in-chicago/ |archive-date=October 22, 2014 |access-date=2021-01-29|website=CBS Chicago|language=en-US}}</ref>

On August 11, 1965, [[Watts riots|riots ignited]] in [[Watts, Los Angeles|Watts]], a predominantly black section of [[Los Angeles]], after the arrest of a 21-year-old black man for drunk driving. The violence lasted five days and resulted in 34 deaths, 3,900 arrests and the destruction of over 744 buildings and 200 businesses in a 20-square-mile area. The riots shocked the nation and raised awareness of the struggles urban blacks faced outside the South. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] told a New York paper that "The non-violent movement of the South has meant little to them, since we have been fighting for rights that theoretically are already theirs." The riots were one of the events that helped convince King and some other civil rights activists to join the ongoing Chicago Freedom Movement in combating the widespread ''[[de facto]]'' segregated conditions across the country.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/August-2016/Martin-Luther-King-Chicago-Freedom-Movement/|title=The Longest March |first=David|last=Bernstein|date=July 25, 2016|publisher=ChicagoMag}}</ref>

==Actions==
{{See also|Marquette Park rallies}}
The Chicago Freedom Movement represented the alliance of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] (SCLC), the [[American Friends Service Committee]] (AFSC) and the [[Coordinating Council of Community Organizations]] (CCCO). The SCLC was looking for a site to prove that [[nonviolence]] and [[Direct action|nonviolent direct action]] could bring about social change outside of the South. The CCCO had harnessed anger over racial inequality, especially in the public schools, in the city of Chicago to build the most sustained local civil rights movement in the North. The activism of the CCCO pulled SCLC to Chicago, as did the work of the AFSC's Kale Williams, [[Bernard Lafayette]], David Jehnsen and others, owing to the decision by SCLC's Director of Direct Action, [[James Bevel]], to come to Chicago to work with the AFSC project on the city's [[West Side, Chicago|West Side]].<ref name="krynmiddlebury"/> (The SCLC's second choice had been Washington DC.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maddison|first=Catherine|date=2007|title='In Chains 400 Years ... And Still hi Chains in DC!' The 1966 Free DC Movement and the Challenges of Organizing in the City.|journal=Journal of American Studies|volume=2007|pages=169|doi=10.1017/S0021875806002799|s2cid=143498079}}</ref>)

The Chicago Freedom Movement declared its intention to end [[slums]] in the city. It organized tenants' [[organization|unions]], held [[rent strike]]s, assumed control of a slum [[tenement]], founded action groups like Operation Breadbasket and rallied black and white Chicagoans to support its goals. In the early summer of 1966, it and Bevel focused their attention on housing discrimination, an issue Bevel attributed to the work and idea of AFSC activist [[Bill Moyer]].<ref name="krynmiddlebury"/> A large rally was held by Martin Luther King at [[Soldier Field]] on July 10, 1966. According to a UPI news story that ran the next day, "About 35,000 persons jammed Chicago's Soldier Field for Dr. King's first giant 'freedom rally' since bringing his civil rights organizing tactics to the city..."<ref>{{cite news |title=Dr. King Urges Unity With Non-violence |newspaper=Pittsburgh Press |date=July 11, 1966 |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4TQgAAAAIBAJ&pg=5628,3282296&dq=chicago+freedom+movement&hl=en |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref> Other guests included [[Mahalia Jackson]], [[Stevie Wonder]] and [[Peter, Paul and Mary]].

By late July the Chicago Freedom Movement was staging regular rallies outside of Real Estate offices and marches into all-white neighborhoods on the city's southwest and northwest sides. The hostile and sometimes violent response of local whites,<ref>{{cite news |title=Whites Stone Marchers in Suburb of Chicago |agency= Associated Press|newspaper=Miami News |date= August 24, 1966 |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=cG5VAAAAIBAJ&pg=3771,2185755&dq=chicago+freedom+movement&hl=en |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref> and the determination of civil rights activists to continue to crusade for an open housing law, alarmed City Hall and attracted the attention of the national press.  During one demonstration King said that even in Alabama and Mississippi he had not encountered mobs as hostile to Blacks' civil rights as those in Chicago.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fRpoFDznjyw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/fRpoFDznjyw |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=Dr. King – Housing March in Gage Park Chicago, 1966|last=Lyon à la Carte Expats|date=April 2, 2011|access-date=April 7, 2018|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In mid-August, high-level negotiations began between city leaders, movement activists and representatives of the Chicago Real Estate Board. On August 26, after the Chicago Freedom Movement had declared that it would march into Cicero, an agreement, consisting of positive steps to open up housing opportunities in metropolitan Chicago, was reached.<ref>{{cite news |title= King Makes Housing Agreement | newspaper = Lodi News-Sentinel |date=August 27, 1966 |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A6xAAAAAIBAJ&pg=2914,4287202&dq=chicago+freedom+movement&hl=en |access-date=November 27, 2010}}</ref> The Summit Agreement was the culmination of months of organizing and direct action.  It did not satisfy all activists, some of whom, in early September 1966, marched on Cicero over the objection of James Bevel, who had directed the movement for SCLC.<ref>{{cite news |title= Guard Called Out in Cicero March |author= United Press International |newspaper=Sarasota Herald-Tribune |date=September 3, 1966 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=URgvAAAAIBAJ&pg=2840,461773&dq=chicago+freedom+movement&hl=en |access-date=November 29, 2010}}</ref>

After the open-housing marches and Summit agreements, the overall Chicago Freedom Movement lost much of its focus and momentum. By early 1967, Martin Luther King, James Bevel and SCLC had trained their energies on other projects, mainly – for King and Bevel – the [[National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam|anti-Vietnam war movement]].<ref name=":0" />

==Demands==
On July 10, 1966, King placed a list of demands on the door of the Chicago City Hall to gain leverage with city leaders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.luc.edu/curl/cfm40/issue1.html |title=Dr. Kings Demands of the City of Chicago (1966) |date=July 23, 2006 |publisher=Center for Urban Research and Learning, Loyola University Chicago |access-date=November 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306011352/http://www.luc.edu/curl/cfm40/issue1.html |archive-date=March 6, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

;Real estate boards and brokers
# Public statements that all listings will be available on a nondiscriminatory basis.

;Banks and savings institutions
# Public statements of a nondiscriminatory mortgage policy so that loans will be available to any qualified borrower without regard to the racial composition of the area.

;Mayor and city council
# Publication of headcounts of whites, Negroes and Latin Americans for all city departments and for all firms from which city purchases are made.
# Revocation of contracts with firms that do not have a full scale fair employment practice.
# Creation of a citizens review board for grievances against police brutality and false arrests or stops and seizures.
# Ordinance giving ready access to the names of owners and investors for all slum properties.
# A saturation program of increased garbage collection, street cleaning and building inspection services in the slum properties.

;Political parties
# The requirement that precinct captains be residents of their precincts.

;Chicago Housing Authority and the Chicago Dwelling Association
# Program to rehabilitate present public housing including such items as locked lobbies, restrooms in recreation areas, increased police protection and child care centers on every third floor.
# Program to increase vastly the supply of low-cost housing on a scattered basis for both low- and middle-income families.

;Business
# Basic headcounts, including white, Negro and Latin American, by job classification and income level, made public.
# Racial steps to upgrade and to integrate all departments, all levels of employments.

==1968 Fair Housing Act==
The [[Civil Rights Act of 1968|1968 Fair Housing Act]] passed by Congress was a direct result of the 1966 Chicago open housing movement and [[Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.|King's assassination]].<ref name="Kotz05"/>

==See also==
* [[History of education in Chicago]]
* [[White House Conference on Civil Rights]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last1=Anderson|first1=Alan B.|last2=Pickering|first2=George W.|title=Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement in Chicago|date=2008|publisher=University of Georgia Press|location=Athens, Georgia|isbn=9780820331201|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXLODbWedaUC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Branch|first1=Taylor|title=At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68|date=2007|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|isbn=9781416558712|url=https://archive.org/details/atcanaansedgeame00bran|url-access=registration}}
* Cohen, Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor. ''American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J Daley--His Battle for Chicago and the Nation'' (2000)

* {{cite book|last1=Danns|first1=Dionne|title=Something Better for Our Children: Black Organizing in Chicago Public Schools, 1963–1971|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=9780415935753|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JybHqgpKAkC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Danns|first1=Dionne|title=Desegregating Chicago's Public Schools: Policy Implementation, Politics, and Protest, 1965–1985|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=9781137357588|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzLFAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Finley|editor1-first=Mary Lou|editor2-last=LaFayette|editor2-first=Bernard Jr. |editor3-last=Ralph|editor3-first=James R. Jr. |editor4-last=Smith|editor4-first=Pam|title=The Chicago Freedom Movement: Martin Luther King Jr. and Civil Rights Activism in the North|date=2016|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=9780813166506}}
* {{cite book|last1=Garb|first1=Margaret|title=Freedom's Ballot: African American Political Struggles in Chicago from Abolition to the Great Migration|date=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=9780226136066|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4dFAwAAQBAJ}}
* Garrow, David J. ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference'' (1986), pp. 431-550.
* {{cite book|last1=Garrow|first1=David J.|title=Chicago 1966: Open Housing Marches, Summit Negotiations, and Operation Breadbasket|date=1989|publisher=Carlson Publisher|location=Brooklyn, NY|isbn=9780926019072}}
* {{cite book|last1=Helgeson|first1=Jeffrey|title=Crucibles of Black Empowerment: Chicago's Neighborhood Politics from the New Deal to Harold Washington|date=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226130729|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYdFAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hirsch|first1=Arnold R.|title=Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940–1960|date=2011|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago, Illinois|isbn=9781283097598}}
* {{cite book|last1=McKersie|first1=Robert B.|title=A Decisive Decade: An Insider's View of the Chicago Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s|date=2013|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|location=Carbondale, Illinois|isbn=9780809332458|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z_EAAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Pacyga|first1=Dominic A.|title=Chicago: A Biography|date=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226644325|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxJ9j6s_wRwC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Ralph|first1=James|title=Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement|date=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674626874|url=https://archive.org/details/northernprotestm00ralp}}
* Ralph, James. "Martin Luther King, Jr., in Chicago" '' Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2024) [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1438.html online]

* {{cite book|last1=Satter|first1=Beryl|title=Family Properties: Race, Real Estate, and the Exploitation of Black Urban America|date=2009|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=9780805076769|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_KyE66pWYQC}}

==External links==
* [https://sites.middlebury.edu/chicagofreedommovement/ Chicago Freedom Movement]

{{Civil rights movement}}
{{African American topics}}
{{US housing by state}}
{{Chicago Public Schools protests}}

[[Category:1965 in Illinois]]
[[Category:1965 in American law]]
[[Category:1966 in Illinois]]
[[Category:1967 in Illinois]]
[[Category:Chicago Freedom Movement| ]]
[[Category:Civil rights movement protests]]
[[Category:African-American history in Chicago]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:1960s in Chicago]]
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Housing rights activism]]
[[Category:Martin Luther King Jr.]]
[[Category:1965 protests]]
[[Category:1966 protests]]
[[Category:1967 protests]]
[[Category:Housing in Chicago]]
[[Category:Housing protests]]
[[Category:James Bevel]]