View source for Charles XIV John

{{Short description|King of Sweden and Norway from 1818 to 1844}}
{{redirect|Carl Johan|a subsequent prince|Carl Johan Bernadotte}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Charles XIV John
| title        = 
| image        = File:Karl XIV Johan, Sveriges och Norges konung. Porträtt av Frederic Westin, cirka 1843. - kopia.png
| caption      = Portrait by [[Fredric Westin]], {{circa|1843}}
| succession   = [[King of Sweden]] and [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norway]]
| reign        = 5 February 1818 – 8 March 1844
| predecessor  = [[Charles XIII & II]]
| successor    = [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]]
| succession1  = [[Prince of Pontecorvo]]
| reign1       = 5 June 1806 – 21 August 1810
| successor1   = [[Lucien Murat]]
{{Infobox officeholder|embed=yes
| office1           = [[Minister of War (France)|Minister of War of the French Republic]]
| term_start1       = 2 July 1799
| term_end1         = 14 September 1799
|predecessor1       = [[Louis Marie de Milet de Mureau]]
|successor1         = [[Edmond Louis Alexis Dubois-Crancé]]
}}
| cor-type     = Coronations
| coronation   = {{ubl|11 May 1818 {{avoid wrap|([[Stockholm Cathedral]], Sweden)}}|7 September 1818 {{avoid wrap|([[Nidaros Cathedral]], Norway)}}}}
| birth_name   = Jean Bernadotte
| full name    = {{langx|sv|Karl Johan Baptist Julius}} <br> {{langx|fr|Jean-Baptiste Jules}}
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[Désirée Clary]]|17 August 1798}}
| issue        = [[Oscar I of Sweden]]
| house        = [[House of Bernadotte|Bernadotte]]
| father       = Henri Bernadotte<br>[[Charles XIII]] (adoptive)
| mother       = Jeanne de Saint-Jean
| birth_date   = {{Birth date|1763|1|26|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]], [[Kingdom of France]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1844|3|8|1763|1|26|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]
| date of burial = 26 April 1844
| place of burial = [[Riddarholm Church]]
| religion     = [[Lutheran]]<br />''prev.'' [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
| signature    = Autograf, Carl Johan, Nordisk familjebok.svg
| module       = {{Infobox military person | embed=yes
| allegiance     = {{ubl|[[Kingdom of France]]|[[Kingdom of France (1791–92)|Kingdom of the French]]|[[First French Republic|French Republic]]|[[First French Empire|French Empire]]|[[Kingdom of Sweden]]|[[United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway]]}}
| branch         = 
| serviceyears   = 1780–1844
| rank           = [[Marshal of the Empire]] and [[Generalissimo]] of the [[Swedish Armed Forces]]
| commands       = {{ubli|Governor of [[Hanover]]|Governor of [[Ansbach]]|Governor of the [[Hanseatic League#Lists of former Hansa cities|Hanseatic Cities]]|Army of the Rhine (1798)|[[Army of the West (1793)#1800–1802|Army of the West]]|[[I Corps (Grande Armée)|I Corps]]|[[IX Corps (Grande Armée)|IX Corps]]|Army of Antwerp|Allied Army of the North|[[Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces]] and [[Norwegian Armed Forces]]}}
| battles = {{Collapsible list
 | title = ''See list:''
 | {{Tree list}}
* [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
** [[War of the First Coalition]]
*** [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)]]
*** [[Battle of Theiningen]]
*** Passage of the Tagliamento (1797)
*** Capture of Gradisca (1797)
* [[Napoleonic Wars]]
** [[War of the Third Coalition]]
*** [[Battle of Austerlitz]]
** [[War of the Fourth Coalition]]
*** [[Battle of Halle]]
*** [[Battle of Lübeck]]
*** [[Battle of Mohrungen]]
*** [[Battle of Guttstadt-Deppen]]
** [[War of the Fifth Coalition]]
*** [[Battle of Linz-Urfahr]]
*** [[Battle of Wagram]]
*** [[Walcheren Campaign]]
** [[War of the Sixth Coalition]]
*** [[Battle of Großbeeren]]
*** [[Battle of Dennewitz]]
*** [[Battle of Leipzig]]
*** [[Dano-Swedish War (1813–1814)]]
*** [[Swedish–Norwegian War (1814)]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
| awards         = {{Collapsible list
 | title = ''See list:''
 | {{ubli|[[Order of the Seraphim|Grand Master Order of the Seraphim]]|[[Order of the Sword|Grand Master Order of the Sword]]|[[Order of the Polar Star|Grand Master Order of the Polar Star]]|[[Order of Vasa|Grand Master of the Order of Vasa]]|[[Legion of Honour#First Empire|Grand Collar Legion of Honour]]|[[Grand Cross of the Iron Cross]]|[[Order of St. George#Recipients of the Order first class|Order of St. George 1st Class]]|[[Order of the Iron Crown]]|[[Order of the Elephant]]|[[Military Order of Maria Theresa]]|[[Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe]]}}
}}
| laterwork      = {{ubli|[[Conseiller d'État (France)|Councillor of State]]| Ambassador to the Court of Vienna and the Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary}}
}}
}}
'''Charles XIV John''' ({{langx|sv|Karl XIV Johan}}; 26 January 1763 – 8 March 1844) was [[King of Sweden]] and [[King of Norway|Norway]] from 1818 until his death in 1844 and the first monarch of the [[Bernadotte dynasty]]. In Norway, he is known as '''Charles III John''' ({{langx|no|Karl III Johan}}); before he became royalty in Sweden, his name was '''Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte'''.<ref>Ulf Ivar Nilsson in ''Allt vi trodde vi visste men som faktiskt är FEL FEL FEL!'', Bokförlaget Semic 2007 {{ISBN|978-91-552-3572-7}} p. 40.</ref> During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], he participated in several battles as a [[Marshal of France]].

Born in [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]] in the region of southern France known as [[Béarn]], Bernadotte joined the [[French Royal Army]] in 1780. Following the outbreak of the [[French Revolution]], he demonstrated great military talent, rising rapidly through the ranks and becoming a [[brigadier general]] by 1794. He served with distinction in Italy and Germany, and was briefly [[Minister of War (France)|Minister of War]]. His relationship with [[Napoleon]] was turbulent; nevertheless, Napoleon named him a [[Marshal of the Empire]] on the proclamation of the [[First French Empire|French Empire]]. Bernadotte played a significant role in the French victory at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], and was made [[Principality of Pontecorvo|Prince of Pontecorvo]] as a reward. His marriage to [[Désirée Clary]], whose [[Julie Clary|sister]] was married to [[Joseph Bonaparte]], made Bernadotte a member of the extended [[House of Bonaparte|Imperial family]].

In 1810, Bernadotte was unexpectedly elected the [[heir-presumptive]] ([[List of heirs to the Swedish throne|Crown Prince]]) to the childless King [[Charles XIII of Sweden]], thanks to the advocacy of Baron [[Carl Otto Mörner]], a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the [[Riksdag of the Estates]].{{sfnp|Cronholm|1902|pp=249–271}} He assumed the name Charles (Carl) after his adoptive father and John (Johan), which is a Swedish version of Jean.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahlander |first=Dag Sebastian |title=Sverige vid avgrunden: 1808-1814 |date=2019 |publisher=Historiska Media |isbn=978-91-7545-782-6 |location=Lund |pages=100 |language=Sv}}</ref> He was subsequently named regent and [[generalissimo]] of the Swedish Armed Forces, soon after his arrival becoming ''de facto'' head of state for most of his time as Crown Prince. In 1812, following the sudden unprovoked French invasion of [[Swedish Pomerania]], Crown Prince Charles John was instrumental in the creation of the [[Sixth Coalition]] by allying with [[Alexander I of Russia]] and using Swedish diplomacy to bring [[Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812)|warring]] [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] together in alliance.{{sfnmp|Barton|1925|1pp=53–57|Scott|1935|pp=19–20, 33–35}} He then played a major role in the writing of the [[Trachenberg Plan]], the war-winning Allied campaign plan, and commanded the Allied Army of the North that defeated two concerted French attempts to capture Berlin and made the decisive attack on the last day of the catastrophic French defeat at [[Battle of Leipzig|Leipzig]].

Following the conclusion of the [[German campaign of 1813#Leipzig campaign|Leipzig campaign]] and after liberating [[Bremen]] and [[Lübeck]] from the French in late November 1813, Charles John invaded Denmark, aiming to knock Napoleon's last major ally out of the war to secure the Coalition's northern flank in preparation for the invasion of France in 1814 and to secure Norway for Sweden, as stipulated in the several treaties that created the Sixth Coalition.{{sfnp|Scott|1935|p=128}} After [[Dano-Swedish War (1813–1814)|a brief campaign]] that saw the defeat of the Danish Army, King [[Frederick VI of Denmark]] was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Kiel]] on 15 January 1814 that ceded Norway to Sweden, that in turn led to the [[Swedish–Norwegian War of 1814]], where [[Kingdom of Norway (1814)|Norway]] was defeated in nineteen days.{{sfnp|Scott|1935|pp=140–145}} This put Norway into a [[Union between Sweden and Norway|union with Sweden]], which lasted for almost a century before its peaceful [[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden|1905 dissolution]]. The Swedish–Norwegian war is viewed as Sweden's last direct [[List of wars involving Sweden|conflict and war]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thelocal.se/20140815/sweden-celebrates-200-years-of-peace/ |accessdate=14 September 2021| title=Sweden celebrates 200 years of peace | newspaper=The Local Sweden | date=15 August 2014 | author=Solveig Rundquist}}</ref>

Upon the death of Charles XIII in 1818, Charles John ascended to the throne. He presided over a period of peace and prosperity, and reigned until his death in 1844.

==Early life and family==
[[File:Pau Bernadotte.JPG|thumb|left|Bernadotte's birthplace in [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]], France]]

Jean Bernadotte was born on 26 January 1763 in [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]], the capital of the [[provinces of France|province]] of [[Béarn]] in the southwestern part of the [[Kingdom of France]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} He was the son of Jean Henri Bernadotte (1711–1780), [[prosecutor]] at Pau, and his wife (married at [[Boeil-Bezing|Boeil]], 20 February 1754) Jeanne de Saint-Jean (1728–1809), niece of the [[lay abbot]] of [[Sireix]]. The family name was originally du Poey (or de Pouey), but was changed to Bernadotte{{snd}}a surname of an ancestress at the beginning of the 17th century.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} He was the youngest of five siblings, two of whom died in childhood. Soon after his birth, Baptiste was added to his name to distinguish him from his elder brother Jean Évangeliste. Bernadotte himself added Jules to his first names as a tribute to the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] under [[Napoleon I]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}}

At the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a local attorney. Aged 17, his father's death dissuaded him from following in his career.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=6}}

==Early military career==
Bernadotte joined the army as a private in the [[Régiment Royal–La Marine]] on 3 September 1780,{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=5}} and first served in the newly conquered territory of [[Corsica]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} Subsequently, the Régiment stationed in [[Besançon]], [[Grenoble]], Vienne, [[Marseille]] and [[Île de Ré]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=8–13}}{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=14}} He reached the rank of sergeant in August 1785 and was nicknamed ''Sergeant Belle-Jambe'', for his smart appearance.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=11}} In early 1790, he was promoted to adjutant-major, the highest rank for [[non-commissioned officer]]s in the [[Ancien Régime]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=15}}

==Revolutionary Wars==
[[File:Jean-Baptiste-Jules Bernadotte, lieutenant au 36e régiment de ligne en 1792 (1764-1844).jpg|thumb|Bernadotte during the [[French Revolution]]]]

Following the outbreak of the [[French Revolution]], his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} Bernadotte's promotions came both from the esteem of his commanders as well as from his men; having been elected to the rank of lieutenant colonel and colonel by his men, though he refused both nominations in favor of traditional advancement.{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=50–52, 70–71}}

It was during this period of rapid advancement that the military qualities he became known for, daring assaults and [[wiktionary:gasconade|gasconades]], came to the fore. Of the latter, Bernadotte was gifted in his ability to inspire his men to prodigious feats of valor. He has been compared by historians to fellow Gascon, D'Artagnan. One of his biographers asserts{{sfnp|Barton|1930}} that Dumas used Bernadotte as the model for his D'Artagnan. As Colonel and commander of the 71st Demi-Brigade, Bernadotte rallied his men, who were retreating in disorder before an [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian]] attack, by tearing off his epaulettes, throwing them to the ground before his men, and shouting, “If you dishonor yourselves by flight, I refuse to remain your colonel!” Soldiers left the ranks, gathered his epaulettes, pressed them into his hands, formed ranks and reformed the line, and counter-attacked.{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=76–77}}

By 1794, he was promoted to brigadier, attached to the [[Army of Sambre-et-Meuse]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} After [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan]]'s victory at [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)|Fleurus]] (26 June 1794), where he distinguished himself with a decisive attack and seizure of key terrain that led to the Austrian retreat, he became a divisional general.{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=92–94}}

Bernadotte played key roles throughout the next 18 months during the three French invasions into Germany; often employed in the place of honor during offensives, leading the vanguard, and in retreat as a defensive specialist commanding the rearguard.{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=98–101}}

At the [[Battle of Theiningen]] (1796), where the Austrians outnumbered the French three to one,{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=110–114}} Bernadotte's rear-guard successfully repulsed numerous attacks while inflicting heavy losses on the enemy, preventing the [[Archduke Charles]] from cutting off the retreat of the French army over the [[Rhine]] after its defeat by the Austrians at the [[Battle of Würzburg]].{{sfnp|Barton|1914|pp=110–114}}

At the beginning of 1797, he was ordered by the [[French Directory|Directory]] to march with 20,000 men as reinforcements to [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s army in Italy.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} His successful crossing of the Alps through the storm in midwinter was highly praised but coldly received by the [[Army of Italy (France)|Army of Italy]].{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=42}}{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=42}} Upon receiving insult from [[Dominique Martin Dupuy]], the commander of [[Milan]], Bernadotte was to arrest him for insubordination.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=42–43}} Dupuy was a close friend of [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]], and this started a long-lasting feud between Bernadotte and Berthier, who would become Napoleon's chief of staff.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=44}}

He had his first interview with Napoleon in [[Mantua]] and was appointed the commander of the 4th division.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=43}} During the invasion of [[Friuli]] and [[Istria]], Bernadotte distinguished himself greatly at the passage of the [[Tagliamento]] where he led the vanguard, and at the capture of the fortress of [[Gradisca d'Isonzo|Gradisca]] (19 March 1797).{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} After the [[Coup of 18 Fructidor|18th Fructidor]], Napoleon ordered his generals to collect from their respective divisions' addresses in favor of the coup d'état of that day; but Bernadotte sent an address to the Directory different from that which Napoleon wished for and without conveying it through Napoleon's hands.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

After the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]], Napoleon gave Bernadotte a friendly visit at his headquarters at [[Udine]], but immediately after deprived him of half his division of the army of the Rhine, and commanded him to march the other half back to France.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} [[Paul Barras]], one of five directors, was cautious that Napoleon would overturn the Republic, so he appointed Bernadotte commander-in-chief of the Army of Italy in order to offset Napoleon's power.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=60–61}} Bernadotte was pleased with this appointment but Napoleon lobbied [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Talleyrand-Périgord]], the [[Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (France)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], to appoint him to the embassy of [[Vienna]] instead.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=61}} Bernadotte was very dissatisfied; he finally accepted the post in Vienna, but had to quit owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the [[Flag of France|tricolour]] over the embassy.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}}{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

[[File:Carl XIV John of Sweden & Norway as French Marshall bust 2010 Pau.jpg|thumb|Bust of a young Bernadotte at the Bernadotte Museum in [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]], France]]

After returning from Vienna, he resided in Paris. He married [[Désirée Clary]] in August 1798, the daughter of a Marseilles merchant, and once engaged to Napoleon, and [[Joseph Bonaparte]]'s sister-in-law.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} In November of the same year, he was made commander of the army of observation on the upper Rhine. Although solicited to do so by Barras and Joseph Bonaparte, he did not take part in [[Coup of 30 Prairial VII|the coup d'état of the 30th Prairial]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=84}} From 2 July to 14 September, he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} His popularity and contacts with radical [[Jacobins]] aroused antipathy of him in the government.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=88}} On the morning of 13 September, he found his resignation announced in ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]'' before he was aware that he had tendered it. This was a trick; played upon him by [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] and [[Roger Ducos]], the directors allied to Napoleon.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

Though Bernadotte declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|''coup d'état'' of November 1799]], Napoleon was resolved to win over the "Obstacle Man" and showered him with honors. Napoleon acknowledged Bernadotte's administrative ability and influence by naming him a [[Conseil d'État (France)|Councillor of State]] in February 1800. In April 1800, despite his republican sympathies, Bernadotte was offered, and freely accepted, from April 1800 to 18 August 1801, the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the West in the rebellious [[Vendée]], where he successfully restored its tranquility.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}}{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} This was seen as an appointment of trust, as while Napoleon embarked on his summer Italian Campaign, where he ultimately prevailed at the [[Battle of Marengo]], he left Bernadotte not far from Paris with an army. In his farewell note to Bernadotte on his way to Italy, Napoleon wrote: "I am going to fling myself once more into the hazards of war. We do not know how it may turn out. If I fall, you will find yourself with 40,000 men at the gates of Paris. In your hands will be the fate of the Republic." As Bernadotte was brother-in-law to Joseph and close friends with his other brothers and sisters, Napoleon is thought to have been considering the welfare of his family in the possible event of his death on the battlefield, as well as the future of the country, by leaving his erstwhile rival in a position to seize the reins of government as, of his former rivals, only Bernadotte had the political and military skill and popularity to maintain the Republic.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=14–19}}

In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte proposed that Bernadotte head to New France to serve as governor of [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]], which was to be transferred back to French control following the [[Third Treaty of San Ildefonso]]. In accepting the position, Bernadotte requested additional soldiers, settlers, and funding to support the colony, but Napoleon refused. In response, Bernadotte declined the posting and instead was named plenipotentiary ambassador to the United States. His posting was cancelled after the [[Louisiana Purchase|Sale of Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite conference | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00974220/document | title = Bernadotte, Bonaparte, and Louisiana: the last dream of a French Empire in North America | first = Jean-Marc | last = Olivier | date = 2010 | editor-last = Belaubre | editor-first = Christope | editor2-last = Dym | editor2-first = Jordana | editor3-last = Savage | editor3-first = John | book-title = Napoleon's Atlantic: The Impact of Napoleonic Empire in the Atlantic World | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden, Netherlands | pages = 141–150 | format = PDF | isbn = 978-9004181540 | access-date = 11 November 2018 | archive-date = 12 November 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181112101308/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00974220/document | url-status = live }}</ref>

==Marshal of the French Empire==
[[File:Jean-Baptiste-Jules Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte-Corvo, roi de Suède, Maréchal de France (1763-1844).jpg|thumb|left|Bernadotte as a Marshal of the Empire; copy of an 1804 portrait by [[François Kinson]]]]

On the introduction of the [[First French Empire]], Bernadotte became one of the eighteen [[Marshal of the Empire|Marshals of the Empire]], and from June 1804 to September 1805 served as governor of the recently occupied [[Hanover]]. In this capacity, as well as during his later command of the army of northern Germany, he built a reputation for independence, incorruptibility, moderation, and administrative ability. Bernadotte's rule was popular, and despite the exactions taken from the populace as part of Napoleon's policy of making occupations pay for themselves, Hanover's economy prospered. Bernadotte extended his protection and made private contributions to [[Gottingen University]], befriending many of the professors and other men of learning whom he often had over for dinner and employed to tutor himself and his wife.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=93–95}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Wencker-Wildberg |first=Friederich |year=1936 |title=Bernadotte: A Biography |page=173 |publisher=Jarrolds |location=London}}</ref>

During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte, with his army corps from Hanover, formed into the I Corps, commanded the Left Wing of the [[Grande Armée]] overseeing [[Auguste de Marmont]]'s II Corps and having the majority of the [[Bavarian Army]] attached to his command; some 65,000 men or 1/4th of the Army. Bernadotte was also tasked with assuring France's newest ally, the Elector of Bavaria, [[Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria|Maximillian IV Joseph]], that the Austrians would be driven from his country.<ref>Maude, F.A. (1912), pp. 150–151.</ref>{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=106–109}}

Bernadotte, with [[Louis-Nicolas Davout|Davout]]'s III Corps attached to his command, and the Bavarians, gained a victory over the Austrians, driving them out of [[Munich]] on 12 October, taking some 3000 prisoners and 19 guns and installing Maximillian Joseph back onto his throne.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=108–109}} I Corps then co-operated in the [[Ulm campaign|great movement]] which resulted in the shutting off of [[Karl Mack von Leiberich|Mack]] in the [[Battle of Ulm]]. Bernadotte's troops then captured [[Salzburg]] on 30 October.<ref>Maude, F.A (1912), pp. 222–226.</ref> In the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] (2 December 1805) he was posted with his corps in the center between [[Jean-de-Dieu Soult|Soult]] and [[Jean Lannes|Lannes]], and contributed to defeating the attempt of the right wing of the allies to outflank the French army.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} As a reward for his services at Austerlitz, he became the 1st Sovereign [[Principality of Pontecorvo|Prince of Pontecorvo]] (5 June 1806), a district in southern Italy formerly subject to the Pope.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}}{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

During the 1806 campaign against [[Prussia]], Bernadotte was reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the battles of [[Battle of Jena|Jena]] and [[Battle of Auerstädt|Auerstädt]] (14 October 1806).{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} Napoleon, on the night of 13 October, thinking he had faced the whole [[Prussian Army]] at Jena, sent orders to Davout, through Marshal Berthier, Davout relayed the order to Bernadotte at 0400 on 14 October with the order stating: "If the Prince of Ponte Corvo [Bernadotte] is with you, you may both march together, but the Emperor hopes that ''he will be in the position which had been indicated at [[Dornburg]]''."{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=148–156}} This was in accordance with Bernadotte's last set of written orders from 12 October, which ordered him and Davout to get across the Prussian line of retreat. In pursuance of these orders, Bernadotte, separately from Davout, left [[Naumburg]] at dawn on the morning of the 14th for Dornburg and marched toward [[Apolda]], which he reached by 16:00. Hampered by the very poor state of the roads, and a steep defile within which Dornburg is situated and the narrow bridge which passes over the [[Saale]], that could pass but one artillery piece at a time according to General [[Pierre Dupont de l'Etang|Dupont]], he could not engage in the Battle of Jena, though he effectively compelled the Prussians to retreat from both battlefields by posting his troops on the heights of Apolda.{{sfnp|Titeux|1903|pp=86–104}}{{sfnp|Foucart|1887|pp=694–97}}{{sfnp|Alison|1836|pp=758, 764–65}}

The defile was such an obstacle that Bernadotte's 3rd Infantry division, commanded by [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon]], was still in the midst of crossing the bridge well after nightfall, making it unlikely that Bernadotte could have intervened at Auerstädt in any event.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|p=143}} He later was accused of deliberately refusing to support Davout, who had unexpectedly encountered the Prussian main army at Auerstädt, out of jealousy, and Napoleon, if reminiscences from [[St. Helena]] may be believed, once intended to put Bernadotte before a court-martial.{{sfnp|Favier|2010|pp=137–139}}{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=135}} In fact, he did what he had been ordered to do, and more fundamental responsibility for his absence rests upon the ambiguous and indirect orders issued by Berthier and Napoleon's unawareness of the Prussian position.{{sfnp|Alison|1836|p=765}}{{sfnp|Scott|1962|p=284}} Documentary evidence supports Bernadotte's assertion that he was ordered to Dornberg, as no orders from Napoleon to Bernadotte to march with Davout were ever found in French Imperial Archives, while Berthier's order of 14 October was confirmed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dunn-Pattinson |first=R. P. |year=1909 |title=Napoleon's Marshals |page=81 |publisher=Methuen & Co. |location=London}}</ref>{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=148–156}}

After the Battle of Jena, Bernadotte crushed the Prussian Reserve Army, all fresh troops fortified behind a marsh and the River Saale, under Duke [[Duke Eugen of Württemberg (1758–1822)|Eugen of Württemberg]] at [[Battle of Halle|Halle]] (17 October 1806), though Imperial Headquarters did not much appreciate this victory.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=19}} When visiting Halle after the battle, and commenting on the degree of difficulty of storming a fortified position accessible only by a single bridge, Napoleon enigmatically commented, "Bernadotte stops at nothing. Someday the Gascon will get caught."{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=135}} Subsequently, Bernadotte pursued, conjointly with Soult and [[Joachim Murat|Murat]] (known as the "Pursuit of the Three Marshals"), Prussian general [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|Blücher's]] Corps to [[Battle of Lübeck|Lübeck]], where his troops stormed the Prussian defenses, taking the city{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=165–171}} and forcing Blücher's capitulation at [[Ratekau]] (7 November 1806).{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} When the French forced their way into [[Lübeck]], the city became the target of large-scale looting and rampage by the French soldiers. Bernadotte, struggling desperately to prevent his men from sacking the city, was given six horses from the Council of Lübeck as a token of their appreciation.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=198–199}}{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=132–137}} He also treated with courtesy 1600 Swedish prisoners, under the command of Colonel Count Gustaf Mörner, and allowed them to return to their home country. The impressed Swedes went home with a tale of Bernadotte's fairness in maintaining order within the city. Count Mörner would later play a prominent role in the election of Bernadotte as Crown Prince of Sweden.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=136–137}}{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=169–170, 256–257}}

Thereafter, he marched to Poland in command of the French Left Wing, composed of his I Corps and [[Michel Ney|Ney]]'s VI Corps. Left unsupported by Ney's unexpected movement toward [[Königsberg]], the Russians under [[Levin August von Bennigsen]] passed over to the offensive and attempted to destroy Bernadotte's and Ney's isolated Corps.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=172–176}} Napoleon, having received word of the Russian offensive, gave word to Bernadotte to retreat West to draw the Russians toward him so that Napoleon could then cut off and surround the Russians. Bernadotte moved West as ordered, pursued by Bennigsen, where he defeated the numerically superior Russian vanguard at [[Battle of Mohrungen|Mohrungen]] (25 January 1807).{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

[[File:Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte.jpg|thumb|292x292px|Bernadotte as a French Marshal]]

During the battle, Bernadotte's personal wagon was captured by the Russians, and he was accused, by the [[Cossacks]] who looted his baggage, of having extorted a large quantity of silver plate from minor German states. This claim is unsubstantiated and contrary to his reputation.{{sfnp|Chandler|1987|p=xlv}}{{sfnp|Barton|1921|p=179}} He was known throughout the army for his probity and honesty in the conduct of his affairs on campaign, and he refrained from the looting and brigandage that many of his fellow marshals engaged in. As a consequence, his table fare was considered poor by his brother marshals, and while others dined on fine service and employed chefs, he habitually used his own money to pay for food for his troops, and to give money awards to those who merited recognition.{{sfnp|Chandler|1987|p=xlv}}{{sfnp|Barton|1921|p=179}} He held his troops to the same high standard; he punished looting and rape severely, and was known to intervene with his sword drawn against those engaged in pillaging, as was the case following the capture of Lübeck.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=198–199}}{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=132–137}}

Due to the capture of a courier carrying the Emperor's latest orders, Bernadotte was not informed of a change of strategy to move East toward the rest of the French Army. As a consequence, Bernadotte's I Corps was too far away to take part in the [[Battle of Eylau]] (7 to 8 February 1807). Napoleon rebuked him for his absence, but it became acknowledged that it was not due to Bernadotte but Berthier's carelessness in dispatching the orderly.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=140–141}} The Russians resumed the offensive that summer and Bernadotte was attacked by, and defeated, a strong Prussian Corps at [[Battle of Guttstadt-Deppen|Spanden]], preserving the French bridgehead over the [[Pasłęka]], where he was nearly killed when a spent ball struck him in the neck.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=178–183}} Due to this near-fatal wound, Bernadotte was invalided to the rear and missed the remainder of the Polish Campaign.

After the [[Peace of Tilsit]], on 14 July 1807, he became governor of the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic towns]], where he once again proved his administrative and diplomatic abilities and was well-liked.<ref>Barton, pp. 197–201{{incomplete short citation|date=October 2022}}</ref> He was to direct the expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to naught because of the want of transports and the defection of the [[Division of the North|Spanish contingent]], which went back to Spain to fight against Napoleon at the start of the [[Peninsular War]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=931}} Pursuant to the projected invasion of Sweden, and by virtue of Denmark becoming an ally of France in 1808, Bernadotte found himself de facto head of a French occupation of Denmark. He maintained strict discipline of his troops, and his good treatment of the Danes made him popular with the populace and the Danish Royal Family. Upon his departure from Denmark, he was one of the few Frenchmen of the period to be awarded the [[Order of the Elephant]].<ref>Barton, pp. 194–196{{incomplete short citation|date=October 2022}}</ref>

During Bernadotte's time as governor of the Hanseatic cities, the [[Abdications of Bayonne]] occurred, an event that triggered the Peninsular War, which would play such a large role in Napoleon's defeat. For a time, Napoleon considered the notion of placing Bernadotte on the Spanish throne, going so far as to hint at it in a letter to him. Bernadotte informed Napoleon that he did not want the Spanish Crown.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=192–193}} Joseph Bonaparte, Bernadotte's friend and brother-in-law, was chosen instead. It was not the first or last time Napoleon considered placing Bernadotte on a foreign throne. Indeed, Napoleon, on several occasions, both during his days as First Consul and as Emperor, considered naming Bernadotte (Napoleon also considered Murat) as his successor by adoption. Despite their rivalry, Napoleon thought Bernadotte alone had the popularity, administrative, and military skill to safeguard the Empire he had built. The birth of the [[Napoleon II|King of Rome]] put an end to Napoleon's need for an heir.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|p=209}} Ironically, Bernadotte eventually wore a crown, not through the auspices of Napoleon, but as an enemy of France.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=192–195}}

Recalled to Germany to assist in the [[War of the Fifth Coalition|new war between France and Austria]], he received the command of the 9th Corps, which was mainly composed of [[Royal Saxon Army|Saxons]].{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} Further difficulties with Berthier, and a saddling with ill-prepared Saxons, combined with an illness, compelled Bernadotte to beg for release from service.{{sfnp|Scott|1962|p=284}} Bernadotte wrote to Napoleon that "I see my efforts perpetually paralyzed by a hidden force over which I can not prevail."{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=216–217}} Napoleon disregarded these appeals, and Bernadotte proceeded with the campaign, commanding mostly foreign troops with few French troops under his command.{{sfnp|Scott|1962|pp=284–285}}
At the [[Battle of Wagram]] (5 July 1809), he entered battle with his Saxon corps, to which the division of [[Pierre-Louis Dupas|Dupas]] was attached and which formed his reserve. Resting on the French Left, Bernadotte's corps was battered during the night but resisted the full fury of the Austrian attack, facing superior numbers. At a critical moment, the officer ordered Dupas forward to his support; the latter replied that he had orders from the emperor to remain where he was. Having been badly mauled and fully exposed ahead of the main French line, IX Corps withdrew from the village of [[Aderklaa]] against Napoleon's orders. On the second day of battle, 6 July 1809, IX Corps, having been mauled the night before, wherein Bernadotte struggled to rally his demoralized Saxons, was attacked by two Austrian corps, as part of [[Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen|Archduke Charles's]] effort to break the French line. This time Bernadotte's depleted forces{{snd}}he had only 6,000 infantry left{{snd}}broke and fled (Bernadotte's Corps was not the only one to break that day; [[André Masséna|Masséna]]'s troops were also routed by the attack). The routed Saxons retreated in disorder toward [[Raasdorf]] as Bernadotte attempted to rally his men, where he encountered Napoleon. IX Corps rallied and continued to play a role in the battle. Rumors that Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command on the spot at Raasdorf have long been the stuff of legend, but are not verified.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=223–225}} After the battle, Bernadotte complained to Napoleon for having, in violation of all military rules, ordered Dupas to act independently of his command, and for having thereby caused great loss of life to the Saxons, and tendered his resignation. Napoleon accepted after he became aware of an order of the day issued by Bernadotte, which gave the Saxons credit for their courage in terms inconsistent with the emperor's official bulletin.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}} Accounts of Bernadotte's role at Wagram are contradictory. While it is true that IX Corps broke on 6 July, as did other French formations, they later rallied and played a part in the victory. Moreover, Bernadotte fought with exceptional personal courage, at the head of his troops, and narrowly avoided death when attacked by Austrian cavalry. It is likely that IX Corps' poor performance would have been forgotten, and Bernadotte would have retained his command had he never published the controversial Order of the Day.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=227–228}} His praise for the Saxons, as well as his mild and courteous treatment of them while under his command, was never forgotten by the Saxon officers and this would later have disastrous consequences for the French when a whole Saxon division defected to Bernadotte's Army of the North during a key moment of the [[Battle of Leipzig]].{{sfnp|Smith|2001|pp=225–229}}

With Bernadotte having returned to Paris, the [[Walcheren Campaign]] (July 1809) caused the French ministry, in the absence of the emperor, to entrust him with the defense of [[Antwerp]] with both regular French and Dutch troops, along with the [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=153}} Bernadotte took command of a chaotic situation in which troops from all over the Empire and its vassal states, as well as raw conscripts, were sent to [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]] under divided command. He reorganized and trained his forces, named by the Emperor the Army of Antwerp, by instilling discipline in old soldiers who had been too long at the depots and by teaching raw conscripts their trade. Everywhere he instilled a fighting spirit, making an army out of a mob, and thus he rapidly brought the defenses of Antwerp to a high order of readiness.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=237–240}} With Antwerp bristling with cannon and numerous defenders, and with the Army of Antwerp whipped into fighting shape, the British, vexed by poor leadership and with half the army immobilized with fever thanks to the insalubrious islands upon which they were quartered, realized that it was no longer possible to close the [[Scheldt]], or take Antwerp, and they withdrew their forces.{{sfnp|Howard|2012|pp=139–147}} In a proclamation issued to his troops at Antwerp, he made an implied charge against Napoleon of having neglected to prepare the proper means of defense for the Belgian coast. A displeased Napoleon relieved Bernadotte of command of his ad hoc army and ordered his return to Paris, then to [[Catalonia]] to take command of the Army there.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=153–154}}{{sfnp|Favier|2010|p=158}} Refusing to comply with the order, he was summoned to Vienna, and after an interview with Napoleon at [[Schönbrunn Palace|Schönbrunn]], accepted the general government of the Roman departments.{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

==Offer of the Swedish throne==
[[File:Statyn av Karl XIV Johan Norrköping april 2006.jpg|180px|thumb|Statue in [[Norrköping]] erected in 1846]]

In 1810, Bernadotte was about to enter his new post as governor of [[Rome]] when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King [[Charles XIII of Sweden]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} The problem of Charles's successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier. He was 61 years old and in poor health. He was also childless; Queen [[Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp|Charlotte]] had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. Soon after his coronation, the king had adopted a Danish prince, [[Charles August, Crown Prince of Sweden|Charles August]], who had died just a few months after his arrival.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-XIII|title=Charles XIII &#124; king of Sweden &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=14 June 2022|archive-date=27 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727043648/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/107273/Charles-XIII|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the fact that Napoleon favored his ally Danish King [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]], Danish Prince [[Frederick Christian II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg|Frederick Christian]] initially had the most support to become the Swedish Crown Prince.<ref name=norgoal>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSZ8CwAAQBAJ&q=napoleon+prince+charles+john&pg=PA221|title=Napoleon's Empire: European Politics in Global Perspective|first=Ute|last=Planert|page=221|date= 2015|publisher=Springer |access-date=27 December 2018|isbn=978-1137455475}}</ref>

The political situation, both internal and external, in Sweden made selecting a foreign king an attractive option. Sweden wanted to strengthen its relationship with Napoleon for military reasons and sought to select a king who could attract Napoleon's support. The Swedish court initially sounded out the emperor for his preferences on candidates for crown prince, whereupon Napoleon made it clear he preferred his adopted stepson [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], or one of his nephews or brothers. The Swedish envoys did not accept Eugène as a candidate. Baron Lagerbielke, the Swedish envoy in Paris, reported to [[Stockholm]] that Eugène was "gentle and good," "but he does not seem to be a man of strong character; and, although he had had great opportunities, he does not appear to have developed any distinguishing talents." Also, Eugène, serving as [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|viceroy in Italy]], did not wish to convert to [[Lutheranism]], a prerequisite for accepting the Swedish offer. Moreover, none of Napoleon's brothers were interested in going to Sweden, and his nephews were too young, as the Swedes did not want the hazards of minority rule in the event that King Charles died prematurely.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=250–256, 268–272}} The matter was decided by an obscure Swedish courtier, Baron [[Karl Otto Mörner]] (nephew of Count Gustav Mörner, the commander of the Swedish force captured by Bernadotte at Lübeck), who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated Mörner's offer to Napoleon, who at first treated the situation as an absurdity, but later came around to the idea and, while adopting a public attitude of indifference, quietly lent support to Bernadotte's candidacy both financially and diplomatically.{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=268–278}}

Although the [[Privy Council of Sweden|Swedish government]], amazed at Mörner's [[wikt:effrontery|effrontery]], at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} he was elected by the [[Riksdag of the Estates]] in [[Örebro]] to be the new [[Crown Prince|crown prince]],{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} and was subsequently made [[Generalissimus]] of the [[Swedish Armed Forces]] by the King.<ref>{{cite book |year=1813 |title=Ancienneté och Rang-Rulla öfver Krigsmagten år 1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4sN1NQEACAAJ |language=Sv}}</ref>{{sfnp|Barton|1925|pp=4–6}} Several factors benefitted Bernadotte's election. Being foreign was, although problematic, also to his favour due to geopolitical factors and the internal situation at the time. One benefit was his presumed close ties to French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte,<ref name=napoleonrevealed /> with whom he would have access to military backing, as the intention at the time was to reacquire Finland. The current King, Charles XIII, viewed Napoleon in a more positive way than [[Gustav IV Adolf]] had, who had held him in very ill regard. Another point in favour was that a large part of the [[Swedish Army]], anticipating conflict with Russia, favoured electing a soldier. Also, Bernadotte was personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners in Lübeck and his reputation as the well-liked governor of the Hanseatic Cities from 1807 to 1809, as many Swedish merchants had operated under his auspices.{{sfnp|Favier|2010|p=12}} Finally, Bernadotte had no qualms about converting to Lutheranism, recalling the conversion of [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] for the benefit of France with whom he felt a kinship as both hailed from Pau, or converting his son [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar]] (though his wife Désirée never did renounce Catholicism).{{sfnp|Barton|1921|pp=250–256, 268–272}}

Before freeing Bernadotte from his allegiance to France, Napoleon asked him to agree never to take up arms against France. Bernadotte refused to make any such agreement, upon the ground that his obligations to Sweden would not allow it; Napoleon exclaimed, "Go, and let our destinies be accomplished," and signed the act of emancipation unconditionally.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=245–246}} Many were also optimistic that Sweden would recover Finland under Charles John.<ref name=norgoal /> The Swedish crown prince even unsuccessfully sought Napoleon's support to assist Sweden in conquering Norway.<ref name=norgoal />

==Crown Prince and Regent==
{{Further|Union between Sweden and Norway}}
[[File:Karl XIV Johan, king of Sweden and Norway, painted by Fredric Westin.jpg|180px|left|thumb|Bernadotte as Crown Prince, painting by [[Fredric Westin]]]]

On 2 November 1810 Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan).{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} At the same time, he converted from [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] to the Lutheranism of the [[Royal Court of Sweden|Swedish court]].<ref name=Britannica/>

{{quote box
| width = 18em
| quote = “I have beheld war near at hand, and I know all its evils: for it is not conquest which can console a country for the blood of her children, spilt on a foreign land. I have seen the mighty Emperor of the French, so often crowned with the laurel of victory, surrounded by his invincible armies, sigh after the olive-branches of peace. Yes, Gentlemen, peace is the only glorious aim of a sage and enlightened government: it is not the extent of a state which constitutes its strength and independence; it is its laws, its commerce, its industry, and above all, its national spirit.”|source=Charles John, address to the Estates, 5 November 1810.{{sfnp|Meredith|1829|pp=105–106}}}}

The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden and quickly impressed his adoptive father. Following his first meeting with his new heir, Charles XIII (who had initially opposed Bernadotte's candidacy) remarked to his aide-de-camp count [[Charles de Suremain]], "My dear Suremain, I have gambled heavily, and I believe that after all I have won."{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=251}} He also made himself well-liked by Queen Charlotte, who regarded him as a "gentleman in every sense of the word",<ref name="autogenerated1942">Hedvig Elisabet Charlotta, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlottas dagbok. 9, 1812–1817, Norstedt, Stockholm, 1942</ref> and established a net of contact within the Swedish aristocracy, befriending in particular the [[Brahe]] family through his favorite [[Magnus Brahe (1790-1844)|Magnus Brahe]] and countess [[Aurora Wilhelmina Brahe]], whose cousin [[Mariana Koskull]] became his lover.<ref name="autogenerated1942"/>

The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of [[foreign policy]], entirely in his hands. Amongst the first of Charles John's acts as Crown Prince was to address the dire state of the Swedish economy. The Swedish economy was in shambles after years of mismanagement under the reign of [[Gustav III]] and was further aggravated during the reign of his son, Gustav IV Adolf. The economic turmoil had been caused, in part, by the debts accrued from Gustav III's [[Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790)|Russian War]], in part to the failure of several of Gustav IV Adolf's well intentioned economic reforms (Gustav IV Adolf was rather more successful in his agrarian reforms) and the costs of the more recent wars against France and Russia. Under Gustav IV Adolf, genuine attempts at economic reform, including paying down the national debt by some 700,000 [[Swedish riksdaler|Riksdalers]] in the first years of his active reign, and revitalizing the currency, met with limited success.{{sfnp|Scott|1988|pp=288–289}}<ref name=":2">Barton, H. A. (1974). "Late Gustavian Autocracy in Sweden: Gustav IV Adolf and his Opponents, 1792–1809." Scandinavian Studies, 46(3), 265–284.</ref>

Such measures were undermined by his other policies. Gustav IV Adolf's personal dislike of the Riksdag, which had the power to raise taxes, led to his refusal to call them into session after 1800, crippling his attempts to raise state revenues. Gustav IV Adolf's foreign policy plunged Sweden into disastrous (and expensive) wars against France and Russia. The cost of years of war, several poor harvests between 1798 and 1809, the ineptitude of his ministers in carrying out fiscal reforms, and the loss of Finland's tax base had ballooned Sweden's national debt.{{sfnp|Scott|1988|pp=288–289}}<ref>Kent, Neil (2010). A Concise History of Sweden, pp. 149–150. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</ref><ref name=":2" /> The impending demands of Napoleon to adhere to the [[Continental System]] forecasted even greater difficulties. Charles John immediately began making reforms and used his sizable fortune, honestly accrued during his time as French Marshal, to pay off much of the debt and stabilize the economy through grants and a £300,000 sterling loan to the state at 5 percent interest. Charles John also purchased back from the French private estates that had been confiscated during the occupation of Swedish Pomerania from 1808 to 1810 and returned them to their original Swedish and German owners.<ref>Phillipart, John (1814). ''Memoirs and Campaigns of Charles John, Prince Royal of Sweden'', pp. 144–145. C.J. Barrington, London.</ref>

[[File:Charles XIV John as Crown Prince of Sweden - François Gérard.jpg|thumb|Charles XIV John as Crown Prince of Sweden (1811), by [[François Gérard]].]]

The keynote of his foreign and domestic policy was the maintenance of Swedish independence of action, often in the face of French demands, and the acquisition of Norway as compensation for the loss of Finland.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} Many Swedes expected him to reconquer Finland, which had been ceded to Russia. The Crown Prince was aware of the difficulties due to the desperate state of the state's finances and the reluctance of the Finnish people to return to Sweden.{{sfnp|Berdah|2009|p=39}} Even if Finland was regained, he thought, it would put Sweden into a new cycle of conflicts with a powerful neighbor because there was no guarantee Russia would accept the loss as final.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=181}} Therefore, he made up his mind to make a united [[Scandinavian Peninsula|Scandinavian peninsula]], which was easier to defend, by taking Norway (intentionally without the ancient and remote provinces of [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]]) from Denmark and uniting her to Sweden. He tried to divert public opinion from Finland to Norway, by arguing that to create a compact peninsula, with sea for its natural boundary, was to inaugurate an era of peace, and that waging war with Russia would lead to ruinous consequences.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|pp=257–258}}

Soon after Charles John's arrival in Sweden, Napoleon compelled him to accede to the Continental System and to declare war against the United Kingdom; otherwise, Sweden would face the determination of France, Denmark, and Russia. This demand would mean a hard blow to the national economy and the Swedish population. Sweden reluctantly [[Anglo-Swedish war of 1810–1812|declared war]] against the UK, which was treated by both countries as merely nominal, although Swedish imports of British goods decreased from £4,871 million in 1810 to £523 million in the following year.{{sfnp|Berdah|2009|pp=40–41}}{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=259}}

In January 1812, French troops suddenly invaded [[Swedish Pomerania]] and the island of [[Rügen]].{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=265}} Officially, the French claimed that Sweden had repeatedly violated the Continental System and that the occupation of [[Stralsund]] and Swedish Pomerania was closing an entrepôt for illegal British goods. Napoleon, before marching to Moscow, also had to secure his rear and dared not allow a Swedish continental foothold behind him as he did not trust Charles John.{{sfnp|Scott|1935|p=13}}{{sfnp|Barton|1925|pp=32–33}}<ref>Wenker-Wildberg, Friedrich (1936). Bernadotte: A Biography, p. 272. Jarrolds, London.</ref> Charles John believed that Napoleon scheduled the occupation to occur on the Crown Prince's birthday and ordered Charles John's old rival, Marshal Davout, to execute the operation as a personal insult, adding another dimension of personal enmity to the incident.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|pp=185–186}}{{sfnp|Barton|1925|p=32}} As a result, the initially amicable relationship that Charles John had with Napoleon, following his election as Crown Prince, soon changed because of the invasion.<ref name=napoleonrevealed>{{Cite web | url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/marshal_bernadotte.htm | title=Napoleonic Marshals : Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte : Napoleonic Wars : France | access-date=27 December 2018 | archive-date=3 January 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103144408/http://www.napoleonguide.com/marshal_bernadotte.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> The invasion was a clear violation of international law as well as an act of war and public opinion in Sweden was outraged.{{sfnp|Scott|1988|p=307}}{{sfnp|Favier|2010|pp=206–207}} Moreover, it antagonized the pro-French faction at the Swedish court.{{sfnp|Griffiths|2004|p=19}} Thereafter, the Crown Prince declared the neutrality of Sweden and opened negotiations with the UK and Russia.{{sfnp|Berdah|2009|p=45}}

In 1812, he allied Sweden with its traditional enemy, Russia, through the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1812)|Treaty of Saint Petersburg]], and sought to make peace with the United Kingdom, with whom Sweden was technically at war. Charles John's personal diplomacy served as the bridge between Russia and the UK, as on 18 July 1812, the [[Treaty of Örebro]] formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia, and formed an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden, creating the [[Sixth Coalition]]. The treaty stipulated that Sweden would land an army of no less than 25,000 on the continent for the express purpose of fighting France, as well as liberating Swedish Pomerania, and in exchange, Russia and the UK would diplomatically and militarily support the cession of Norway from the doggedly French-allied Denmark to Sweden. Throughout summer and fall 1812, Bernadotte sought to add more allies to the Coalition, and negotiated a treaty with the Spanish [[Supreme Central Junta]] against his own brother-in-law, who was currently the French-backed King of Spain. Although Napoleon had forced [[Frederick William III]] to break off relations with Sweden, Charles John corresponded with the King of Prussia, encouraging him to renounce the forced alliance with France and join the Coalition. Following the [[Convention of Tauroggen]], which broke the Prussian/French Alliance, Frederick Wilhelm signed the [[Treaty of Kalisz (1813)|Treaty of Kalisz]] with Russia, and then a separate peace treaty with Sweden, on the basis of Prussian recognition of the Norwegian cession to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania, thus formally joining the Coalition in spring 1813.{{sfnp|Barton|1925|pp=53–58}}{{sfnp|Scott|1935|pp=33–38}}

After the defeats at [[Battle of Lützen (1813)|Lützen]] (2 May 1813) and [[Battle of Bautzen (1813)|Bautzen]] (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the [[Trachenberg Plan]], the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the [[Truce of Pläswitz]].{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}}

Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to [[Berlin]] and was victorious in battle against [[Nicolas Oudinot|Oudinot]] in August and against [[Michel Ney|Ney]] in September at the Battles of [[Battle of Großbeeren|Großbeeren]] and [[Battle of Dennewitz|Dennewitz]]. Bernadotte's Army of the North would continue to guard Berlin and keep watch on Davout's forces in Hamburg while the Allies, in accordance with the plan conceived at Trachenberg, maneuvered toward Napoleon's army at [[Leipzig]]. With the other Allied armies engaged in battle on 17 October, Bernadotte's army finally crossed the [[Elbe]] and joined in the [[Battle of Leipzig]] on 19 October. His fresh troops, reinforced by 30,000 Prussians, joined the fray against the already battered French lines, where Swedish forces entered battle in numbers for the first time in the campaign. At a critical moment, entire Saxon regiments went over to his army in response to a proclamation released a week prior in which Bernadotte invited the Saxons to join their old commander in defeating Napoleon.{{sfnp|Barton|1925|p=94}} The Army of the North committed the ''coup de grâce'' on the already depleted French, and Bernadotte was the first of the Allied sovereigns to enter Leipzig.{{sfnp|Barton|1925|pp=101–108}}

After the Battle of Leipzig, he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to [[1814 in Norway|secure Norway]],{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable [[Treaty of Kiel]], which transferred Norway to Swedish control.<ref name=Britannica/>

The Norwegians rejected Swedish control. They [[Kingdom of Norway (1814)|declared independence]], adopted [[Constitution of Norway|a liberal constitution]] and elected Danish crown prince [[Christian VIII of Denmark|Christian Frederick]] to the throne. [[Swedish-Norwegian War (1814)|The ensuing war]] was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name=Norway>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Norway|title=Norway &#124; Facts, Points of Interest, Geography, & History &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=14 June 2022|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502183400/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/420178/Norway|url-status=live}}</ref> The military operations in 1814 were to be Sweden's last war to this day.{{sfnp|Hårdstedt|2016|p=222}} Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Constitution of Norway and its own political autonomy.<ref name=Britannica/><ref name="Norway"/> This paved the way for Norway to enter a [[Union between Sweden and Norway|personal union]] with Sweden later that year.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}}

During the period of the Allied invasion of France in the winter and spring of 1814, when it was unclear who would rule France after the war, the Russian Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], with support from French liberals like [[Benjamin Constant]] and [[Madame de Staël]], advocated placing Charles John on the French throne in place of Napoleon. He would rule France as a Constitutional Monarch and leave Oscar as Regent in Sweden and Norway.<ref>Barton, pp. 110–131.{{incomplete short citation|date=October 2022}}</ref> Ultimately the British and Austrians vetoed the idea, and the Allies agreed that if Napoleon were to be deposed, the only acceptable alternative was the restoration of the [[House of Bourbon]].

==King of Sweden and Norway==
[[File:Medalj, 1818 - Skoklosters slott - 100167.tif|thumb|150px|Coronation medal, 1844]]
[[File:Porträt av Karl XIV Johan, verk av Fredric Westin.png|thumb|218px|left|King Charles XIV John at ''[[Ladugårdsgärdet]]'']]
[[File:Karl XIV. Johan Coronoation,1818.jpg|thumb|right|218px|Coronation of Charles XIV John as King of Sweden in [[Stockholm Cathedral]]]]
[[File:Coronation of Charles III John of Norway, Trondheim 1818.jpg|thumb|right|218px|Coronation of Charles III John as King of Norway in [[Nidaros Cathedral]], Trondheim]]

Charles John had been regent and ''de facto'' head of state upon his arrival, and took an increasing role in government from 1812 onward, with Charles XIII reduced to a mute witness in government councils following a stroke.

Upon Charles's death on 5 February 1818, Charles John ascended the throne. He was initially popular in both countries.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} The democratic process and forces steadily matured under the King's restrained executive power.{{sfnp|Scott|1962|p=286}}

{{quote box
| width = 17em
| quote = "Separated as we are from the rest of Europe, our policy, as well as our interest, will make us carefully abstain from mixing in any discussion foreign to the two people of Scandinavia; but my duty and your dignity will always be the rule of our conduct, and both one and the other prescribe to us never to permit interference in our internal affairs."|source=Speech of the King on the day of taking the oaths of allegiance and homage, 19 May 1818.{{sfnp|Meredith|1829|pp=311–312}}}}

The foreign policy pursued by Charles John in the post-Napoleonic era was characterized by maintaining balance among the Great Powers and avoiding involvement in conflicts outside the Scandinavian peninsula.{{sfnp|Killham|1993|pp=17–19}} It made a sharp contrast with Sweden's previous hegemonic expansionism, which resulted in uninterrupted wars with neighboring countries for centuries, and he successfully kept his kingdoms at peace from 1814 until his death.<ref name=Britannica/>{{sfnp|Agius|2006|pp=61–62}} He was especially concerned about the conflict between the UK and Russia. In 1834, when relations between the two countries were strained over the [[Eastern Question|Near East Crisis]], he sent memoranda to the British and Russian governments and proclaimed neutrality in advance. It is pointed out as the origin of [[Swedish neutrality]].{{sfnp|Wahlbäck|1986|pp=7–12}}

[[File:Statue of Charles XIV John at Slussplan, Stockholm.jpg|170px|thumb|left|Equestrian statue in Stockholm depicting Charles XIV John]]

His domestic policy particularly focused on the promotion of the economy and investment in social overhead capital, and the long peace since 1814 led to an increased prosperity for the country. During his long reign of 26 years (34 years if one counts his time as regent from 1810 to 1818), the population of the Kingdom was so increased that the inhabitants of Sweden alone became equal in number to those of Sweden and Finland before the latter province was torn from the former, the national debt was paid off, a civil and a penal code were proposed for promulgation, education was promoted, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures prospered, and the means of internal communication were increased.{{sfnp|Barton|1930|p=374}}

On the other hand, radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily to the right over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne, he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. His dynasty faced little danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation.<ref name=Britannica>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-XIV-John|title=Charles XIV John &#124; king of Sweden and Norway &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=14 June 2022|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032859/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-XIV-John|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}}

[[File:Det Kongelige Slott 1.jpg|thumb|left|170px|The monument outside the [[Royal Palace, Oslo|Royal Palace]] in Oslo]]

He also faced challenges in Norway. The Norwegian constitution gave the Norwegian parliament, the [[Storting]], more power than any legislature in Europe. While Charles John had the power of an absolute veto in Sweden, he only had a suspensive veto in Norway. He demanded that the Storting give him the power of absolute veto, but was forced to back down.<ref name=Norway/> Charles John's difficult relationship with Norway was also demonstrated by the Storting's unwillingness to grant funds for the construction of a [[Royal Palace, Oslo|Royal Palace]] in the Norwegian capital [[Oslo]]. Construction began in 1825, but the Storting halted funding after the costly foundation was laid and demanded that the appointed architect, [[Hans Linstow]], build a simpler palace. This was seen by many as a protest against unnecessary spending and the king's authority. The palace itself was not completed until 1849, long after the death of Charles John, and was inaugurated by [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kongehuset.no/artikkel.html?tid=33470&sek=33469|title=History of the Royal Palace|website=www.kongehuset.no|language=no|access-date=14 August 2018|archive-date=5 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805203112/http://www.kongehuset.no/artikkel.html?tid=33470&sek=33469|url-status=live}}</ref> The main street in Oslo, ''Slottsgaten'', would later be named after Charles John as [[Karl Johans gate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kongehuset.no/artikkel.html?tid=28686|title=King Carl Johan (1763–1844)|website=www.kongehuset.no|language=no|access-date=14 August 2018|archive-date=14 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814103335/http://www.kongehuset.no/artikkel.html?tid=28686|url-status=live}}</ref>

His popularity decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the [[Rabulist riots]] after the [[Lèse-majesté]] conviction of the journalist [[Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe]], and some calls for his abdication.<ref name=Britannica/> Charles John survived the abdication controversy and he went on to have his [[silver jubilee]], which was celebrated with great enthusiasm on 18 February 1843. He reigned as King of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 until his death on 8 March 1844.{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}}
{{clear}}

==Death==
[[File:Carl XIV John of Sweden dead 1844.jpg|thumb|Charles John on his deathbed]]
[[File:Carl XIV John of Sweden grave 2013.jpg|thumb|Charles John's [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] sarcophagus]]

On 26 January 1844,{{sfnp|Bain|1911|p=932}} his 81st birthday, Charles John was found unconscious in his chambers having suffered a stroke. While he regained consciousness, he never fully recovered and died on the afternoon of 8 March.{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=248}} On his deathbed, he was heard to say:{{Blockquote| "Nobody has had a career in life like mine.<ref name="Sjostrom, Olof">[http://Olof_Sjostrom-_Karl_XIV_Johan_laid_the_foundations_for_modern_Sweden.pdf?3087/3254855707f4a3e86da124e202b60fc92f7fe1db Sjostrom, Olof]{{dead link|date=November 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> I could perhaps have been able to agree to become Napoleon’s ally: but when he attacked the country that had placed its fate in my hands, he could find in me no other than an opponent. The events that shook Europe and that gave her back her freedom are known. It is also known which part I played in that."<ref>Alm, Mikael; Johansson, Brittinger (Eds) (2008), p. 12.</ref>}}

His remains were interred after a state funeral in Stockholm's [[Riddarholmen Church]].{{sfnp|Palmer|1990|p=248}} He was succeeded by his only son, [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]].{{sfnp|Ripley|Dana|1879|p=571}}

==Honours==
* The main street of [[Oslo]], [[Karl Johans gate]], was named after him in 1852.
* The former main base for the [[Royal Norwegian Navy]], [[Karljohansvern]], was also named after him in 1854.
* The [[Karlsborg Fortress]] ({{langx|sv|Karlsborgs fästning}}), located in present-day [[Karlsborg Municipality]] in [[Västra Götaland County]], was also named in honour of him.
* The {{Interlanguage link|Caserne Bernadotte|fr}}, a French military building located in Pau, was also named after him in 1875.
* The bronze equestrian statue of the King at the Royal Palace, Oslo, unveiled in 1875, is the largest bronze statue in Norway.<ref>{{cite web |title=The statues in the Palace Park |url=https://www.royalcourt.no/artikkel.html?tid=29640&sek=113201&scope=27248 |website=Royal House of Norway |access-date=26 August 2021 |archive-date=26 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826161015/https://www.royalcourt.no/artikkel.html?tid=29640&sek=113201&scope=27248 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===National===
* [[First French Empire|French Empire]]: Knight Grand Eagle of the [[Legion of Honour]], ''2 February 1805''<ref name="Berlien1846">{{cite book|author=Johann Heinrich Friedrich Berlien|title=Der Elephanten-Orden und seine Ritter: eine historische Abhandlung über die ersten Spuren dieses Ordens und dessen fernere Entwicklung bis zu seiner gegenwärtigen Gestalt, und nächstdem ein Material zur Personalhistorie, nach den Quellen des Königlichen Geheimen-Staatsarchivs und des Königlichen Ordenskapitelsarchivs zu Kopenhagen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-BAZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA126|year=1846|publisher=Gedruckt in der Berlingschen Officin|page=126}}</ref>
* [[Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy|Kingdom of Italy]]: Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Iron Crown]]<ref name="Berlien1846"/>
* Sweden:
** Knight of the [[Order of the Seraphim]], ''21 August 1810''
** Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Sword]], ''21 August 1810''<ref name="Posttidningar">[http://magasin.kb.se/searchinterface/page.jsp?id=kb:272035&recordNumber=17&totalRecordNumber=220 Posttidningar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327213752/http://magasin.kb.se/searchinterface/page.jsp?id=kb:272035&recordNumber=17&totalRecordNumber=220 |date=27 March 2018 }} ''magasin.kb.se''.</ref>
** Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Sword]], 1st Class, ''21 August 1810''<ref name="Posttidningar"/>
** Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Polar Star]], ''21 August 1810''
** Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of Vasa]], ''28 January 1813''<ref>Riksarkivet. "[https://sok.riksarkivet.se/bildvisning/E0000837_00047#?cv=46&z=299.2972,1943.7905,2386.6917,1335.1511&c=&m=&s=&xywh=-2533%2C-263%2C11224%2C5258 Riksarkivet – Sök i arkiven] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727083211/https://sok.riksarkivet.se/bildvisning/E0000837_00047#?cv=46&z=299.2972,1943.7905,2386.6917,1335.1511&c=&m=&s=&xywh=-2533%2C-263%2C11224%2C5258 |date=27 July 2020 }}" (in Swedish). ''sok.riksarkivet.se''.</ref>
** Knight of the [[Order of Charles XIII]], ''21 August 1810''

He became [[Grand Master (order)|Lord and Master]] of all Swedish orders of chivalry upon his accession to the throne.<ref name="Berlien1846"/>

===Foreign===
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Kingdom of Bavaria]]: Knight of the [[Order of St. Hubert]], ''1805''<ref name="Berlien1846"/>
* [[Kingdom of Prussia]]:<ref name="Berlien1846"/>
** Knight of the [[Order of the Black Eagle]], ''7 April 1805''<ref>''Liste der Ritter des Königlich Preußischen Hohen Ordens vom Schwarzen Adler'' (1851), "Von Seiner Majestät dem Könige Friedrich Wilhelm III. ernannte Ritter" [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10362193?page=25 p. 25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404064905/https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10362193?page=25 |date=4 April 2023 }}</ref>
** Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Red Eagle]], ''7 April 1805''
** [[Grand Cross of the Iron Cross]], ''1813''
* [[Kingdom of Denmark]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Elephant]], ''15 October 1808''<ref name="Berlien1846"/>
* [[Kingdom of Saxony]]:<ref name="Berlien1846"/><ref>''Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen: 1839'' (in German), "Königliche Ritter-Orden", pp. 3, 5</ref>
** Knight Grand Cross of the [[Military Order of St. Henry]], ''1809''
** Knight of the [[Order of the Rue Crown]], ''1832''
* [[Russian Empire]]:<ref name="Berlien1846"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Almanach de la cour: pour l'année ... 1817|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZpKAAAAcAAJ|year=1817|publisher=l'Académie Imp. des Sciences|pages=63, 77, 89}}</ref>
** Knight of the [[Order of St. Andrew]], ''30 August 1812''
** Knight of the [[Order of St. Alexander Nevsky]], ''30 August 1812''
** Knight of the [[Order of St. Anna]], 1st Class
** Knight of the [[Order of St. George]], 1st Class, ''30 August 1813''
* [[Austrian Empire]]: Knight Grand Cross of the [[Military Order of Maria Theresa]], ''1813''<ref name="Berlien1846"/><ref>{{citation|chapter=Ritter-Orden: Militärischer Maria-Theresien-Orden|chapter-url=http://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=shb&datum=1814&page=43&size=45|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthumes Österreich|date=1814|access-date=21 February 2020|page=9|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404202956/https://alex.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/alex?aid=shb&datum=1814&page=43&size=45|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Kingdom of Spain]]: [[Knight]] of the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]], ''2 September 1822''<ref name="Berlien1846"/><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Caballeros existentes en la insignie Orden del Toison de Oro|title=Guía de forasteros en Madrid para el año de 1835|url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000936054&search=&lang=en|year=1835|publisher=En la Imprenta Nacional|page=72|language=es|access-date=13 March 2020|archive-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607093308/http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000936054&search=&lang=en|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Grand Duchy of Baden]]:<ref name="Berlien1846"/><ref name = "HandbuchBaden">''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden'' (1834), "Großherzogliche Orden" [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1866769 p. 32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902073759/https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1866769 |date=2 September 2019 }}, [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1866787 50] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902073755/https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1866787 |date=2 September 2019 }}</ref>
** Knight Grand Cross of the [[House Order of Fidelity]], ''1830''
** Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Zähringer Lion]], ''1830''
* [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves|Kingdom of Portugal]]: Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Tower and Sword]]<ref name = "TowerAndSword">{{cite web|url=https://geneall.net/en/title/25080/grand-crosses-of-the-order-of-the-tower-and-sword/|title=Grand Crosses of the Order of the Tower and Sword|website=geneall.net|access-date=9 August 2018|archive-date=7 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807094251/https://geneall.net/en/title/25080/grand-crosses-of-the-order-of-the-tower-and-sword/|url-status=live}} Retrieved 21 September 2018.</ref>
* [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]: Knight of the [[Order of St. Patrick]]<ref name="Berlien1846"/>
}}

=== Arms and monogram ===
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
| [[File:Coat of arms of Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte.svg|175px]]<br />Prince of [[Pontecorvo]]
|[[File:Coat of arms of Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden 1810-1814.svg|180x180px]]<br />Coat of arms of Charles John as<br /> Crown Prince of Sweden
(1810–1814)
| [[File:Coat of arms of Crown Prince Charles John of Sweden and Norway 1814-1818.svg|180x180px]]<br />Coat of arms of Charles John as<br /> Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway
(1814–1818)
| [[File:Coat of Arms of Charles XIV John.svg|178x178px]]<br />Coat of arms of King Charles XIV John <br /> of Sweden and Norway
(1818–1844)
|}

==Fictional portrayals==
[[Louis-Émile Vanderburch]] and [[Ferdinand Langlé]]'s 1833 play {{Lang|fr|Le Camarade de lit}} ("The Bedfellow") depicts Bernadotte as King of Sweden; an old grenadier claims that, as a young man, Bernadotte received a tattoo of a scandalous republican motto: either {{Lang|fr|Mort aux Rois}} ("Death to kings"), or {{Lang|fr|Mort aux tyrans}} ("Death to tyrants"), or {{Lang|fr|Mort au Roi}} ("Death to the king"). The tattoo is finally revealed to read {{Lang|fr|Vive la république}} ("Long live [[First French Republic|the Republic]]") and a [[Phrygian cap]]: a highly [[ironic]] image and text for the skin of a king.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrYRAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Camarade+de+lit%22+tattoo&pg=PA354|title=The Court Journal: Court Circular & Fashionable Gazette|date=19 July 2018|publisher=Alabaster, Pasemore & Sons, Limited|via=Google Books}}</ref> This play was so popular that the idea that King Charles XIV John had a tattoo reading "Death to kings" is often repeated as fact, although there is no basis to it.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyGNDAAAQBAJ&q=%22death+to+kings%22+tattoo&pg=PA333|title=1,339 QI Facts To Make Your Jaw Drop: Fixed Format Layout|first1=John|last1=Lloyd|first2=John|last2=Mitchinson|first3=James|last3=Harkin|year =2013|publisher=Faber & Faber|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0571313211}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WftvAAAAMAAJ&q=%22death+to+kings%22+tattoo|title=La Solidaridad|first1=Guadalupe Fores-|last1=Ganzon|first2=Luis|last2=Mañeru|date= 1995|publisher=Fundación Santiago|isbn=978-9719165545|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzvcTC3ck8YC&q=%22death+to+kings%22+tattoo&pg=PA556|title=The Complete Prophecies of Nostradamus|first=Mario|last=Reading|year= 2018|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1906787394}}</ref> For reasons of discretion, he publicly proclaimed himself in 1797 "a Republican both by principle and conviction" who would “to the moment of my death, oppose all Royalists and enemies to the Directory".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=Maynard |last2=Herttrich |first2=Ernst |title=Beethoven Essays |date=1988 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674063778 |page=343 }}</ref>

Désirée Clary's relationships with Bonaparte and Bernadotte were the subject of the novel ''Désirée'' by [[Annemarie Selinko]].<ref>[[Library of Congress]] # 52033733</ref> The novel was filmed as ''[[Désirée (film)|Désirée]]'' in 1954, with [[Marlon Brando]] as Napoleon, [[Jean Simmons]] as Désirée, and [[Michael Rennie]] as Bernadotte.<ref name="NY Times">{{cite web |url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/13390/Desiree/details |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415032603/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/13390/Desiree/details |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2008 |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2008 |title=Désirée |access-date=21 December 2008}}</ref>

Bernadotte is a primary supporting character in the historical fiction novel by [[The New York Times Best Seller list|''New York Times'' Bestselling]] author [[Allison Pataki]] ''A Queen's Fortune: A Novel of Désirée, Napoleon, and the Dynasty that outlasted the Empire,'' that tells the life story of his wife (and Queen of Sweden and Norway) Désirée Clary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pataki |first=Allison |date=2020 |title=A Queen's Fortune: A Novel of Desiree, Napoleon, and the Dynasty that outlasted the Empire |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-593-12818-3 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Swedish–Norwegian War (1814)]]
* [[Union between Sweden and Norway]]
* [[Napoleonic Wars]]
* [[War of the Sixth Coalition]]
* [[Hundred Days|War of the Seventh Coalition]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Agius |first=Christine |year=2006 |title=The social construction of Swedish neutrality: Challenges to Swedish Identity and Sovereignty |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |isbn=0-7190-7152-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Alison|first=Sir Archibald|date=1836|title=History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution Volume V|publisher=William Blakewood and Sons, Edinghburg; Thomas Cadell, London}}
* Alm, Mikael; Johansson, Brittinger (Eds) (2008). ''Script of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution'', Reklam & katalogtryck AB, Uppsala. {{ISBN|978-91-977312-2-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Barton |first=Dunbar Plunket |year=1914 |title=Bernadotte: The First Phase}}
* {{cite book |last=Barton |first=Dunbar Plunket |date=1921 |title=Bernadotte and Napoleon: 1763–1810 |url=https://archive.org/details/bernadottenapole00bartuoft |publisher=John Murray |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Barton |first=Dunbar Plunket |year=1925 |title=Bernadotte Prince and King 1810–1844 |publisher=John Murray |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Barton |first=Dunbar Plunket |date=1930 |title=The Amazing Career of Bernadotte 1763–1844 |location=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company}}
* {{cite book |last=Berdah |first=Jean-Francois |year=2009 |title=The Triumph of Neutrality : Bernadotte and European Geopolitics (1810–1844) |series=Revue D’ Histoire Nordique |number=6–7}}
* {{cite book |last=Chandler |first=David G. |year=1987 |title=Napoleon's Marshals |publisher=MacMillan |location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Cronholm |first=Neander N. |title=A History of Sweden from the Earliest Times to the Present Day|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924071200822|year=1902 |chapter=39 |pages=249–271 |publisher=Chicago, New York: author}}
* {{cite book|last=Favier|first=Franck|date=2010|title=Bernadotte: Un marechal d'empire sur le trone de Suede|location=Paris|publisher=Ellipses Edition Marketing|isbn=978-2340006058}}
* {{cite book|last=Foucart|first=Paul Jean|date=1887|title=Campagne de Prusse (1806)|location=Paris|publisher=Berger-Levraut}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=Tony |date=2004 |title=Scandinavia |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |location=London |isbn=1-85065-317-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Hårdstedt|first=Martin|date=2016|chapter=Decline and Consolidation: Sweden, the Napoleonic Wars and Geopolitical Restructuring in Northern Europe|title=Napoleon's Empire: European Politics in Global Perspective|location=London|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|isbn=978-1-137-45547-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Martin R |date=2012 |title=Walachren 1809: The Scandalous Destruction of a British Army |publisher=Pen and Sword |location=Barnsley |isbn=978-1-84884-468-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Killham |first=Edward L. |date=1993 |title=The Nordic Way : A Path to Baltic Equilibrium |publisher=The Compass Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=0-929590-12-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Maude |first=F.A. |date=1912 |title=The Ulm Campaign, 1805 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |isbn=978-1-331-07327-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Meredith |first=William George |date=1829 |title=Memorials of Charles John, King of Sweden and Norway |publisher=Henry Colburn |location=London}}
* {{cite journal|last=Olivier|first=Jean-Marc|date=2006|title=Bernadotte revisité ou la complexité d'un long règne (1810–1844)|journal=Revue d'histoire nordique|number=2|pages=127–138}}
* {{cite book|last=Palmer|first= Alan |date=1990|title=Bernadotte : Napoleon's Marshal, Sweden's King|publisher= John Murray|location= London| isbn =978-0-7195-4703-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Philippart |first=John |date=1814|title=Memoirs and Campaigns of Charles John, Prince Royal of Sweden|location=London|publisher=C.J. Barrington}}
* {{cite book |last=Scott |first=Franklin |year=1935 |title=Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA. }}
* {{cite book|last=Scott|first=Franklin D.|date=1962|chapter=Charles XIV John|title=Encyclopædia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge |pages=283–286}}
* {{cite book |last=Scott |first=Franklin D. |date=1988 |title=Sweden, The Nation's History |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale |isbn=0-8093-1489-4}}
* {{cite Six |title=Bernadotte (Jean-Baptiste-Jules de, prince de Ponte-Corvo) |volume=1 |pages=81–82}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.ambafrance-se.org/IMG/pdf/Olof_Sjostrom-_Karl_XIV_Johan_laid_the_foundations_for_modern_Sweden.pdf?3087/3254855707f4a3e86da124e202b60fc92f7fe1db|title=Karl XIV Johan|last1=Sjostrom|first1=Olof|website=Ambassade de France en Suede|access-date=9 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015734/http://www.ambafrance-se.org/IMG/pdf/Olof_Sjostrom-_Karl_XIV_Johan_laid_the_foundations_for_modern_Sweden.pdf?3087%2F3254855707f4a3e86da124e202b60fc92f7fe1db|archive-date=17 November 2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Digby |year=2001 |title=1813 Leipzig. Napoleon and the Battle of Nations |publisher=Greenhill |location=London | isbn=1-85367-435-4}}
* {{cite journal|last=Titeux|first=Eugene|date=1903|title=Le Maréchal Bernadotte et la manoeuvre d'Jena (d'après les archives de la Guerre et les papiers du general Dupont)|journal=Revue Napoleonienne|volume=4|number=1903|pages=68–152}}
* {{cite book |last=Wahlbäck |first=Krister |year=1986 |title=The Roots of Swedish Neutrality |publisher=The Swedish Institute |location=Stockholm}}
'''Attribution'''
* {{EB1911|last=Bain |first=Robert Nisbet |author-link=Robert Nisbet Bain |wstitle=Charles XIV|volume=5 |pages=931–932}}
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules|vb=x}}

== Further reading ==
* Alm, Mikael and Britt-Inger Johansson, eds. ''Scripts of Kingship: Essays on Bernadotte and Dynastic Formation in an Age of Revolution'' (Uppsala: Swedish Science Press, 2008)
** Review by Rasmus Glenthøj, ''English Historical Review'' (2010) 125#512 pp.&nbsp;205–208.
* [[Dunbar Plunket Barton|Barton, Dunbar B.]]: ''The amazing career of Bernadotte'', 1930; condensed one-volume biography based on Barton's detailed 3 vol biography 1914–1925, which contained many documents
* Koht, Halvdan. "Bernadotte and Swedish-American Relations, 1810–1814," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1944) 16#4 pp.&nbsp;265–285 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1871033 in JSTOR]
* Kurtz, Harold. "Sergeant, Marshal and King: Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, 1763–1844" ''History Today'' (Jan 1964) 14#1 pp 3–13 and part 2. (Mar 1964) 14#3 pp 171–180
* Lord Russell of Liverpool: ''Bernadotte: Marshal of France & King of Sweden'', 1981
* [[Jean-Marc Olivier]]. "Bernadotte Revisited, or the Complexity of a Long Reign (1810–1844)", in ''Nordic Historical Review'', n°2, 2006.
* Moncure, James A. ed. ''Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450–Present'' (4 vol. 1992); vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;126–134

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/biographies/marshals/c_bernadotte.html |title=Marshal Bernadotte |publisher=The Napoleon Series}}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Charles XIV. John |year=1905 |short=x}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Bernadotte]]|26 January|1763|8 March|1844|name=Charles XIV/III John}}
{{S-reg|}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Charles XIII of Sweden|Charles XIII/II]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[List of Swedish monarchs|King of Sweden]] and [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norway]]|years=5 February 1818 – 8 March 1844}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]]}}
{{S-new}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Prince of Pontecorvo]]|years=5 June 1806 – 21 August 1810}}
{{S-vac|next=[[Prince Napoleon Lucien Charles Murat|Lucien Murat]]}}
{{S-off}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Louis Marie de Milet de Mureau|Louis de Mureau]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Minister of Defence (France)|Minister of War of France]]|years=2 July 1799 – 14 September 1799 }}
{{S-aft|after=[[Edmond Louis Alexis Dubois-Crancé|Edmond Dubois-Crancé]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{House of Bernadotte}}
{{Swedish princes}}
{{SwedishThroneHeirs}}
{{Monarchs of Norway}}
{{Monarchs of Sweden}}
{{MarshalsNapoleon}}
{{Napoleonic Wars}}
{{French Revolution navbox}}
{{French Directory}}
{{Recipients of the Grand Cross}}
{{Grand Masters of the Norwegian Order of Freemasons}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Charles 14 John Of Sweden}}
[[Category:1763 births]]
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[[Category:French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars]]
[[Category:Marshals of the First French Empire]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
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[[Category:Charles XIV John| ]]
[[Category:Crown princes of Sweden]]
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